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-0.047872591... | the whole genre.
C. Not a single word, melody, or beat from Gaye’s song was actually copied.
134
3 • Assessment Questions
43. In what way has the Marvin Gaye case already made musicians and producers more cautious?
A. Singers are more willing to license the work of previous artists from whom they gain “look and fe... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_b... |
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A. Treble damages.
B. Criminal penalties of up to five years in prison for a first offense, and ten years for a second offense.
C. An order to publicly apologize for the infringement.
46. Sometimes the copyright owner’s most important remedy for infringement will be an injunction. Why?
... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "moddate": "2021-... |
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-0.014... | be fair use is “the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature
or is for nonprofit educational purposes.” Which of the following would likely be considered fair use?
A. A profit-making magazine like Vanity Fair publishes a book review that quotes several thousand words
of ... | {"producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total_pages": 209, "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\busin... |
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3 • Assessment Questions
135
50. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 made it a crime to circumvent digital rights management
(DRM) measures that control access to digital music and ebooks as a means of preventing piracy. So why
are so many listeners, readers, and book and ... | {"source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFMiner", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "total_pages": 209, "file_size_mb": 21.73, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Proper... |
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B.
C.
It put all of Sonny and Cher’s formerly copyrighted music into the public domain.
It reduced the copyright term to that favored by the Founding Fathers—28 years.
It extended copyright an additional 20 years to the life of the author plus 70 years.
52. On December 16, 2015, the Copyright Royalty Board cha... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "batch_upload": true, "u... |
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C. Creative Commons licenses.
54. Changes to copyright law in the future are likely to focus on which issues?
A. Reducing or eliminating DRM.
B. Adjusting to new advances in digital technology.
C. Enabling and regulating a secondary market for digital content.
D. Shortening copyright te... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "total_pages": 209, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_... |
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-0.0143... | 4.7 Bars to Trademark
4.8 Establishing Trademark Protection
4.9 Trademark Infringement
4.10 Trademark Remedies
4.11 Fair Use of Trademarks
Introduction
4.1 Core Concepts
Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to
• Understand trademarks and their properties.
•
Identify differences ... | {"upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner", "to... |
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goods as those of another. But it also served to protect the market and reputation (or goodwill) of the
producers of goods. As modern markets evolved, trademarks also developed into guarantees of quality as well
as potent marketing and advertising devices.
Trademarks as Branding
Consider, for ... | {"source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_type": ".pdf", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "produ... |
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symbol of Nike’s quality workmanship and design. Indeed, its vital role in protecting Nike’s market share and
reputation explains why the company so strenuously protects its trademark rights from being infrin... | {"upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFMiner", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_name": "Introductio... |
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sellers to provide quality products.
But trademarks are different from other intellectual property rights in three key respects. In the first place, the
legal foundation for U.S. trademark law comes not from rights e... | {"total_pages": 209, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_... |
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innovation and been rewarded for the pioneering endeavor. Trademarks, however, never hinder the sales of
other products or services, so they are granted in perpetuity so long as they are not abandoned by ... | {"upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "file_type": ".p... |
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-0... | Thus a trademark cannot be obtained by mere adoption. It can only be acquired through commercial use or in
anticipation thereof—i.e., through the sale of goods and services.
i Allen Brettman, “Creator of Nike’s Famed Swoosh Remembers Its Conception 40 Years Later,” the Oregonian, June 15, 2011.
Access for free at op... | {"batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner", "total_pages": 209, "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introdu... |
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0.0... | origin of a particular work or the identity of its craftsman, but the historical record is not conclusive on this
point. But an examination of the potters’ seals found on Corinthian artifacts dating to 2000 BC suggests this is
a reasonable supposition. Trade and commerce between the tribes and early civilizations of ... | {"total_pages": 209, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6... |
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Trademarks have always been inextricably bound up with commerce. And as commerce grew and developed
over the centuries, so did the use of trademarks. Marks have been found, for example, on works ranging from
Egyptian pots to the swords of Roman blacksmiths. But... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "creator": "PDFMiner", "batch_up... |
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0.0133... | goods. But medieval trademarks also served other functions. They became a means by which guilds could
control the quality of work of fellow guild members and, because of a trademark’s association with quality,
ultimately, a source of competitive advantage in the market.ii Trademarks thus began to acquire something
aki... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "batch_upload": true, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_size_... |
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... | consequence. These statutes were meant to protect the public by preventing the sale of unidentified goods
whose quality could not be ascertained.”
One notable trademark from the time was that of Löwenbräu Brewery, which claims to have used its lion mark
since its founding in 1383.iii
ii Arthur R. Miller and Michael ... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "title": "Introduction to Intellectua... |
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4.3 • U.S. Trademark Law 141
Early Trademark Cases
Scholars had until only recently attributed the first reported trademark case in Anglo-American law to be
Southern v. How, which was decided in 1618. This despite the fact that the case involved not a trademark but
the sale of count... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55... |
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0.0632564... | To quote from a contemporary 1656 legal report:
“The action upon the case was brought in the [Court of] Common Pleas by a clothier, that whereupon
he had gained great reputation for his making of his cloth … to his benefit and profit, and that he used
to set his mark on his cloth whereby it should be known to be his... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "uploaded_via": "bat... |
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Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to
• Grasp the basics of trademark law.
• Analyze notable trademark cases.
As the young United States rapidly developed its commerce and industry in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries, propelled in no small p... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "total_pages": 209, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "uploade... |
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... | national trademark laws in 1870 and 1876. But in a set of three court challenges consolidated into a single
appeal before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1879, Justice Samuel Freeman Miller ruled for the majority that the
Patent and Copyright Clause (https://www.openstax.org/l/PCClause) of the Constitution gave Congress no... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb":... |
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0.03401928022503853,
0.09417986124753952,
0.060542378574609756,
0.03178979... | until 1905 that Congress passed another trademark statute regulating the use of marks within the United
iv McKenna, M. The Normative Foundations of Trademark Law (December 30, 2010). Notre Dame Law Review, Vol. 82, No. 5, p.
1839, 2007. Retrieved from SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=889162.
v Keith M. Stolte, How Ear... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_... |
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-0.02... | 4 • Trademark Basics
States.
Those two trademark laws were subsequently overhauled by the Lanham Act of 1946
(https://www.openstax.org/l/LanhamAct) , which remains the principal law of the land on trademarks in the
United States to this day.vii It broadened national registration of trademarks, and also gave owners o... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 209, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Proper... |
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0.057789962738752365,
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-0.0056... | commercial use (known as the “deadwood”
prevision).viii
After 119 years in business, for example, the world-famous retailer Woolworth’s went bankrupt in 1997 and its
trademark was no longer protected. The 83-year-old Hostess Twinkies brand, however, was acquired by two
private equity firms for $410 million because t... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFMiner", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-0... |
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0.054... | Act specifically requires applicants to submit “a verified statement that the mark is in use in commerce,
specifying the date of the applicant’s first use of the mark in commerce and those goods or services specified
in the notice of allowance on or in connection with which the mark is used in commerce.”ix A trademark... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intell... |
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0.05003194... | 4.4 • The Four Types of Trademarks
143
Figure 4.4 (credit: photograph by Mike Mozart via flikr / CC BY 2.0)
Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to
•
Identify the four types of trademarks.
• Compare differences between types of trademarks.
Can I Trademark That?
Before reading this... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introd... |
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0.03228837624192238,
0.10942719131708145,
0.031229186... | The two other marks—certification marks and collective marks—occur much less frequently and must meet
different requirements for registration.x
Trademarks
Trademarks identify products—i.e., physical goods and commodities—that are either manufactured, produced,
grown, or that exist naturally. A trademark is a word, n... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total_pages": 209, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Pr... |
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0.031134461984038353,
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0.1048496887087822,
0.045... | x United States Patent and Trademark Office. (2012, May 24). Trademarks. Retrieved from http://www.uspto.gov/inventors/
trademarks.jsp
144
4 • Trademark Basics
greyhound dog on Greyhound buses, and United Parcel Service’s brown shield emblazoned with the bold
yellow letters “UPS.”
Certification Marks
A certifica... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "creator": "PDFMiner", "total_pages": 209, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "upload_timestamp": "2026-... |
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0.041... | Collective Marks
Collective marks come in one of two varieties: collective trademarks and service marks, and collective
membership marks. A collective trade or service mark is any word, phrase, symbol, or design that is owned by
a cooperative, association, collective group, or organization and is used by its members... | {"producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "batch_upload": true, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f60... |
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0.10566368699073792,
0.0235... | of goods and services.
4.5 The Subject Matter of Trademarks
Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to
• Learn the subject matter of trademarks.
• Analyze characteristics of various forms of trademarks.
As discussed, there are four types of trademarks: trademarks, service marks, certifi... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_... |
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0.014... | http://www.uspto.gov/faq/trademarks.jsp
Access for free at openstax.org.
4.5 • The Subject Matter of Trademarks
145
Words, Phrases, and Names
There is little confusion about what is meant by a trademarkable word, phrase, or name. The only point to
remember here is that words, names, and phrases that are simply de... | {"producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "file_type": ".pdf", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "source_file": "downloads... |
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0.043747853487730026,
-0.017507... | Court took careful note of that fact, ruling in 1995 that, “Since human beings might use as a ‘symbol’ or
‘device’ almost anything at all that is capable of carrying meaning, this language, read literally, is not
restrictive.”xiv
In the United States, therefore, trademarks can include almost anything that carries dis... | {"upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "total_pages": 209, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604... |
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0.0498100... | (No. 72172718).
xiii United States Patent and Trademark Office. (2012, August 09). Trademark Manual of Examining Procedure § 1202. Retrieved
from http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin80/gate.exe?f=doc&state=nk9n3c.2.14
xiv Qualitex Co. v. Jacobson Products Co., 514 U.S. 159, 7 (1995) Retrieved from: http://www.todaysengineer.o... | {"source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "moddate": "202... |
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0.022736493... | cannot be trademarked because it doesn’t tell you whether that gas comes from Exxon, Shell, or BP.
Yet despite the above, one of the most iconic trademarked numbers is 501. Originally, the number 501 was
simply the lot number Levi’s assigned to the famous copper-riveted waist overalls. But over time, 501 acquired
me... | {"upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source_file": "downloads\\busines... |
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0.019483275711536407,
0.020066... | request in 1990 for a trademark for scented yarns and threads with a “fresh, floral fragrance reminiscent of
Plumeria blossoms.” She appealed, and the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board overruled the examiner,
granting her a trademark for the scent.
“[F]ragrance is not an inherent attribute or natural characteristic o... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 209, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\I... |
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0.02893940545... | scented nature. We believe that applicant has presented a prima facie case of distinctiveness of her fragrance
mark.”xix
On the other hand, a trademark cannot be granted for any scent that serves a function other than identifying
the product’s source. The scent of perfumes and air fresheners, therefore, cannot be reg... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\busin... |
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0.011... | Access for free at openstax.org.
4.5 • The Subject Matter of Trademarks
147
Still, there remains a good deal of uncertainty about when a scent is trademarkable and when it is not.
Consider the world-famous Cinnabon smell—that sweet, sugary, cinnamon-infused scent that is absolutely
unmistakable (if not also irresi... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prin... |
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0.01... | Online’s “You’ve got mail” announcement, the sequence of chimes heard with the display of the NBC logo on
TV, and, naturally, the sound of a duck quacking “Aflac!” for the American Family Life Assurance Company.
Designs and Trade Dress
A design, like a logo, can also be trademarked, provided it distinguishes the ori... | {"batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_size_mb": 21... |
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-0.039337560534477234,
0.03038117103278637,
0.01859831064939499,
0.07631047815084457,
-0.04033... | Examples of pure trademarked designs, without any associated words, include Nike’s “Swoosh” and Apple’s
famous logo of an apple with a bite taken out of it.
This is why design trademarks often take a “design plus words” approach, as in the trademarked Lacoste logo
featuring the word “Lacoste” above the famous green ... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "batch_upload": true, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "total_pages": 209, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\l... |
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-0.0440951... | source. Trade dress can include features such as size, shape, color or color combinations, texture, graphics, or
even particular sales techniques. The key to claiming trade dress protection is that the attributes must be
distinctive. For example, Taco Cabana has trademarked its distinctive and “festive eating atmosph... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "total_pages": 209, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_n... |
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-0.069863326... | Imagine that an Apple competitor opened a retail store with the same colors, lighting, atmosphere, and overall
look and feel as the Apple store but sold their own products. The goal would not be to stop the sale of the
goods, which are not necessarily infringing any of Apple’s design trademarks or patents, but to sto... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "batch_upload": true, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": ... |
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-0.060062903... | to distinguish a product’s source. And trade dress protects the overall appearance of the product and can
include anything that gives a product or service meaning and distinguishes it from those of any other
producer.
A design patent might protect the new and original ornamental design of a lamp, for example, so lon... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_busine... |
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4.6 The Spectrum of Distinctiveness
Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to
• Discover the elements of distinctiveness within trademarks.
•
Identify the various kinds of marks used.
The fundamental and overriding require... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "file_type": ".pdf", "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "uplo... |
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-0.... | from confusion over what they are purchasing, then the trademark somehow must be recognizable,
identifiable, and different from other marks.”xxiii
Some trade and service marks achieve distinction via their inherent nature—Nike’s curved “Swoosh” check
mark suggesting speed and agility, for example.
xxii 932 F.2d 1113... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "do... |
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0.0... | through evidence of use (including sales, advertising expenditures, and consumer surveys) that the buying
public had come to distinctively associate Raisin Bran with this particular Kellogg’s cereal.
The public’s distinct association of a trademark to a company is known as secondary meaning, and that is
something th... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFMiner", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd7325... |
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0.020... | Fanciful Marks
Fanciful marks are invented words, symbols, or devices that have no relation to the good or service being
sold and have no meaning other than to distinctly identify the product or service and distinguish it in the
minds of consumers from those of any other vendor. “Xerox” is a good example of a fancifu... | {"source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\business\\leg... |
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0.06... | trademark registration.
Suggestive Marks
Suggestive marks are marks that suggest or imply a quality or characteristic of the goods and services being
sold. They require imagination, insight, or perception on the part of the consumer as to the nature of the
article.xxv Examples include “iPad” for the tablet computer ... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 209, "creator": "PDFMiner", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduct... |
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0.04855092242360115,
0.091095... | Descriptive Marks
A descriptive mark explicitly describes the purpose, nature, or an attribute of a product or service and is,
therefore, not eligible for trademark registration unless a secondary meaning or association has been
developed in the public’s mind through usage.xxvii Ineligible descriptive marks include “... | {"moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "... |
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-0.02... | xxv Derived from: http://www.bitlaw.com/trademark/degrees.html
xxvi Op. cit., Abercrombie & Fitch Co. v. Hunting World, Inc.
xxvii United States Patent and Trademark Office. (2011, January). Trademark Manual of Examining Procedure (TMEP) - 8th Edition.
Retrieved from http://tess2.uspto.gov/tmdb/tmep/1200.htm
150
4... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual... |
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0.046353... | marks spotlights the overall social purpose of trademarks, which is to prevent fraud and confusion in the
market while not conferring a monopoly on anyone.
Generic Marks
The last and least distinctive category of marks are generic marks that are simply the common name for the
goods and services being sold. Examples... | {"source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "total_pages": 209, "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_bus... |
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0.00512516... | marketing.
Ironically, a product or service can become so successful in the marketplace that the public begins to associate
its trademark with an entire category of similar products and services. When this happens, a valid trademark
can become a generic name and the trademark will be lost, as happened with both “Cell... | {"source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "total_pages": 209, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creatio... |
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0.03592468798160553,
0.1015714779496193,
-0.0329... | “photoshopped” and instead say that their photos were “modified by Adobe Photoshop software.” Similarly,
Xerox spent heavily on advertisements warning that “you cannot Xerox a document, but you can copy it on a
Xerox brand copying machine.”
4.7 Bars to Trademark
Figure 4.10 (credit: Amazon via Wikimedia Commons / P... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creator": "PDFMiner", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "total_pages": 209, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\... |
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0.06811655312776566,
0.033342406153678894,
0.0079... | trademark “Progressive” granted to two companies, one a backpack manufacturer and the other an auto
insurance company.
The Functionality Bar
To be trademarked, no word, symbol, design, device, scent, or sound may purely or primarily serve a functional
purpose. Nor can it be trademarked if its absence in or on the pr... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creator": "PDFMiner", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:2... |
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0.04109... | This “chicken and egg” question has confronted many applicants, trademark examiners, judges, and juries
over the years. The issue is usually decided by asking whether the appearance of a product or its components
is inspired more by design or by function?
The issue is most easily decided when the functionality of an... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "... |
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0... | 77105065).
Subject Matter Bars
In addition to prior use and functionality, certain kinds of subject matter are generally not eligible for
trademark registration. These are surnames, geographic marks, and ornamental, immoral, or offensive
marks.xxx
Surnames or family names such as “Smith” and “Johnson” cannot be tra... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "t... |
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-0.01092... | xxviii 15 U.S.C. §1115.
xxix Inwood Laboratories Inc. v. Ives Laboratories, Inc., 456 U.S. 844 (1982) Retrieved from http://supreme.justia.com/cases/
federal/us/456/844/case.html
xxx United States Patent and Trademark Office.(2012, March 09). Frequently Asked Questions About Trademarks. Retrieved from
http://www.us... | {"source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property... |
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0.012... | the case with “Sears” and “Macy’s.”
Figure 4.11 Macy’s the brand name of the department store chain—is an example of a surname that has become eligible for
trademark protection. (credit: photograph by Mike Mozart via flikr / CC BY 2.0)
Geographic marks must also be evaluated for eligibility on the basis of several f... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\leg... |
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0.02265442... | entrepreneur launches a company called “Los Angeles Shoes” to produce shoes in Los Angeles, the name
would not pass the test for trademark eligibility because the primary significance of the mark is that it is a
generally known location, the product is produced in the location stated in the mark, and consumers would
... | {"batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFMiner", "total_pages": 209, "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_type": ".pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "upload... |
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0.001... | • Purchasers would be likely to believe that the goods or services originate in the geographic place
identified in the mark.
• The misrepresentation is a material factor in a significant portion of the relevant consumer’s decision to
buy the goods or use the services.xxxiv
The goal of this test for geographically m... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_type": ".pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner",... |
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-0.0201389... | Access for free at openstax.org.
4.8 • Establishing Trademark Protection 153
consumer. For example, if an entrepreneur launches a fashionable shoe business called “New York Shoes” but
actually manufactures the shoes in China, he will not receive a trademark for the name because it will likely
confuse or deceive con... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_busi... |
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0.0... | company.
Nor can ornamental, immoral, or offensive marks be trademarked. Ornamental marks such as a “smiley face”
logo are merely decorative and are too vague to distinguish the origin of a product or service. Immoral or
offensive marks—e.g., an online dating service with a logo depicting two naked people having sex... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "total_pages": 209, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "batch_upload": true, "file_type": ".pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Prop... |
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As in the case with copyrights, trademarks do not necessarily have to be registered with the federal
government, but doing so has benefits. The owners of unregistered trademarks have the exclusive right to use
the mark concerning similar goods and services in the geographi... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "creator": "PDFMiner", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-... |
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• Public notice of claim of ownership of the mark.
• The ability to bring an action concerning the mark in federal court.
• The use of the U.S. registration as a basis to obtain registration in foreign countries.
• The ability to record the U.S. registr... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total_pages": 209, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduct... |
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-0.... | trademark for its first six years in operation. Only in 2006 did the company formally apply for a registered
trademark for “Google.” It was registered in 2012.
But trademark protection can be vital to a small business, as one recent case amply demonstrates. Payam
“Peter” Tabibian first registered the 1950s-style red,... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Propert... |
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But Mr. Tabibian eventually fell out with his partners, who then tried to stop him from continuing to use his Z-
Burger brand with his expanding chain of restaurants; they also demanded he transfer the trademarks to
them.
But because Mr. Tabibian had do... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "total_pages": 209, "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "creator": "PDFMiner", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "cr... |
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0.0007... | ownership is sewn on. That’s particularly true if nobody knows who you are and you’re operating in a limited
area. The federal trademark gives you a lot of nationwide rights.”
In order for your trademark to be eligible for registration with the USPTO, however, you must actually use it in
conjunction with commercial ... | {"upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total_pages": 209, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introdu... |
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0.0604... | or on the product in a store setting. It is imperative that the applicant identify the earliest provable date of first
use in commerce, to lessen the likelihood that another party can claim prior use of that mark and invalidate
the trademark.
The USPTO also offers an “intent-to-use” application, which allows an enti... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "batch_upl... |
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0.0616... | The mark must then be put into use within six months of receiving a “notice of allowance” from the USPTO or
the applicant risks having to pay extension fees or losing the mark entirely.
If the trademark is still in commercial use five years after registration, the owner is eligible to receive an
additional protectio... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Pr... |
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0.031538... | can anyone contest the owner’s exclusive right to use the mark. An individual or a corporate entity can register
a mark.
A trademark can be assigned to others in the event of purchase or acquisition by another entity.
xxxvi Protecting Your Trademark: Basic Facts About Trademarks, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, de... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "file_type": ".pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Pro... |
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0.03971... | goods/services, or to the owner’s right to register the mark or to keep the same on the register -No pending
proceeding exists involving the claimed rights in the USPTO or in the courts
D. A signed and dated affidavit or declaration under 37 C.F.R. §2.20xxxvii
There are other reasons why an owner might assign tradem... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "... |
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0.012511... | enormous value. In fact, some sources estimate that in contrast to 40 years ago, when plant, equipment, and
other tangible assets comprised 80 percent of the market value of most public companies, today it is
intangible assets like intellectual property, business methods, and know-how that make up roughly 80 percent
o... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", ... |
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xxxix
“Intangible Asset Market Value,” Ocean Tomo, Retrieved from: http://bit.ly/1gldnWL
156
4 • Trademark Basics
loan. (credit: JD Hancock via flikr / CC BY 2.0)
Trademarks can also be licensed t... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Pr... |
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0.033965... | commercial use of the mark. Evidence of nonuse for three consecutive years is usually considered to be
sufficient proof of abandonment. Upon abandonment, the trademark owner loses the right to prevent others
from infringing the mark.
4.9 Trademark Infringement
Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you ... | {"producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "total_pages": 209, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to... |
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0.0142117... | as help businesses defend the quality and reputation of those goods. Trademarks benefit society by protecting
consumers and businesses alike, and by preventing confusion in the marketplace. This principle lies at the
heart of the trademark system.
It is also the basis on which the courts rule on claims of trademark ... | {"file_size_mb": 21.73, "creator": "PDFMiner", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total_pages": 209, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.pr... |
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0.01652... | symbols, or devices—that can be used separately or together to create a unique and distinctive trademark that
indicates the origin of goods.
The courts generally look at five key factors to determine if a defendant’s use of your mark is likely to cause
confusion among consumers.
The two most important are:
• The s... | {"total_pages": 209, "file_size_mb": 21.73, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_hash": "de971509c... |
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0.01... | Access for free at openstax.org.
4.9 • Trademark Infringement
157
The basis for determining similarity, again, is not an assessment of the similarity between each component of
two trademarks but of their totality as seen and experienced by the consumer. And the key test for similarity is
resemblance, not sameness.... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "total_pages": 209, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07... |
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0.0578... | The social networking site LinkedIn, for example, sports a logo made up of the joined words “Linked” and “in”
displayed in a white font with the “in” component surrounded by a blue colored square with rounded edges. If
a new networking site for professionals was launched that featured a logo with the same words excep... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "total_pages": 209, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-... |
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0.0130072... | between marks is likely to cause confusion in the minds of consumers. This takes into account such factors as
the similarity of the goods and services on which the two marks are being used. If a company that made metal
chains called itself “LinkedIn,” that would less likely cause consumers to believe that the chains ... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_... |
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0.05142... | 1982 case Inwood Labs., Inc. v. Ives Labs., Inc. (https://www.openstax.org/l/InwoodVIves) , “If a manufacturer
or distributor intentionally induces another to infringe a trademark, or if it continues to supply its product to
one whom it knows or has reason to know is engaging in trademark infringement, the manufactur... | {"producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner", ... |
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0.... | Another type of infringement is vicarious infringement. The definition of vicarious infringement is somewhat
convoluted, but Cornell University’s Legal Information Institute describes it thusly:
“A person may be held liable for the infringing acts committed by another if he or she had the right
and ability to contro... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "creator": "PDFMiner", "total_pages": 209, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads... |
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0.05517459... | xlii Inwood Labs., Inc. v. Ives Labs., Inc., 456 U.S. 844, 854 (1982) Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/
scholar_case?case=5946191720195736097&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr.
xliii Inwood Labs., Inc. v. Ives Labs., Inc., 456 U.S. 844, 854 (1982) Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/
scholar_case?case... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "total_pages": 209, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf"... |
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0... | knowledge and consent of—and to the profit of—Maphia owners.
Finally, there is a form of harm called trademark dilution, which is described by the International Trademark
Association as “the weakening of a famous mark’s ability to identify and distinguish goods or services,
regardless of competition in the marketpla... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "total_pages": 209, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "batch_upload": true, "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "source": "downloads... |
a621a0b5-4fb1-4d73-b453-d0fcb6ece5b8 | [
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-0.10740124434232712,
0.0451127365231514,
0.04592888429760933,
0.00023614878591615707,
0.0213749... | The Federal Trademark Dilution Act of 1995 and the Federal Dilution Revision Act of 2006 created a federal
cause of action for trademark dilution that is separate from infringement. Generally speaking, an owner of a
trademark eligible for dilution protection can prevent another company from using that mark no matter ... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f6... |
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-0.07093255966901779,
0.041161563247442245,
0.0684281587600708,
0.033062200993299484,
-0.00482... | 4.10 Trademark Remedies
Learning Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to
• Explain remedies for trademark infringement.
• Discuss effects of infringement.
Remedies for trademark infringement are similar to those available to owners of other intellectual property,
including the possibility of ... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:0... |
8b07d62c-17c6-4fde-a3d0-40ce0ac6f72a | [
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-0.022443698719143867,
0.10206113010644913,
0.07288512587547302,
0.039992064237594604,
-0.01091... | Nike “Swoosh” on them into the U.S. market. The loss of revenue resulting from U.S. customers mistakenly
buying the Bangladeshi manufacturer’s counterfeit shoes might not amount even to a rounding error on
Nike’s books. But if customers began to lose trust in the “Swoosh” symbol as a reliable indicator of Nike’s
qua... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "batch_upload": true, "total_pages": 209, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_name"... |
9e126c11-f8c5-43ee-ac4c-7d3f30d32d08 | [
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-0.040633752942085266,
0.04101619869470596,
-0.014760413207113743,
0.05514600872993469,
0.0340675... | In addition to injunctive relief, monetary damages may also be awarded in trademark infringement cases.
Monetary damages are primarily aimed at compensating trademark owners for lost profits due to the
infringing activity, and may be trebled if the infringement is deemed intentional. The courts may base an
xlv See W... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "batch_upload": true, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.prince... |
b5d89ea4-c25d-40c6-b726-e8a6dbd7525b | [
-0.052021726965904236,
0.012843415141105652,
0.0512760654091835,
-0.10248979926109314,
0.008817597292363644,
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0.05715722590684891,
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-0.053238265216350555,
0.07473448663949966,
-0.026139048859477043,
0.04242350533604622,
0.064766... | lost profits and the cost of notifying customers.
• Punitive damages to punish the infringer (available in state courts only)
• Reasonable attorneys’ fees incurred by the mark owner to prosecute the case.
4.11 Fair Use of Trademarks
Figure 4.13 (credit: Kellogg's via Wikimedia Commons / Public domain)
Learning Obj... | {"file_type": ".pdf", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introductio... |
823c02a4-7608-44ca-9065-cfaf418971cb | [
-0.04471002146601677,
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0.044994957745075226,
0.04931032285094261,
0.052195124328136444,
-0.001425406662747264,
-0.04775141552090645,
0.03483346849679947,
0.0017388949636369944,
0.08309928327798843,
0.0406... | repair shop advertises that it repairs BMWs and Hondas. It is using the mark “Honda” to refer to cars
genuinely produced by the Honda Motor Company, and simply asserting that it is able to conduct repairs on
those cars. Another example of nominative fair use is use of a competitor’s trademark in comparative
advertis... | {"moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "total_pages": 209, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "uploaded_via": "bat... |
1f5fd64e-99dc-418a-a2a9-546de28431ad | [
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0.03312192112207413,
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-0.030483299866318703,
0.030384430661797523,
0.03387484326958656,
0.02820904552936554,
-0.01222... | repair facility). Another example is the use of another’s trademark for the purpose of a product review.
Classic fair use occurs when a trademark is used in good faith for its primary meaning, and no consumer
confusion is likely to occur. Classic fair uses typically involve marks that are descriptive. For example, ev... | {"title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner", "moddate": "2021... |
3cc88605-0c85-4396-8292-46dad783e850 | [
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-0.05644126608967781,
-0.0019986729603260756,
0.00872009713202715,
0.07367991656064987,
-0.01084... | diluting or tarnishing the trademark in question.
Access for free at openstax.org.
4 • Assessment Questions
161
Assessment Questions
1. What is the purpose of the intellectual property right we call a trademark?
A. To protect the inventions of businesses.
B. To indicate the origin of goods or services.
C. To re... | {"batch_upload": true, "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "title": "Introduction to Intellectu... |
7e904123-bca7-4590-a1a8-57ccb22f5e5e | [
-0.05905861034989357,
-0.02902851067483425,
0.023735960945487022,
-0.09276324510574341,
-0.004169343505054712,
0.07071515172719955,
-0.018133455887436867,
0.14336787164211273,
0.0012353993952274323,
-0.07194140553474426,
0.012286459095776081,
0.025082387030124664,
0.09414820373058319,
-0.0... | as much as $20 billion?
A. $850,000.
B. $25,000.
C. $35.
4. What value do trademarks provide society?
A. They encourage and reward creative enterprise.
B. They marshal the benefits of this creativity to the public good.
C. They protect the consumer from deception.
D. All of the above.
5. What is the legal foun... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "total_pages": 209, "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_hash": "de971509... |
816b09fa-9598-4c07-95ca-6107cc97e1a5 | [
-0.07165737450122833,
-0.03191562741994858,
-0.029301661998033524,
-0.0976378470659256,
-0.04297283664345741,
0.057765401899814606,
-0.023938948288559914,
0.06509330868721008,
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-0.04087463766336441,
-0.015629291534423828,
0.035284336656332016,
0.03897229582071304,
-0.0... | A. There was no government agency to register trademarks before that time.
B. That was when written records of trademarks could be printed.
C. Widespread trade requires a certain level of public trust in the provenance and quality of goods, which
trademarks helped to build.
8. Besides indicating the source of a goo... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_type": ".pdf", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf",... |
4bce37f3-7493-48e5-ab55-979620a01eac | [
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0.06247944384813309,
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-0.06452830880880356,
0.012052011676132679,
0.08503857254981995,
0.00897428672760725,
-0.02... | C. Löwenbräu Brewery.
10. What is the significance of an old lawsuit known as Sanforth’s Case?
A.
It proves that 250 years before the Industrial Revolution, trademark infringement was viewed as
deceit and a violation of laws against unfair competition.
B.
C.
It is the first trademark infringement case known to b... | {"uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "total_pages": 209, "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual... |
3a4051e3-1c6e-46e7-a002-329af33ec41f | [
-0.06815247237682343,
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0.030646389350295067,
0.07296409457921982,
0.06702420115470886,
-0.00... | C. State laws often conflicted with each other.
D. All of the above.
12. Why were the first two national trademark laws ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court?
A. The court ruled that they infringed on non-trademark owners’ first amendment rights to free speech.
B. The court ruled in 1879 that the patent and c... | {"creator": "PDFMiner", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "batch_upload": true, "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_busin... |
b2a56763-4351-4913-9d5f-cbb2bda57097 | [
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-0.09553516656160355,
0.03815627098083496,
0.04602179303765297,
0.019907066598534584,
0.0104... | 14. The Lanham Act is the principal federal law on trademarks in the United States. Which of the following was
NOT a feature of trademark law enacted by the act?
A.
B.
C.
It broadened the national system of trademark registration.
It set the trademark renewal period.
It required registration of trademarks before... | {"creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_type": ".pdf", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "batch_upload": true, "mod... |
cf23e738-308b-4c74-88ad-2b57a43541d9 | [
-0.09541831910610199,
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-0.14567966759204865,
0.019783377647399902,
0.007432764396071434,
0.08199453353881836,
0... | A. Services provided to either consumers or other businesses.
B. Physical goods or commodities that are manufactured, produced, grown, or that exist naturally.
C. Both of the above.
Access for free at openstax.org.
4 • Assessment Questions
163
17. A collective mark identifies a trademark owned by a member of a ce... | {"file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_type": ".pdf", "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total... |
6f884a7a-b95a-43c7-ae3f-2a6fef479970 | [
-0.08715952187776566,
0.011987720616161823,
0.032064612954854965,
-0.057681526988744736,
0.05014274641871452,
0.06087496876716614,
0.038168005645275116,
0.06511373817920685,
-0.019156789407134056,
-0.09278333187103271,
-0.027947813272476196,
0.013891424052417278,
0.0020541870035231113,
-0.... | 20. Why has no company been able to gain trademark protection for “87 Octane” as a brand of gasoline?
A.
B.
C.
It’s a number.
It’s not trade dress.
It doesn’t indicate the origin of the gas—whether Exxon, Shell, or another company.
21. What’s the difference between a design protected as a trademark and trade dre... | {"file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e178e20a112124f6996a94ee551ec", "total_pages": 209, "file_type": ".pdf", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "producer": "Prince 12.5 (www.princexml.com)", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "batch_upload":... |
17b27afe-a985-4f15-be18-c355edb816a4 | [
-0.059221990406513214,
-0.021290091797709465,
0.05268898978829384,
-0.06568216532468796,
-0.014458435587584972,
0.053154706954956055,
0.07053085416555405,
0.07600808888673782,
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-0.023596951737999916,
0.03976083919405937,
0.02377820760011673,
0.08278001099824905,
-0.015... | B. All three protect only the nonfunctional elements of the product’s appearance.
C. Both of these.
23. What is the trademark world’s corollary to novelty in patents?
A. Non-obviousness.
B. Distinctiveness.
C. Originality.
24. Of the following five categories of marks—fanciful, arbitrary, suggestive, descriptive,... | {"source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_type": ".pdf", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "source_file": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "creator": "PDFMiner", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "total_pages": 209, "cr... |
2b6faf43-77fa-4b56-b10c-86e7ebeead3e | [
-0.02721797116100788,
-0.04913565516471863,
0.029310647398233414,
-0.05836274474859238,
-0.035468604415655136,
0.05603392422199249,
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0.03932692110538483,
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-0.00488143740221858,
0.030799338594079018,
0.03440888226032257,
0.08457114547491074,
-0.0274454... | A. Because Toys “R” Us was the first to use the name “toys” and thus has priority.
B. Because Toys “R” Us was the first to use the name nationwide.
C. Because of the fanciful spelling of its name.
27. Why did “Cellophane” and “Aspirin” lose their trademarks
A. The original companies making these products went out o... | {"total_pages": 209, "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "batch_upload": true, "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "file_size_mb": 21.73, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_name": "Int... |
d6f485ba-e787-4fda-948f-ac79ef60dba5 | [
0.021923590451478958,
-0.040355827659368515,
-0.03633212670683861,
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0.031139453873038292,
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0.01445979718118906,
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-0.055958859622478485,
0.025778591632843018,
0.04232659563422203,
0.048795510083436966,
-0.015... | America?
A. The name “Amazon” is not indicative of the geographic source of the retailer’s goods, nor do
consumers think those goods come from the Amazonian region.
B. The name “Amazon” is not a factor in whether or not consumers decide to purchase books, clothing,
electronics, or anything else from the company.
C... | {"total_pages": 209, "batch_upload": true, "title": "Introduction to Intellectual Property", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "uploaded_via": "batch_uploader", "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "file_name": "Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", ... |
0c2b5ecd-9cb3-41fa-8a59-dc470fe9985d | [
-0.03643735870718956,
-0.07792843878269196,
0.024233410134911537,
-0.09542267769575119,
0.028808780014514923,
0.009954892098903656,
0.05415099114179611,
0.08175389468669891,
0.0059025101363658905,
-0.1289435774087906,
0.07491447031497955,
0.015449246391654015,
0.06196228414773941,
-0.00358... | importation of infringing foreign goods.
C. The exclusive right to use the mark nationwide.
D. The right to use the federal registration symbol ® instead of the ™ symbol.
31. You can’t file a trademark registration application unless you are currently engaged in business.
A. True.
B. False.
32. Which of the follo... | {"moddate": "2021-05-14T12:24:20-05:00", "upload_timestamp": "2026-02-07T14:37:38.425789", "total_pages": 209, "source": "downloads\\business\\legal_business\\Introduction_to_Intellectual_Property.pdf", "batch_upload": true, "creationdate": "2021-05-14T12:22:55-05:00", "file_hash": "de971509c31fd23b9b8dd73255e5f604bd6e... |
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