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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_291_0 | German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_292_0 | However , in Sarajevo itself , Austrian authorities encouraged violence against the Serb residents , which resulted in the Anti-Serb riots of Sarajevo , in which Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two ethnic Serbs and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_293_0 | The next day , after the Council of Ministers of Russia was held under the chairmanship of the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo , Russia ordered general mobilization for Odessa , Kiev , Kazan and Moscow military districts and fleets of the Baltic and the Black Sea . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_294_0 | This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France , in an attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the ` second defensive area ' of the fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_295_0 | While the Russian invasion failed , it caused the diversion of German troops to the east , allowing the tactical Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_296_0 | This meant that Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long two-front war . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_297_0 | The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war ; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe , Africa , and the Middle East , while the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food , money , and ammunition . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_298_0 | Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_299_0 | Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_300_0 | These years of trench warfare in the West saw no major exchanges of territory and , as a result , are often thought of as static and unchanging . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_301_0 | At the start of the war , the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe , some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_302_0 | Since there was limited response to this tactic , Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_302_1 | Since there was limited response to this tactic , Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_303_0 | This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets , which significantly lessened losses ; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced , accompanying destroyers could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_304_0 | The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces , together with a large number of major Iranian tribes , such as the Qashqai , Tangistanis , Luristanis , and Khamseh , while the Russians and British had the support of Assyrian and Armenian forces . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_305_0 | Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories , so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917 . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_306_0 | Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna , a staunch proponent of the frontal assault , had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau , taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_307_0 | In the summer of 1916 , after the Battle of Doberdò , the Italians captured the town of Gorizia . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_308_0 | When the Entente Powers promised Romania large territories of eastern Hungary ( Transylvania and Banat ) , which had a large Romanian population , in exchange for Romania 's declaring war on the Central Powers , the Romanian government renounced its neutrality and , on 27 August 1916 , the Romanian Army launched an att... | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_309_0 | Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917 , resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central Powers . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_310_0 | Russian withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917 . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_311_0 | The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government , and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_312_0 | Despite this enormous apparent German success , the manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the Central Powers war effort . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_313_0 | While the Allies debated a response to Wilson 's offer , the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of `` a direct exchange of views '' . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_314_0 | To Wilson , the Entente powers stated that they would not start peace negotiations until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied territories and provided indemnities for all damage which had been done . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_315_0 | However , appeals to patriotism and duty , as well as mass arrests and trials , encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches , although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_316_0 | When the negotiations failed , his attempt was revealed to Germany resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_317_0 | This situation was not helped by the now stretched supply lines as a result of their rapid advance over devastated ground . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_318_0 | German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000 , including many highly trained storm troopers . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_319_0 | This resulted in the stab-in-the-back legend , which attributed Germany 's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting ( even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight ) , but to the public 's failure to respond to its `` patriotic calling '' and the supposed inte... | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_320_0 | Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states , including Austria , Hungary , Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia , largely but not entirely along ethnic lines . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_321_0 | By the end of the war , starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_322_0 | By 1922 , there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I , the Russian Civil War , and the subsequent famine of 1920 -- 1922 . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_323_0 | According to various sources , several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period , which was tied in with the Greek Genocide . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_324_0 | Infantry formations were reorganised , so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre ; instead , squads of 10 or so men , under the command of a junior NCO , were favoured . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_325_0 | In 1914 , cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_326_0 | The large number of head wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet , led by the French , who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915 . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_327_0 | Few war casualties were caused by gas , as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created , such as gas masks . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_328_0 | Within a year , the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds , and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917 , by breaking the Hindenburg Line , while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_329_0 | Although not of high tactical value , the flamethrower was a powerful , demoralising weapon that caused terror on the battlefield . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_330_0 | Balloons commonly had a crew of two , equipped with parachutes , so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_331_0 | The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships , hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines , and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_332_0 | For example , the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons casualties during the war , and up to one-third of American casualties were caused by them . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_333_0 | An estimated 100,000 -- 260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands of more ( along with military personnel ) died from scarring of the lungs , skin damage , and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_334_0 | Many commanders on both sides knew that such weapons would cause major harm to civilians as wind would blow poison gases into nearby civilian towns but nonetheless continued to use them throughout the war . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_334_1 | Many commanders on both sides knew that such weapons would cause major harm to civilians as wind would blow poison gases into nearby civilian towns but nonetheless continued to use them throughout the war . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_335_0 | British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary : `` My officers and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns , as strong winds were common in the battlefront . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_336_0 | The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914 , usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_337_0 | Individual surrenders were uncommon ; large units usually surrendered en masse . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_338_0 | When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915 , some 20,000 Russians became prisoners , at the battle near Przasnysz ( February -- March 1915 ) 14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians , at the First Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered to the Allies . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_339_0 | Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers , most of them Indians , became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916 ; 4,250 died in captivity . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_340_0 | In Russia , when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917 , they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_341_0 | They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_342_0 | In the Middle East , Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war , with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_343_0 | However , the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed , resulting in a general strike called Red Week . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_344_0 | The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising ; although , once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated , the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_344_1 | The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising ; although , once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated , the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_345_0 | In Britain , 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_346_0 | In Australia , a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes , the Prime Minister , caused a split in the Australian Labor Party , so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_347_0 | Historian Samuel Hynes explained : This has become the most common perception of World War I , perpetuated by the art , cinema , poems , and stories published subsequently . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_348_0 | Likewise , the art of Paul Nash , John Nash , Christopher Nevinson , and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception , while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_349_0 | They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences , reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as `` aimless '' following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_350_0 | For years afterwards , people mourned the dead , the missing , and the many disabled . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_351_0 | Furthermore , it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World War I. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that : The ` Age of Totalitarianism ' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history , headed by t... | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_352_0 | All these slaughters , it is argued here , had a common origin , the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central , eastern and southern Europe as a result of World War I , without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators... | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_353_0 | In Austria , for example , most pigs were slaughtered , so at war 's end there was no meat . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_354_0 | In addition , demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_355_0 | In Britain , rationing was finally imposed in early 1918 , limited to meat , sugar , and fats ( butter and margarine ) , but not bread . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_356_0 | The war was ended by the signing of many different treaties , the most important being the Treaty of Versailles . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_357_0 | Having recently won the Balkan Wars , the Greeks especially wanted to control other land to the north that was under Bulgarian and Turkish rule , so they declared war . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_358_0 | They thought the armies would move around quickly to attack each other , and one would defeat the other without too many people getting killed . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_359_0 | When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Liège , the Belgians fought very hard to stop them from coming into the city . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_360_0 | The generals were used to fighting wars without these , so they ordered their armies to attack in the old style of marching in rows - allowing the enemy to shoot them down easily . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_361_0 | Guns were put on planes for the first time during the war . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_362_0 | They began to hate their new government because it would n't stop the war . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_363_0 | The new government asked the Germans for peace , and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litvosk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest Litovsk . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_364_0 | The war in Europe ended with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_365_0 | With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent , the possibility of additional atomic bombings , and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria , Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_366_0 | The exact date of the war 's end is also not universally agreed upon . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_367_0 | Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_368_0 | Under the treaty , Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies , while German annexation of other states was prohibited , reparations were imposed , and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country 's armed forces . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_369_0 | In 1931 , an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire , which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia , used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_370_0 | In June 1938 , Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_371_0 | In March 1939 , Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_372_0 | Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939 , the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_373_0 | Frustrated , and in part in response to repeated British air raids against Berlin , Germany began a strategic bombing offensive against British cities known as the Blitz . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_374_0 | Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war , he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_375_0 | Italy began operations in the Mediterranean , initiating a siege of Malta in June , conquering British Somaliland in August , and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in September 1940 . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_376_0 | The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_377_0 | Although the Axis victory was swift , bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_378_0 | The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful , resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies , and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine ( the First Battle of Kharkov ) possible . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_379_0 | These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident , as well as overextended . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_380_0 | With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle , Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_381_0 | Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942 . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_382_0 | This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_383_0 | By May 1943 , as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_384_0 | In mid-January 1945 , the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland , pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany , and overran East Prussia . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_385_0 | Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan ( 1948 -- 1951 ) both directly and indirectly caused . | [] |
altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_386_0 | Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories . | [
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altlex_altlex_gold.tsv_387_0 | An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died as a direct or indirect result of Nazi ideological policies , including the systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust , along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and other Slavs ( including Ukrainians and Belarusians ) -- Roma , homosexuals , a... | [
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