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166	The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide had been committed. ...	[ "In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the destruction of which victims?", "In addressing the issue of \"in part,\" the Appeals Chamber found that the part must be a substantial part of what?", "Which phrase is especially contentious within i...
167	In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction was necessary fo...	[ "Two bodies of the United Nations agreed with what restricted provision in defining genocide?", "A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand genocidal law?", "Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of genocide laws?", "The ECHR found...
168	After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution...	[ "In 1948, what general assembly resolution established genocide as a prosecutable act?", "In which war-era country was the Holocaust immortalized?", "Following World War II, whose bid was successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide?", "Which group convened ...
169	The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the etymology of the...	[ "Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed?", "What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Convention?", "What was the primary concern of other nations who objected to including political grou...
170	In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinio...	[ "Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?", "What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of genocide?", "In 2007 what former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on to further refine qualifi...
174	The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inqui...	[ "Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what?", "What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inquiry?", "The number of people targeted in a genocide should not be solely evaluated by what?", "In addition to the numeric size of a t...
175	In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of geno...	[ "The issue of what is raised by judges in Paragraph 13?", "What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the activity of the perpetrators be considered?", "The extent of what by the perpetrators was considered in an examination of their activity and level of control?", "What will always be r...
176	The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdo...	[ "On which date did the Genocide Convention become effective?", "What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form parties?", "Of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, how many were parties to the treaty?", "What member ratified in 1970?", "The delay in support by certain powerful m...
177	Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility ...	[ "In 1998 it was written that the CPPCG was a legal entity resulting in which type of compromise?", "Rather than a definition, the text of the treaty is considered as what type of tool?", "What does the treaty possess that others lack?", "The writers Jonassohn and Bjornson cite various reasons for the lack of ...
178	Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk ...	[ "What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for genocide?", "The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpreting events?", "What writer joined Jonassohn in the study of the whole of human history?", "With whom was ...
179	The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted...	[ "Some historians were critical of what exclusion in the definition of victims of genocide?", "In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of genocide was too narrow?", "Kakar argued that the definition should include any group defined by the perpetrator and which other group?", "In the wr...
180	Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." Har...	[ "Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents?", "Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality?", "What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish from genocides?", "Along with ethnicity and and religio...
181	According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Gen...	[ "In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide?", "Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership?", "The legal meaning of genocide is contained in which international treaty?", "Included in the CPPCG is non-k...
182	Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to imple...	[ "In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer?", "In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious in it implementation of the destruction of a group?", "Gallagher's definition upholds the centrality of wh...
183	All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and forme...	[ "Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what?", "During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged?", "In enforcing a charge of genocide, what loophole do many of the signatories possess?", "What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of genocide against itself?", ...
184	Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were fou...	[ "In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty?", "Perpetrators who were tried after World War II were in general found guilty of crimes against what?", "An example of a more specific genocidal crime of which one could be accused was wha...
185	On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. The ECHR also not...	[ "Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court?", "In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases?", "The ECHR noted that among certain academics, what act carried out by the Serbs agains Bo...
186	About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zd...	[ "In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for war crimes that were officially defined as genocide?", "Convicted perpetrators Popovic and Beara were found guilty of genocide despite what evasive action?", "Tolimir was found guilty of both genocide and what other charge?", "Another charge beyond the act of g...
187	Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995...	[ "What event occurred in March 2006 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?", "Where was Karadzic when he was finally arrested?", "With Milosevic dead, who did the ICTY next charge with crimes of genocide in 1995?", "Had Milosevic not died, what charges might he have been convicted of?", "Which former pres...
188	The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United N...	[ "What court was established under the aegis of the United Nations to prosecute genocidal crimes in Rwanda?", "The prosecutorial efforts of the ICTR focused on genocidal acts that took place during which time period?", "the ICTR was created in November 1995 by which branch of the UN?", "The ICTR was establishe...
189	There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time howev...	[ "What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?", "In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?", "In front of which committee did Powell testify?", "What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2004?", "Despite so...
190	In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote o...	[ "To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?", "What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?", "China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on the referral resolution?", "In which number report to the Council did the ...
191	Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in...	[ "In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?", "What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?", "Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be economic deterioration and political confusion?", "A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the pr...
203	Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeuti...	[ "What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes?", "What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance?", "How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year?", "What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB?" ]
204	Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to re...	[ "What are the two biggest reasons for resistance?", "What is a common method of misuse?", "What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance?" ]
205	Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course o...	[ "What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling?", "What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use?", "What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices?", "What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics?", "What do doctors usually do when a...
206	Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicr...	[ "What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics?", "Which agencies control this task force?", "When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics?" ]
207	The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Associatio...	[ "When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth?", "What report caused the UK to worry about resistance?", "What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals?", "Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production?", "What 3 medical as...
208	There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the South...	[ "What besides sick people are antibiotics used for?", "When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals?", "When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals?" ]
209	Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mo...	[ "What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections?", "When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used?", "What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use?", "What does antibiosis mean?", "Who came up with the term antibiosis?" ]
210	The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the...	[ "What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?", "Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?", "What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties?", "What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it?" ]
211	The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect a...	[ "What was the first available antibiotic?", "What company developed Prontosil?", "Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?", "What prize did Domagk get for his work?" ]
212	In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating woun...	[ "What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?", "When was tyrothricin created?", "What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?", "Who discovered tyrothricin?", "What was tyrothricin used for during the war?" ]
213	Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determ...	[ "When was penicillin G first purified?", "When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?", "Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?", "When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered?", "Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin?" ]
214	Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a...	[ "What do vaccines need to work?", "What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?", "What types of vaccines have been phased out?" ]
215	Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that i...	[ "What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?", "How have researchers been doing this?", "What is a worry of using phages?" ]
216	In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines con...	[ "How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?", "How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?", "What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance?" ]
217	Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing...	[ "Who regulates antibiotic approval?", "What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?", "What are resistant bacteria called in the media?", "Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts?" ]
263	In late summer he was invited by Jane Stirling to visit Scotland, where he stayed at Calder House near Edinburgh and at Johnstone Castle in Renfrewshire, both owned by members of Stirling's family. She clearly had a notion of going beyond mere friendship, and Chopin was obliged to make it clear to her that this could n...	[ "Where did Jane Stirling invite Chopin?", "What doctor was with Chopin when he wrote out his will?", "Where was Chopin invited to in late summer?", "What city did Chopin perform at on September 27?", "What did Chopin write while staying with Doctor Adam Łyszczyński?" ]
264	Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London's Guildhall on 16 November 1848, when, in a final patriotic gesture, he played for the benefit of Polish refugees. By this time he was very seriously ill, weighing under 99 pounds (i.e. less than 45 kg), and his doctors were aware that his sickness ...	[ "When did Chopin last appear in public?", "Where was Chopin's last public performance?", "Who were the beneficiaries of his last public concert?", "What was the diagnosis of Chopin's health condition at this time?", "Where was Chopin's last public performance?" ]
267	Some of his friends provided music at his request; among them, Potocka sang and Franchomme played the cello. Chopin requested that his body be opened after death (for fear of being buried alive) and his heart returned to Warsaw where it rests at the Church of the Holy Cross. He also bequeathed his unfinished notes on a...	[ "Why did Chopin request being cut open after his death?", "What did Chopin reply to the doctor when asked is he was suffering?", "Who made Chopin's death mask?", "Why did Chopin want his body opened when he died?", "What did Solange's husband make hours after Chopin's death along with his death mask?" ]
272	Over 230 works of Chopin survive; some compositions from early childhood have been lost. All his known works involve the piano, and only a few range beyond solo piano music, as either piano concertos, songs or chamber music.	[ "How many of Chopin's works still exist?", "All of his pieces include what instrument?", "How many Chopin pieces are known to have survived?", "Only a few of Chopin's pieces involve more than the piano, including piano concertos, songs and what?" ]
273	Chopin was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart and Clementi; he used Clementi's piano method with his own students. He was also influenced by Hummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique. He cited Bach and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook. C...	[ "Whose piano method did Chopin teach his students?", "Whose piano method did Chopin use with his students?", "Who did Chopin say were the two most important composers in his own music influences?", "Chopin looked to Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi and who for his own music education?" ]
280	Improvisation stands at the centre of Chopin's creative processes. However, this does not imply impulsive rambling: Nicholas Temperley writes that "improvisation is designed for an audience, and its starting-point is that audience's expectations, which include the current conventions of musical form." The works for pia...	[ "What is central to Chopin's process?", "Rosen suggests that a central part of Chopin's uniqueness is how he handles what?", "What is central to Chopin's creativeness?", "Who wrote that \"improvisation is designed for an audience\"?", "What did Rosen suggest was important about chopin's personality?" ]
281	J. Barrie Jones suggests that "amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use, the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme", and adds that "the Barcarolle Op. 60 stands apart as an example of Chopin's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody." Temperley opines that these works, wh...	[ "What piece does J. Barrie Jones pinpoint as a great example of Chopin's palette?", "What does J. Barrie Jones feel stands supreme of Chopin's concert pieces?", "What form does Temperley feel that Chopin's ballades and scherzos are based on?" ]
282	Chopin's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form, sometimes with a coda. The mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works, sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses. However, some also show unusual sophistication, for example Op. 6...	[ "Chopin's mazurkas contain more of what than his other compositions?", "What form are Chopin's mazurkas and waltzes in?", "Which of Chopin's works shows more folk aspects?", "What type of bass do Chopin's mazurkas exhibit?", "What does Chopin's Op. 63 No. 3 have that is rare?" ]
283	Chopin's polonaises show a marked advance on those of his Polish predecessors in the form (who included his teachers Zywny and Elsner). As with the traditional polonaise, Chopin's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies, accompaniments and cadences. Unlike most of their precurs...	[ "What time are Chopin's polonaises written in?", "Chopin's ability to create an advanced polonasises surpassed even two of his teachers, Zywny and who?", "Chopin's polonaise often have what kind of rhythm in their melodies?", "Chopin's polonaises needed what kind of playing technique?" ]
284	The 21 nocturnes are more structured, and of greater emotional depth, than those of Field (whom Chopin met in 1833). Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression (and often making very difficult demands on the performer) which heightens their dramatic character.	[ "How many nocturnes did Chopin compose?", "What is it about the middle of Chopin's nocturnes that increases their drama?", "Chopin's nocturnes were more structured than who?", "What year did Chopin meet Field?", "Which type of Chopin's compositons were difficult for perfomers due to their middle sections?" ...
285	Chopin's études are largely in straightforward ternary form. He used them to teach his own technique of piano playing—for instance playing double thirds (Op. 25, No. 6), playing in octaves (Op. 25, No. 10), and playing repeated notes (Op. 10, No. 7).	[ "What pieces of his did Chopin use to teach his technique?", "What form are most of Chopin's études in?", "Chopin often taught his piano technique using what form of music he wrote?" ]
287	The two mature piano sonatas (No. 2, Op. 35, written in 1839 and No. 3, Op. 58, written in 1844) are in four movements. In Op. 35, Chopin was able to combine within a formal large musical structure many elements of his virtuosic piano technique—"a kind of dialogue between the public pianism of the brilliant style and t...	[ "How many movements are No. 2, Op. 35 and No. 3, Op 58 in?", "What two people claimed that Op 58 was \"worthy of Brahms\"?", "How many movements are in No. 2, Op. 35 and No. 3, Op 58?", "Which movement was found lacking in musicality by Schumann?", "According to music historians, which sonata is similar to ...
288	Chopin's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique. Temperley says that in his works "novel harmonic effects frequently result from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas or passing notes with melodic figures of accompaniment", and cadences are delayed by the use of chords...	[ "Chopin's chord progressions are similar in style to what other composer?", "What likely arose due to Chopin's technique with keyboards?", "Who wrote about Chopin's \"novel harmonic effects\"?" ]
289	In 1841, Léon Escudier wrote of a recital given by Chopin that year, "One may say that Chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition. In truth, nothing equals the lightness, the sweetness with which the composer preludes on the piano; moreover nothing may be compared to his works full of origin...	[ "What was Chopin's style based upon?", "Who wrote about a Chopin 1841 recital?", "What writing of Chopin talks about everything about piano playing has to do with proper fingering?" ]
292	Chopin's music is frequently played with rubato, "the practice in performance of disregarding strict time, 'robbing' some note-values for expressive effect". There are differing opinions as to how much, and what type, of rubato is appropriate for his works. Charles Rosen comments that "most of the written-out indicatio...	[ "Chopin's compositions are often played with what?", "What does rubato mean?", "In Chopin's music where strict timing is disregarded, what is it called?", "What type of Chopin's music had the most disregard for strict timing according to Charles Rosen?" ]
293	Friederike Müller, a pupil of Chopin, wrote: "[His] playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang, whether in full forte or softest piano. He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this legato, cantabile style of playing. His most severe criticism was 'He—or she—does not know how to join two notes together.' ...	[ "According to who did Chopin demand strictly sticking with rhythm?", "Which student said Chopin made sure his students knew his legato, cantabile style of playing?", "According to Friederike Müller, Chopin insisted his students have the strictest adherence to what?" ]
295	Some modern commentators have argued against exaggerating Chopin's primacy as a "nationalist" or "patriotic" composer. George Golos refers to earlier "nationalist" composers in Central Europe, including Poland's Michał Kleofas Ogiński and Franciszek Lessel, who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms. Barbara Milewski sug...	[ "Who said that Chopin's familiarity with Polish music was more \"urbanised\" than true folk music?", "George Golos references what two musicians when claiming Chopin's nationalism was overrated?", "Who said Chopin's works were modeled after Bach, Beethoven, Schubert and Field?" ]
296	A reconciliation of these views is suggested by William Atwood: "Undoubtedly [Chopin's] use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those Poles scattered across Europe and the New World ... While some sought solace in [them], others...	[ "William Atwood suggested that Chopin's music wasn't purposely patriotic but what?", "A modern commentator, William Atwood, feels Poles not only sought solace in Chopin's music but also found them a source of strength as they continued to fight for what?", "Where were Poles scattered to?" ]
297	Jones comments that "Chopin's unique position as a composer, despite the fact that virtually everything he wrote was for the piano, has rarely been questioned." He also notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Paris in 1831—"the artistic environment, the publishers who were willing to print his music, the wealthy a...	[ "Arthur Hutchings stated that Chopin's lack of what made him special?", "Who were two of Chopin's contemporaries?", "What place was considered lucky for Chopin to have arrived at considering how much he charged for piano lessons?", "Who said Chopin was unlike his romantic contemporaries Liszt and Henri Herz?"...
299	Two of Chopin's long-standing pupils, Karol Mikuli (1821–1897) and Georges Mathias, were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their own students, some of whom (such as Raoul Koczalski) were to make recordings of his music. Other pianists and composers influenced by Chopin's style include Lo...	[ "Who dedicated his 1915 piano Études to Chopin?", "For what publisher to Debussy edit Chopin's music for?", "Who was a student of Chopin's former students and actually recorded some Chopin music?", "What music did Debussy play a lot at the Paris Conservatoire?" ]
300	The exact nature of relations between Tibet and the Ming dynasty of China (1368–1644) is unclear. Analysis of the relationship is further complicated by modern political conflicts and the application of Westphalian sovereignty to a time when the concept did not exist. Some Mainland Chinese scholars, such as Wang Jiawei...	[ "Who were Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain?" ]
301	Some scholars note that Tibetan leaders during the Ming frequently engaged in civil war and conducted their own foreign diplomacy with neighboring states such as Nepal. Some scholars underscore the commercial aspect of the Ming-Tibetan relationship, noting the Ming dynasty's shortage of horses for warfare and thus the ...	[ "What important trade did the Ming Dynasty have with Tibet?", "During what years did the Mongol leader Kublai Khan rule?", "Who did the Yongle Emperor try to build a religious alliance with?", "Deshin Shekpa was the head of what school?", "The Tibetan leaders had a diplomacy with what neighboring state?" ]
302	The Ming initiated sporadic armed intervention in Tibet during the 14th century, but did not garrison permanent troops there. At times the Tibetans also used armed resistance against Ming forays. The Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620) made attempts to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations after the Mongol-Tibetan alliance initi...	[ "What did the Tibetans use against Ming forays?", "Who were the armed protectors for the Gelug Dalai Lama?", "Which regime did Güshi Khan help establish?", "When was the Mongol-Tibetan alliance started?" ]
303	Tibet was once a strong power contemporaneous with Tang China (618–907). Until the Tibetan Empire's collapse in the 9th century, it was the Tang's major rival in dominating Inner Asia. The Yarlung rulers of Tibet also signed various peace treaties with the Tang, culminating in a treaty in 821 that fixed the borders bet...	[ "In what century did the Tibetan Empire fall?", "Who signed multiple peace treaties with the Tang?", "What did one of the treaties between the Tang and Tibet help fix?", "Who was the Tangs biggest rival?", "What year did Tang and Tibet sign a treaty to fix the borders?" ]
304	During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of China (907–960), while the fractured political realm of China saw no threat in a Tibet which was in just as much political disarray, there was little in the way of Sino-Tibetan relations. Few documents involving Sino-Tibetan contacts survive from the Song dynasty (96...	[ "When did the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of China take place?", "When did the Song dynasty take place?", "What dynasty was concerned with countering northern enemy states?", "Who ruled the Liao dynasty?", "Who ruled the Jin dynasty?" ]
305	In 1207, the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) conquered and subjugated the ethnic Tangut state of the Western Xia (1038–1227). In the same year, he established diplomatic relations with Tibet by sending envoys there. The conquest of the Western Xia alarmed Tibetan rulers, who decided to pay tribute to the Mongo...	[ "Which ruler took Western Xia under their control?", "Who was Genghis Khan's successor?", "What years did Ögedei Khan rule?", "Who invaded Tibet?" ]
306	The Mongol prince Godan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, raided as far as Lhasa. During his attack in 1240, Prince Godan summoned Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), leader of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism, to his court in what is now Gansu in Western China. With Sakya Pandita's submission to Godan in 1247, Tibet was officia...	[ "Who was the Mongol prince?", "Who was the leader of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism?", "Who was the regent of the Mongol Empire?", "In what years was Töregene Khatun the regent of the Mongol Empire?" ]
307	Starting in 1236, the Mongol prince Kublai, who later ruled as Khagan from 1260–1294, was granted a large appanage in North China by his superior, Ögedei Khan. Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama (1203–1283)—the head lama of the Karma Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism—rejected Kublai's invitation, so instead Kublai invited ...	[ "How many states were ruled by myriarchies?", "What title did prince Kublai rule as from 1260 to 1294?", "Who was the superior of prince Kublai?", "Who became the second Karmapa Lama?", "With whom did Kublai Khan have a unique relationship with?" ]
308	Kublai Khan did not conquer the Song dynasty in South China until 1279, so Tibet was a component of the early Mongol Empire before it was combined into one of its descendant empires with the whole of China under the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Van Praag writes that this conquest "marked the end of independent China," whi...	[ "When did Kublai Khan conquer the song dynasty?", "When did the Yuan dynasty rule?", "Which dynasty ruled all of china?", "What did Khubilai claim for a while?", "Where did Khubilai seek support as Emperor?" ]
309	In 1358, the Sakya viceregal regime installed by the Mongols in Tibet was overthrown in a rebellion by the Phagmodru myriarch Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen (1302–1364). The Mongol Yuan court was forced to accept him as the new viceroy, and Changchub Gyaltsen and his successors, the Phagmodrupa Dynasty, gained de facto ru...	[ "What year was the Sakya viceregal regime eradicated?", "Who placed the Sakya viceregal regime position of authority?", "Who eradicated the Sakya viceregal regime?", "Which dynasty became ruler of Tibet?" ]
310	In 1368, a Han Chinese revolt known as the Red Turban Rebellion toppled the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China. Zhu Yuanzhang then established the Ming dynasty, ruling as the Hongwu Emperor (r. 1368–1398). It is not clear how much the early Ming court understood the civil war going on in Tibet between rival religious sects, ...	[ "Who created the Ming Dynasty?", "Who caused the Yuan dynasty to fall?", "Who ruled as the the Hongwu Emperor?", "What years did Zhu Yuanzhang rule as the Hongwu Emperor?", "Who did the Hongwu Emperor send convoys to?" ]
311	As evident in his imperial edicts, the Hongwu Emperor was well aware of the Buddhist link between Tibet and China and wanted to foster it. Rolpe Dorje, 4th Karmapa Lama (1340–1383) rejected the Hongwu Emperor's invitation, although he did send some disciples as envoys to the court in Nanjing. The Hongwu Emperor also en...	[ "Who was the fourth Karmapa Lama?", "Who rejected an invitation by the Hongwu Emperor?", "What did the the Hongwu Emperor want to continue to promote?", "Who did Rolpe Dorje send as envoys to court in Nanjing?" ]
312	However, the early Ming government enacted a law, later rescinded, which forbade Han Chinese to learn the tenets of Tibetan Buddhism. There is little detailed evidence of Chinese—especially lay Chinese—studying Tibetan Buddhism until the Republican era (1912–1949). Despite these missions on behalf of the Hongwu Emperor...	[ "Who created a law that did not allow Han Chinese to learn the beliefs of Tibetan Buddhism?", "What years did the Yongle Emperor reign?", "Who worked towards obtaining a extension of relations with Tibet?" ]
313	According to the official Twenty-Four Histories, the History of Ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the Ming dynasty established the "É-Lì-Sī Army-Civilian Marshal Office" (Chinese: 俄力思軍民元帥府) in western Tibet and installed the "Ü-Tsang Itinerant High Commandery" and "Amdo-Kham Itinerant Hi...	[ "What years did the Qing dynasty rule?", "what year was the history of Ming produced?", "What did the Ming dynasty create?", "How many Qianhu offices were there?", "where was the É-Lì-Sī Army-Civilian Marshal Office established?" ]
314	The Ming court appointed three Princes of Dharma (法王) and five Princes (王), and granted many other titles, such as Grand State Tutors (大國師) and State Tutors (國師), to the important schools of Tibetan Buddhism, including the Karma Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug. According to Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain, leading officials of...	[ "How many princes of Dharma were assigned by the Ming court?", "Who established the Tibetan law code?", "Who was the Phagmodru ruler?" ]
315	The late Turrell V. Wylie, a former professor of the University of Washington, and Li Tieh-tseng argue that the reliability of the heavily censored History of Ming as a credible source on Sino-Tibetan relations is questionable, in the light of modern scholarship. Other historians also assert that these Ming titles were...	[ "who was a professor of the University of Washington?", "Who had a large amount of contacts with china during Yuan?", "Who believed that Tibet barely had any diplomatic relations with the Ming?" ]
316	Historians disagree on what the relationship was between the Ming court and Tibet and whether or not Ming China had sovereignty over Tibet. Van Praag writes that Chinese court historians viewed Tibet as an independent foreign tributary and had little interest in Tibet besides a lama-patron relationship. The historian T...	[ "Who supported van Praag's beliefs?", "Who did not agree with van Praag and Shakabpa?" ]
317	Wang and Nyima argue that the Ming emperor sent edicts to Tibet twice in the second year of the Ming dynasty, and demonstrated that he viewed Tibet as a significant region to pacify by urging various Tibetan tribes to submit to the authority of the Ming court. They note that at the same time, the Mongol Prince Punala, ...	[ "Who believed that the Ming court had full sovereignty over Tibet?", "What year did Wang and Nyima believe that the Mongol Prince Punala went to Nanjing?", "What did the lamas called themselves?", "What edicts did the Ming issue?" ]
318	Journalist and author Thomas Laird, in his book The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, writes that Wang and Nyima present the government viewpoint of the People's Republic of China in their Historical Status of China's Tibet, and fail to realize that China was "absorbed into a larger, non-Chinese politi...	[ "Who wrote the book The Story of Tibet?", "who colonized India and New Zealand?", "Who's viewpoint does Thomas Laird believe Wang and Nyima present?" ]
319	The Columbia Encyclopedia distinguishes between the Yuan dynasty and the other Mongol Empire khanates of Ilkhanate, Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde. It describes the Yuan dynasty as "A Mongol dynasty of China that ruled from 1271 to 1368, and a division of the great empire conquered by the Mongols. Founded by Kub...	[ "How did the The Columbia Encyclopedia describe the Yuan dynasty?", "How did the Encyclopedia Americana describe the Yuan Dynasty?", "What did Thomas Laird dismiss the Yuan dynasty as?", "Who wrote the book Khubilai Khan?", "When did the yuan dynasty start and end?" ]
320	Nevertheless, the ethno-geographic caste hierarchy favoring the Mongols and other ethnicities were accorded higher status than the Han Chinese majority. Although Han Chinese who were recruited as advisers were often actually more influential than high officials, their status was not as well defined. Kublai also abolish...	[ "When did Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan reign?", "During the Yuan what existed between China and Tibet?", "Who was granted higher status than the Han Chinese majority?" ]
321	The official position of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China is that the Ming implemented a policy of managing Tibet according to conventions and customs, granting titles and setting up administrative organs over Tibet. The State Council Information Office of the People's Republic states t...	[ "Who abolished the policy council?", "What was the Tibetan leader Choskunskyabs appointed as?", "Who governed most areas of Tibet?" ]
322	Chen Qingying, Professor of History and Director of the History Studies Institute under the China Tibetology Research Center in Beijing, writes that the Ming court conferred new official positions on ex-Yuan Tibetan leaders of the Phachu Kargyu and granted them lower-ranking positions. Of the county (zong or dzong) lea...	[ "Where is the China Tibetology Research Center located?", "Who was the Director of the History Studies Institute?", "How many households were the offices of Qianhu in charge of?", "How many households were the offices of Wanhu in charge of?" ]
323	According to Tibetologist John Powers, Tibetan sources counter this narrative of titles granted by the Chinese to Tibetans with various titles which the Tibetans gave to the Chinese emperors and their officials. Tribute missions from Tibetan monasteries to the Chinese court brought back not only titles, but large, comm...	[ "What was the name of the Tibetologist?", "Who did the Ming emperors send invitations to?", "When the lamas received an invite from the emperors, who did they send instead?" ]
324	Hans Bielenstein writes that as far back as the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), the Han Chinese government "maintained the fiction" that the foreign officials administering the various "Dependent States" and oasis city-states of the Western Regions (composed of the Tarim Basin and oasis of Turpan) were true Han represent...	[ "What was the western regions composed of?", "Who believed that they were the true Han Western representatives?" ]
325	Wang and Nyima state that after the official title "Education Minister" was granted to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen (1302–1364) by the Yuan court, this title appeared frequently with his name in various Tibetan texts, while his Tibetan title "Degsi" (sic properly sde-srid or desi) is seldom mentioned. Wang and Nyima tak...	[ "What title was given by the Yuan court to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen ?", "What Tibetan title was hardly ever mentioned when referring to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen?", "What dynasty kept a Central-local government relation with the Yuan imperial court?", "What two people claim the title of Education Ministe...
326	However, Lok-Ham Chan, a professor of history at the University of Washington, writes that Changchub Gyaltsen's aims were to recreate the old Tibetan Kingdom that existed during the Chinese Tang dynasty, to build "nationalist sentiment" amongst Tibetans, and to "remove all traces of Mongol suzerainty." Georges Dreyfus,...	[ "Who divided Central Tibet into districts?", "Who strongly believed Changchub Gyaltsen wanted to restore the glories of its Imperial age to Tibet?", "What university was Lok-Ham Chan a professor at?", "What did Lok-Ham Chan claim Changchub Gyaltsen wanted to remove?" ]
327	According to Chen, the Ming officer of Hezhou (modern day Linxia) informed the Hongwu Emperor that the general situation in Dbus and Gtsang "was under control," and so he suggested to the emperor that he offer the second Phagmodru ruler, Jamyang Shakya Gyaltsen, an official title. According to the Records of the Foundi...	[ "Who did the Hongwu Emperor grant the title Initiation State Master to?", "Who suggested to the emperor that an official title be granted to second Phagmodru ruler?", "Who was the second Phagmodru ruler?", "Who told the emperor that the situation in Dbus and Gtsang were under control?", "Where were the envo...
328	Dreyfus writes that after the Phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over Tibet in 1434, several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th Dalai Lama's effective hegemony over Tibet.	[ "Who lost their power over Tibet?", "What year did the Phagmodrupa lose their power over Tibet?", "What year did the 5th Dalai lama start to dominate over Tibet?", "What did the other families fail to establish?" ]
329	The Ming dynasty granted titles to lamas of schools such as the Karmapa Kargyu, but the latter had previously declined Mongol invitations to receive titles. When the Ming Yongle Emperor invited Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), founder of the Gelug school, to come to the Ming court and pay tribute, the latter declined. Wang a...	[ "The Ming Dynasty granted what titles to lamas of schools?", "Who did the Ming Dynasty decline titles from after receiving invitations?", "Who was the founder of the Gelug school?", "Who invited Je Tsongkhapa to come pay tribute?", "Who wrote the letter declining the Emperor's invitation?" ]
330	A. Tom Grunfeld says that Tsongkhapa claimed ill health in his refusal to appear at the Ming court, while Rossabi adds that Tsongkhapa cited the "length and arduousness of the journey" to China as another reason not to make an appearance. This first request by the Ming was made in 1407, but the Ming court sent another ...	[ "When did the Ming first request Tsongkhapa to come to court?", "When did the Ming court send a second request to Tsongkhapa?", "Who did Tsongkhapa send in his place to Nanjing?", "When was Chosrje Shākya Yeshes sent to Nanjing?" ]
331	Dawa Norbu argues that modern Chinese Communist historians tend to be in favor of the view that the Ming simply reappointed old Yuan dynasty officials in Tibet and perpetuated their rule of Tibet in this manner. Norbu writes that, although this would have been true for the eastern Tibetan regions of Amdo and Kham's "tr...	[ "Who believed the Ming reappointed old Yuan dynasty officials in Tibet?" ]
332	Laird writes that the Ming appointed titles to eastern Tibetan princes, and that "these alliances with eastern Tibetan principalities are the evidence China now produces for its assertion that the Ming ruled Tibet," despite the fact that the Ming did not send an army to replace the Mongols after they left Tibet. Yiu Yu...	[ "Who did the Ming appoint titles to?", "What didn't the Ming send to replace the Mongols when they left Tibet?", "What does Yiu Yung-chin claim the Ming did not possess?" ]
333	Shih-Shan Henry Tsai writes that the Yongle Emperor sent his eunuch Yang Sanbao into Tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various Tibetan princes, while the Yongle Emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as Nepal and Tibet. However,...	[ "What was the name of the eunuch?", "Where did the Yongle Emperor send Yang Sanbao?", "When did Yongle Emperor send Yang Sanbao into Tibet?", "Why did Yongle Emperor send Yang Sanbao into Tibet?", "Why did the emperor pay a small fortune in gifts?" ]
334	Even though the Gelug exchanged gifts with and sent missions to the Ming court up until the 1430s, the Gelug was not mentioned in the Mingshi or the Mingshi Lu. On this, historian Li Tieh-tseng says of Tsongkhapa's refusal of Ming invitations to visit the Yongle Emperor's court:	[ "Who did the Gelug exchange gifts with?", "Until what year frame did the Gelug exchange gifts with the the Ming?", "What was the Gelug not mentioned in?" ]
335	Wylie asserts that this type of censorship of the History of Ming distorts the true picture of the history of Sino-Tibetan relations, while the Ming court granted titles to various lamas regardless of their sectarian affiliations in an ongoing civil war in Tibet between competing Buddhist factions. Wylie argues that Mi...	[ "Regardless of their sectarian affiliations, who did the Ming grant titles to?", "Who was the viceregal Sakya regime overthrown by?" ]
336	Helmut Hoffman states that the Ming upheld the facade of rule over Tibet through periodic missions of "tribute emissaries" to the Ming court and by granting nominal titles to ruling lamas, but did not actually interfere in Tibetan governance. Melvyn C. Goldstein writes that the Ming had no real administrative authority...	[ "Who believed that the Ming had no real authority over Tibet?", "What years did the Rinpungpa regime start and end?", "Who believed that the titles given to Tibetan leaders did not confer authority?", "What years did the Tsangpa start and end?" ]
337	In his usurpation of the throne from the Jianwen Emperor (r. 1398–1402), the Yongle Emperor was aided by the Buddhist monk Yao Guangxiao, and like his father, the Hongwu Emperor, the Yongle Emperor was "well-disposed towards Buddhism", claims Rossabi. On March 10, 1403, the Yongle Emperor invited Deshin Shekpa, 5th Kar...	[ "What year did the Jianwen Emperor reign start and end?", "Who aided the Yongle Emperor?", "Who was Yongle Emperor's father?", "When did the Yongle Emperor invite Deshin Shekpa to his court?" ]
338	In order to seek out the Karmapa, the Yongle Emperor dispatched his eunuch Hou Xian and the Buddhist monk Zhi Guang (d. 1435) to Tibet. Traveling to Lhasa either through Qinghai or via the Silk Road to Khotan, Hou Xian and Zhi Guang did not return to Nanjing until 1407.	[ "Who did the Yongle Emperor send to Tibet?", "Why did the Yongle Emperor send Hou Xian and Zhi Guang to Tibet?", "When did Hou Xian and Zhi Guang return to Nanjing?", "Where did Hou Xian and Zhi Guang travel through on their way to the Karmapa?" ]
339	During his travels beginning in 1403, Deshin Shekpa was induced by further exhortations by the Ming court to visit Nanjing by April 10, 1407. Norbu writes that the Yongle Emperor, following the tradition of Mongol emperors and their reverence for the Sakya lamas, showed an enormous amount of deference towards Deshin Sh...	[ "When did Deshin Shekpa travels start?", "Where did the Yongle Emperor greet the Karmapa?", "Who did the Emperor give the place of honor at his left to?", "Who sat on a lower platform than the Tibetan cleric?", "Who showed a great amount of respect to Deshin Shekpa?" ]
340	Throughout the following month, the Yongle Emperor and his court showered the Karmapa with presents. At Linggu Temple in Nanjing, he presided over the religious ceremonies for the Yongle Emperor's deceased parents, while twenty-two days of his stay were marked by religious miracles that were recorded in five languages ...	[ "At what temple did the ceremonies for the Yongle Emperor's deceased parents take place?", "Where was the Linggu Temple located?", "What title was Deshin Shekpa given at Nanjing?", "Who did Deshin Shekpa persuade the Yongle Emperor to give the title to?" ]
341	Tibetan sources say Deshin Shekpa also persuaded the Yongle Emperor not to impose his military might on Tibet as the Mongols had previously done. Thinley writes that before the Karmapa returned to Tibet, the Yongle Emperor began planning to send a military force into Tibet to forcibly give the Karmapa authority over al...	[ "Who imposed on the military might on Tibet in the past?", "Hok-Lam Chan states that Deshin Skekpa was only invited for what purpose?", "What was said to be the Yongle Emperor plans?", "Why was the Yongle Emperor said to have been planning to send military forces into Tibet?", "Who convinced the Yongle emp...

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