Fish oil and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) belong to a popular class of food supplements known as “fat supplements”, which are claimed to reduce muscle glycogen breakdown, reduce body mass, as well as reduce muscle damage and inflammatory responses. Sport athletes consume fish oil and CLA mainly to increase lean body mass and reduce body fat. Recent evidence indicates that this kind of supplementation may have other side-effects and a new role has been identified in steroidogenensis. Preliminary findings demonstrate that fish oil and CLA may induce a physiological increase in testosterone synthesis. The aim of this review is to describe the effects of fish oil and CLA on physical performance (endurance and resistance exercise), and highlight the new results on the effects on testosterone biosynthesis. In view of these new data, we can hypothesize that fat supplements may improve the anabolic effect of exercise. Many food supplements claim to induce weight loss by increasing lean body mass or reducing body fat mass, although only a few of these ergogenic aids have been investigated . This reThe class of commercially available fat supplements includes conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), fish oil, long- and medium-chain triacylglycerols. These ergogenic aids are claimed to be associated with a reduction in muscle glycogen breakdown, improved endurance capacity, reduced body mass and a reduction in muscle damage and inflammatory responses . Only twFish oil contains both the omega-3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). They are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) with a double carbon bond starting after the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain ,5, reducThe CLA supplement is a mixture of positional and geometrical conjugated dienoic isomers of linoleic acid which present two double bonds separated by a single bond . These din vitro studies have been cited whenever the information is not available in humans. Recent results suggest a new role of this class of supplementation in testosterone biosynthetic pathways. This review describes the various fat supplements pointing out both the known effects produced by these supplements when associated with exercise, and the new data underlying the molecular mechanisms regulating testosterone biosynthesis. Finally, it is briefly described how these fat supplements may influence physical performance. This review focuses mainly on human studies, although animal and Potential studies were identified by searching electronic databases: PubMed, Cochrane, and Scopus. The search terms used included both single words and combinations of words: CLA, fish oil, testosterone, exercise. Bibliographies were checked and experts were consulted for any additional studies. Studies available as full papers were deemed eligible if they conformed to the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria .Elite and recreational athletes, who participate in various types of physical activity and sports, consume fish oils and CLA supplements to improve their performance, increase training effects, reduce body fat, increase lean body mass, and reduce muscle damage and inflammatory responses. The following paragraph summarizes the main results obtained from trained individuals after integration with fish oil  or CLA , compariOnly a few studies have examined whether fish oil supplementation during training enhances endurance adaptations. These studies conducted in humans show controversial results, but in our opinion this is due to the difference in the level of training of the study participants. In elite or well-trained athletes, the margin of improvement is so inappreciable that it would not be a surprise if small differences in performance parameters were observed; while in sedentary subjects, starting a training program, the improvement in performance is considerable, making a possible small enhancement in performance induced by food supplementation undetectable. Therefore the most reliable results have been observed in trained subjects, who already show adaptations for that specific type of exercise, although still improving their performance.2max), thus improving endurance performance [One of the effects claimed by fish oil is the ability to modify the viscosity of the plasma membrane of red blood cells (RBC), improving their deformability when they pass through the capillary bed ,31,32. Aformance .et al. [2max or exercise performance of well-trained cyclists [2max compared to only training effect, although the supplemented exercised subjects and the supplemented non-exercised subjects showed an increase in the ventilatory aerobic threshold compared to the control [However, literary data are controversial. Oostenbrug et al.  studied cyclists . Others cyclists , well-trcyclists ). Fish ocyclists . Sedenta control . 2max increased significantly and O2 desaturation rate decreased as an effect of fish oil supplementation [The most significant documented results were observed in fit male subjects supplemented with fish oil (6 g/day) for six weeks . Fish oientation .et al. [et al. [n-3 PUFA somministration did not alter inflammatory proteins and plasma cytokines. The results on secondary muscle damage induced by an acute inflammatory response are extremely interesting, and more research is needed before conclusions can be drawn on fish oil supplementation in trained individuals. Omega-3 supplementation may provide benefits by minimizing the recovery time between exercise sessions reducing the inflammatory response localized in muscle tissue as well as the associated delayed-onset of muscle soreness.The extensive literature on the effect of omega-3 supplementation also provides evidence that fish oil is effective in the prevention and treatment of inflammatory conditions . It was et al.  have shoet al. ,23. Niem [et al.  also shoet al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [CLA supplementation may induce a reduction in body weight, this statement is based on results obtained in humans and in animals, even if the effect on humans is less clear than in animals. In many studies CLA supplementation was not associated with any regular and supervised physical activity. Only six studies have been conducted to evaluate the effect of CLA supplementation associated with exercise. Kreider et al.  investig [et al.  after CL [et al. . On the  [et al.  where me [et al.  showed t [et al.  who studWe can conclude that CLA supplementation, associated with resistance training, results in an increase in lean body mass and a decrease in body fat mass only when the subjects are involved in standardized and supervised exercise sessions during the supplementation period.de novo synthesized cholesterol, either intracellular cholesterol esters or extracellular supplies from circulating low-density lipoproteins. Cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone by P450-linked side-chain cleaving enzyme (P450ssc), an inner-membrane protein of mitochondria, that catalyzes the cleavage reaction. Pregnenolone may be converted to progesterone by 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), located in both mitochondria and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, or to 17α-hydroxy pregnenolone by 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450c17). Progesterone may be converted to 17α-hydroxy progesterone, androstenedione and finally to testosterone. Pregnenolone may be converted to 17α-hydroxy pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenediol and testosterone, or it may be converted to progesterone derivates entering a different pathway.In males testosterone is mainly (>95%) synthesized in Leydig cells. Testosterone biosynthesis follows an enzymatic sequence of steps from et al. [et al. .in vitro studies. In fact, it has been shown that dietary fat improves reproductive performance although the molecular mechanism has not yet been elucidated. Among the different theories, there is one that hypothesizes that dietary fat may directly increase steroidogenesis [A new role of fat supplements is starting to be delineated in the scientific community, although the results have been mainly obtained in animals or ogenesis  or direcogenesis ,39. et al. [in testis affecting the testicular concentration of testosterone. Similar results have been obtained in vitro using the H295R human adrenocortical carcinoma cell line treated with cod liver oil, a model to identify chemicals that may alter steroidogenesis. This nutritional supplement derived from the liver of cod fish, like many fish oils, contains high levels of omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA. Castellano et al. , studyinet al. [Montano et al.  showed tin vitro, although a small increase was observed. The limitation of this study was the doses used. In fact, for the in vivo experiments only one dose of CLA supplementation  was admet al. [Similar results were obtained in the ovarian tissue. It has been suggested that one of the mechanisms by which CLA may alter steroidogenesis may be by up- and down-regulating specific genes encoding for enzymes and transport proteins involved in the synthesis of prostaglandin and progesterone. In ovarian tissue, May et al.  showed tAn important mechanism by which testosterone can increase the cross sectional area of the skeletal muscle fiber is the increase in the contractile protein synthesis while unaffecting protein breakdown . The incet al. [The effects of testosterone on human performance have been the objective of studies since the early 1980s , but onlet al.  observedet al. . Moreoveet al. ,59. It het al. , while iet al. . The difet al. . No chanet al. .Testosterone is a steroid hormone with anabolic and anticatabolic effect on muscle tissues, playing a critical function for muscle gain and muscle performance of athletes ,63. It het al. [Differently from fat supplements, the fat ingested with the daily diet may have the potential to alter the regulation and metabolism of testosterone in athletic men . Volek eet al.  showed tet al. . Taking On the other hand, fat supplement side-effects have never been demonstrated and documented. If fat supplements induce an increase in blood testosterone, this may have an effect on several other tissues, among which include stem or progenitor cells . TestostAdditional research on the effect of fish oil and CLA supplementation on enzymes leading to testosterone synthesis are important to clarify the molecular mechanisms by which fat supplements may contribute to increase the anabolic effect of exercise, and the side-effects of this kind of supplementation.


Acupuncture, an age-old healing art, has been accepted to effectively treat various diseases, particularly chronic pain and neurodegenerative diseases. Since its public acceptance and good efficacy, increasing attention has been now paid to exploring the physiological and biochemical mechanisms underlying acupuncture, particularly the brain mechanisms. Basic and clinical acupuncture studies on neurobiological mechanisms of acupuncture are crucial for the development of acupuncture. This issue compiles 32 exciting papers, most of which are very novel and excellent investigations in this field.The neural mechanism underlying acupuncture analgesia was addressed in four articles. J. Wang et al. established a postincisional pain model of rats and investigated electroacupuncture effect on the brain oscillations involving postoperative pain. B.-S. Lim et al., using interesting bee venom acupuncture, explored whether it can relieve oxaliplatin-induced cold allodynia and which endogenous analgesic system is implicated. The paper by Yumi Maeda et al. aimed to evaluate this linkage between brain response to acupuncture and subsequent analgesia in chronic pain patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Since many articles aimed to assess the effect of electroacupuncture induced analgesia, W. Kim et al. systemically conducted a review to assess the efficacy and clarify its mechanism on neuropathic pain. In addition, as a great challenge in acupuncture analgesia and treatment evaluations, D. Zhu et al. outlined the advantages and disadvantages of kinds of acupuncture controls and highlighted how the differences among placebo devices can be used to isolate distinct components of acupuncture treatment.κB signaling pathway. Another two papers mainly focused on the acupuncture modulation of neural mechanism for hypertension regulation with long-term as well as short-term treatments. The paper by G.-H. Tian et al. addressed the long-term electroacupuncture on cerebral microvessels and neurons in CA1 region of hippocampus in spontaneously hypertensive rats. H. Chen et al. aimed to explore the hypothalamus-anchored resting brain network underlying primary hypertension patients after short-term acupuncture treatments. Moreover, for mild cognitive impairments, S. Chen et al. have pointed out that acupuncture at KI3 at different cognitive states and with varying needling depths may induce distinct reorganizations of effective connectivity of brain networks.Five papers deal with potential neural mechanism underlying acupuncture treatments on the stroke, hypertension, and mild cognitive impairments. The paper by L. Liu and R.T.F. Cheung aimed to investigate whether the combination of melatonin and electroacupuncture therapies could be beneficial against transient focal cerebral ischemia in a rat model of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. W. Qin et al. accompanied by L. Liu and R.T.F. Cheung's paper explored the importance of anti-inflammatory acupuncture treatment for the focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion by inhibiting the NF-The neuroendocrine system involving acupuncture has been addressed by the following three papers. Z. Yu et al. has suggested that TRPV1 receptor is partially involved in the electroacupuncture-mediated modulation of gastric motility. The paper by C.-C. Kuo et al. explored the mechanism of electroacupuncture (EAc) induced antinociception involved opioid receptors and the serotonergic system. Q.-Q. Li et al. conducted a systemic review about the central mechanism of acupuncture in modulating various autonomic responses. Moreover, other papers focused on the relatively acupoint specificity from wide aspects. One of the studies by L. Li et al. suggested that both the size and function of the acupoints comply with the functionality of the internal organs; thus the sensitive degree of acupoints changed according to malfunction of internal organs. C.-Y. Chen et al. implied that somatoparasympathetic neuronal connection  and a somatosympathetic neuronal connection  could be the prerequisites to the neuronal basis of the somatovisceral reflex and also the neuronal mechanism of acupuncture. Z. Wang et al. advanced that the modulatory effects of different needling sensations induced by relatively different acupoints contribute to acupuncture modulations of limbic-paralimbic-neocortical network. Although the acupoints were spatially adjacent, there was also relatively functional specificity inflected by brain networks.By gathering these papers, we hope to enrich our readers and researchers with respect to the underlying neurological mechanism of acupuncture, and we look forward to an increasing number of both clinical trials and experimental studies to further promote the development of understanding the neurological mechanism involving acupuncture.Lijun  BaiLijun  BaiRichard  E.  HarrisRichard  E.  HarrisJian  KongJian  KongLixing  LaoLixing  LaoVitaly  NapadowVitaly  NapadowBaixiao  ZhaoBaixiao  Zhao


Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, are a type of pluripotent stem cell derived from adult somatic cells. They have been reprogrammed through inducing genes and factors to be pluripotent. iPS cells are similar to embryonic stem (ES) cells in many aspects. This review summarizes the recent progresses in iPS cell reprogramming and iPS cell based therapy, and describe patient specific iPS cells as a disease model at length in the light of the literature. This review also analyzes and discusses the problems and considerations of iPS cell therapy in the clinical perspective for the treatment of disease.  Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, are a type of pluripotent stem cell derived from adult somatic cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem (ES) cell-like state through the forced expression of genes and factors important for maintaining the defining properties of ES cells.in vitro. Mouse iPS cells from mouse fibroblasts were first reported in 2006 by the Yamanaka lab at Kyoto University . Human iThe breakthrough discovery of iPS cells allow researchers to obtain pluripotent stem cells without the controversial use of embryos, providing a novel and powerful method to "de-differentiate" cells whose developmental fates had been traditionally assumed to be determined. Furthermore, tissues derived from iPS cells will be a nearly identical match to the cell donor, which is an important factor in research of disease modeling and drug screening. It is expected that iPS cells will help researchers learn how to reprogram cells to repair damaged tissues in the human body.The purpose of this paper is to summarize the recent progresses in iPS cell development and iPS cell-based therapy, and describe patient specific iPS cells as a disease model, analyze the problems and considerations of iPS therapy in the clinical treatment of disease. 1. It was first demonstrated that genomic integration and high expression of four factors, Oct4/Sox2/Klf4/c-Myc or Oct4/Sox2/Nanog/LIN28 by virus, can reprogram fibroblast cells into iPS cells [The methods of reprogramming somatic cells into iPS cells are summarized in Table PS cells .  Later,et al., [et al., [Various growth factors and chemical compounds have recently been found to improve the induction efficiency of iPS cells. Shi et al.,  demonstr[et al., , 7 reporet al. showed that mouse neural stem cells, expressing high endogenous levels of Sox2, can be reprogrammed into iPS cells by transduction Oct4 together with either Klf4 or c-Myc [et al., [Kim or c-Myc . This su[et al.,  demonstret al. [1).  Retroviruses are being extensively used to reprogram somatic cells into iPS cells. They are effective for integrating exogenous genes into the genome of somatic cells to produce both mouse and human iPS cells. However, retroviral vectors may have significant risks that could limit their use in patients. Permanent genetic alterations, due to multiple retroviral insertions, may cause retrovirus-mediated gene therapy as seen in treatment of severe combined immunodeficiency . Second,et al.  reportedet al. [et al. [et al. [et al., [et al. [et al., [via transfection of human adipocyte stromal cells with a nonviral minicircle DNA by repeated transfection. This produced hiPS cells colonies from an adipose tissue sample in about 4 weeks. Stadtfeld et al.  used an  [et al.  used Sen [et al.  repeated[et al.,  reprogra [et al.  demonstr[et al.,  derived et al. [When iPS cells generated from either plasmid transfection or episomes were carefully analyzed to identify random vector integration, it was possible to have vector fragments integrated somewhere. Thus, reprogramming strategies entirely free of DNA-based vectors are being sought. In April 2009, it was shown that iPS cells could be generated using recombinant cell-penetrating reprogramming proteins . Zhou etet al.  purifiedet al. over-expressed reprogramming factor proteins in HEK293 cells. Whole cell proteins of the transduced HEK293 were extracted and used to culture fibroblast six times within the first week. After eight weeks, five cell lines had been established at a yield of 0.001%, which is one-tenth of viral reprogramming efficiency. Strikingly, Warren et al., [A similar approach has also been demonstrated to be able to generate human iPS cells from neonatal fibroblasts . Kim et  et al.,  demonstrStrenuous efforts are being made to improve the reprogramming efficiency and to establish iPS cells with either substantially fewer or no genetic alterations. Besides reprogramming vectors and factors, the reprogramming efficiency is also affected by the origin of iPS cells.2). Besides mouse and human somatic cells, iPS cells from other species have been successfully generated (Table 3).A number of somatic cells have been successfully reprogrammed into iPS cells . The properties and safety of these iPS cells should be carefully examined before they can be used for treatment. The cell source of iPS cells is important for patients as well. It is important to carefully evaluate clinically available sources. Human iPS cells have been successfully generated from adipocyte derived stem cells , amniocyet al. [via retroviral transduction of Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and L-Myc. Miyoshi et al., [via the retroviral gene transfer of Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4. Reprogrammed cells showed ES-like morphology and expressed undifferentiated markers. Yan et al., [et al. [et al. [Shimada et al.  demonstr et al.,  generate et al.,  demonstr et al., . Anchan  [et al.  describe [et al.  derived in vitro and in teratomas. The ability to reprogram cells from human somatic cells or blood will allow investigating the mechanisms of the specific human diseases.All of the human iPS cells described here are indistinguishable from human ES cells with respect to morphology, expression of cell surface antigens and pluripotency-associated transcription factors, DNA methylation status at pluripotent cell-specific genes and the capacity to differentiate in vitro, and cell therapy effects of implanted iPS cells have been demonstrated in several animal models of disease.The iPS cell technology provides an opportunity to generate cells with characteristics of ES cells, including pluripotency and potentially unlimited self-renewal. Studies have reported a directed differentiation of iPS cells into a variety of functional cell types in vitro and in vivo. Mauritz [in vitro through embryonic body formation. Rufaihah [et al. derived endothelial cells from human iPS cells, and showed that transplantation of these endothelial cells resulted in increased capillary density in a mouse model of peripheral arterial disease. Nelson et al. [et al. [in vitro. The beating cells expressed early and late cardiac-specific markers. In vivo studies showed extensive survival of iPS and iPS-derived cardiomyocytes in mouse hearts after transplantation in a mouse experimental model of acute myocardial infarction. The iPs derived cardiomyocyte transplantation attenuated infarct size and improved cardiac function without tumorgenesis, while tumors were observed in the direct iPS cell transplantation animals. A few studies have demonstrated the regenerative potential of iPS cells for three cardiac cells: cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells  Mauritz  and Zhan Mauritz  independRufaihah , et al. n et al.  demonstr [et al.  demonstret al. [et al. [Strategies to enhance the purity of iPS derived cardiomyocytes and to exclude the presence of undifferentiated iPS are required. Implantation of pre-differentiation or guided differentiation of iPS would be a safer and more effective approach for transplantation. Selection of cardiomyocytes from iPS cells, based on signal-regulatory protein alpha (SIRPA) or combined with vascular cell adhesion protein-1 (VCAM-1), has been reported. Dubois et al.  first de [et al.  adopted Regeneration of functional β cells from human stem cells represents the most promising approach for treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). This may also benefit the patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) who need exogenous insulin. At present, technology for reprogramming human somatic cell into iPS cells brings a remarkable breakthrough in the generation of insulin-producing β cells.Human ES cells can be directed to become fully developed β cells and it is expected that iPS cells could also be similarly differentiated. Stem cell based approaches could also be used for modulation of the immune system in T1DM, or to address the problems of obesity and insulin resistance in T2DM. et al., [et al., [in vivo. Tateishi et al.,  demonstr[et al.,  reportedet al. [Alipo et al.  used mouin vitro iPS cell differentiation into functional insulin-producing β-like cells is low. Thus, it is highly essential to develop a safe, efficient, and easily scalable differentiation protocol before its clinical application. In addition, it is also important that insulin-producing b-like cells generated from the differentiation of iPS cells have an identical phenotype resembling that of adult human pancreatic β cells in vivo. Although significant progress has been made in differentiating pluripotent stem cells to β-cells, several hurdles remain to be overcome. It is noted in several studies that the general efficiency of et al. [et al. [et al. [Currently, the methodology of neural differentiation has been well established in human ES cells and shown that these methods can also be applied to iPS cells. Chambers et al.  demonstr [et al.  used a c [et al.  providedet al., [Wernig et al.,  showed tet al., [Tsuji et al.,  used preet al., [in vitro drug screen for treatment of PD.Hargus et al.,  demonstrReprogramming technology is being applied to derive patient specific iPS cell lines, which carry the identical genetic information as their patient donor cells. This is particularly interesting to understand the underlying disease mechanism and provide a cellular and molecular platform for developing novel treatment strategy.in vitro model of pathogenesis (Table 4). This provides an innovative way to explore the molecular mechanisms of diseases. Human iPS cells derived from somatic cells, containing the genotype responsible for the human disease, hold promise to develop novel patient-specific cell therapies and research models for inherited and acquired diseases. The differentiated cells from reprogrammed patient specific human iPS cells retain disease-related phenotypes to be an Recent studies have reported the derivation and differentiation of disease-specific human iPS cells, including autosomal recessive disease  , cardiacet al., [Human iPS cells have been reprogrammed from spinal muscular atrophy, an autosomal recessive disease. Ebert et al.,  generateet al., [et al., [et al., [Similarly, three other groups reported their findings on the use of iPS cells derived cardiomyocytes (iPSCMs) as disease models for LQTS type-2 (LQTS2). Itzhaki et al.,  obtained[et al.,  demonstr[et al.,  also sucet al. [LQTS3 has been recapitulated in mouse iPS cells . Malan eet al.  generateet al. [Human iPS cells have been used to recapitulate diseases of blood disorder. Ye et al.  demonstret al., [Raya et al.,  reportedet al., [in vitro, which mimic the pathological phenotype of T1DM. This will lead to better understanding of the mechanism of T1DM and developing effective cell replacement therapeutic strategy. Maehr et al.,  demonstret al., [IKBKAP in vitro, while neural crest precursors showed low levels of normal IKBKAP transcript. Transcriptome analysis and cell-based assays revealed marked defects in neurogenic differentiation and migration behavior. All these recaptured familial Dysautonomia pathogenesis, suggesting disease specificity of the with familial Dysautonomia human iPS cells. Furthermore, they validated candidate drugs in reversing and ameliorating neuronal differentiation and migration. This study illustrates the promise of disease specific iPS cells for gaining new insights into human disease pathogenesis and treatment.Lee et al.,  reportedet al., [et al., [Human iPS cells derived reprogrammed from patients with inherited neurodegenerative diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis  and Huntet al.,  showed t[et al.,  derived Disease specific somatic cells derived from patient-specific human iPS cells will generate a wealth of information and data that can be used for genetically analyzing the disease. The genetic information from disease specific-iPS cells will allow early and more accurate prediction and diagnosis of disease and disease progression. Further, disease specific iPS cells can be used for drug screening, which in turn correct the genetic defects of disease specific iPS cells. in vitro. However, much remains to be done to use these cells for clinical therapy. A better understanding of epigenetic alterations and transcriptional activity associated with the induction of pluripotency and following differentiation is required for efficient generation of therapeutic cells. Long-term safety data must be obtained to use human iPS cell based cell therapy for treatment of disease. iPS cells appear to have the greatest promise without ethical and immunologic concerns incurred by the use of human ES cells. They are pluripotent and have high replicative capability. Furthermore, human iPS cells have the potential to generate all tissues of the human body and provide researchers with patient and disease specific cells, which can recapitulate the disease


Dear Editor,I read with interest a nice paper by Zidan et al. about viral hepatitis as etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Iran and the world . They ha


My comments on Haig’s updating of Blurton Jones and da Costa’s  hypotheset al. [et al. [Haig’s hypothesis predicts that ‘Maximal night-waking … will … overlap with the greatest benefits of contraceptive suckling. Consistent with this expectation, infant sleep becomes more fragmented after six months and then gradually consolidates.’ Night wakings and sleep consolidation, however, are known to follow significantly different courses during the first year of life dependent on attachment classifications of the infants. For example, McNamara et al.  reported [et al.  recentlyIt may be that infants with insecure avoidant orientations adopt a strategy of NOT attempting to prolong IBI so that the Blurton-Jones/daCosta/Haig hypothesis applies only to infants with insecure resistant orientations. Optimal IBIs may differ for mother–infant dyads depending on both attachment status and ecologic context. In environments with high mortality rates parents should pursue an opportunistic reproductive strategy aimed at greater numbers of offspring appearing at shorter IBIs and receiving lower levels of investment (e.g. reduced nursing) resulting in fewer night wakings and greater numbers of avoidant attachment orientations.r REM [et al. [Most night wakings emerge from active sleep or REM . If nigh [et al. , 12 made [et al. . Infant  [et al. . The suc [et al. , 22. Wheet al. [Assuming that AS/REM is differentially influenced by genes of paternal origin then both REM properties and REM-associated awakenings can be better explained by mechanisms of genomic conflict than by traditional claims that REM functions as an anti-predator ‘sentinel’ for the sleeping organism. Capellini et al. , using pIf properties and functions of AS/REM are better explained as due to the influence of genes of paternal origin , then AS/REM sleep in the infant should, according to genomic conflict theory, function to extract resources from the mother consistent with getting paternal line genes into the next generation. As we have seen REM is associated with night wakings and suckling behaviors in the infant. Although REM percent of total sleep declines with age it nevertheless persists into the adult stage. What about the functions of REM sleep in the adult? REM indices appears to vary with attachment (reproductive) strategies in the adult  but littConflict of interest: None declared.


The progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains one of the main challenges in clinical nephrology. Therefore, identifying the pathophysiological mechanisms and the independent preventable risk factors helps in decreasing the number of patients suffering end stage renal disease and slowing its progression.Smoking data was analyzed in patients with CKD throughout 2005-2009. One hundred and ninety-eight patients who had recently been diagnosed with stage three CKD or higher according to the National Kidney Foundation (NKF) 2002 Classification were studied. The control group was randomly selected and then matched with the case subjects using a computerized randomization technique. The relative risk was estimated by computing odds ratio (OR) by using multinomial logistic regression in SPSS ® for Windows between the two groups.p = 0.009, 95% CI = 1.12-2.29). When compared to nonsmokers, current smokers have an increased risk of having CKD , while former smokers did not have a statistically significant difference. The risk increased with high cumulative quantity . Smoking increased the risk of CKD the most for those classified as hypertensive nephropathy  and diabetic nephropathy . No statistically significant difference in risk was found for glomerulonephritis patients or any other causes.Smoking significantly increases the risk of CKD (OR = 1.6, This study suggests that heavy cigarette smoking increases the risk of CKD overall and particularly for CKD classified as hypertensive nephropathy and diabetic nephropathy. Smoking, a well known risk factor for many diseases, was recently proven to play an important role in renal diseases. Studies showed that cigarette smoking is a risk factor for the development and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in community ,2. In thSince urinary albumin is a sensitive marker of glomerular injury , it is cThis study aims to investigate the relationship between cigarette smoking and chronic kidney disease, and its effects on each type of renal failure.2  2002 classification) [2) and a urine protein creatinine ratio less than 0.15 [A cross-sectional study of 198 patients with CKD and 371 healthy control subjects were matched and studied. Cases were patients admitted or referred to one of the three tertiary hospitals affiliated with Aleppo university during 2005-2009 and newly diagnosed with CKD with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of less than 60 mg/minute/1.73 mication) . Patienthan 0.15 . A regishttp://www.who.int. To reduce the probability that symptoms of early CKD are influenced by tobacco use, the classification of former versus current tobacco use was based on smoking status 5 years before the interview. Regular cigarette smoking was defined as smoking at least one cigarette per day for six months or more. Regular smokers were classified into either current regular smokers if they smoked during the last five years or former regular smokers if they quit more than five years ago. Tobacco consumption was measured with a pack per year formula.The U.S. National Library of Medicine, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) define smoking as inhaling and exhaling the smoke of tobacco or something similar to tobacco available at ®  for Microsoft Windows®, using multinomial logistic regression. We studied smoking as a relative risk for CKD, and then we studied former versus current smoking for the same purpose. The next step was to determine the relative risk of smoking for each type of renal disease. We studied analgesic (aspirin or paracetamol) use, body mass index (BMI), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) use, and hypertension (HTN) as confounding factors; however these factors were excluded from the final model because their inclusion did not affect the risk estimates.As an estimate of the relative risk for CKD among tobacco users compared with non-smokers, we computed odds ratios (OR) in terms of SPSSOne hundred and ninety-eight patients and 371 healthy participants as the control group were included. The most used tobacco form was as a cigarette, so we ignored pipe and snuff usage.Fifty one percent of case subjects and 49% of control subjects were men Table . The mea2. Forty five and a half percent of cases had glomerulonephritis as a cause for their CKD, 28.3% diabetic nephropathy, 13.1% hypertensive nephropathy, and 13.1% had an unknown or other causes for CKD.A majority of the patients were in The National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (NKF KDOQI ™ stage 3 and 4 . Seventyp = 0.009) and , respectively. The risk of CKD did not reach a significant level for former regular smokers . This risk was obviously increased with the tobacco consumption, with OR = 2.6, CI 95% 1.53-4.41, p = 0.00 for more than 30 pack/year, and OR = 2.04, CI 95% 1.08-3.88, p = 0.02 for 16-30 pack/year compared to those who had never regularly smoked  and diabetic nephropathy . This association did not reach a significant level for risk of CKD caused by glomerulonephritis  and the other causes of CKD . The control subjects were gathered from the same socioeconomic background. We did not find any influence by body mass index, hypertension and analgesic use on the final results.Table We found an important statistically significant risk of CKD caused by smoking in hypertensive nephropathy and diabetic nephropathy patients and a weak, statistically insignificant association between smoking and CKD caused by glomerulonephritis.et al. [Many studies indicate that the deleterious effect of smoking on renal function is not merely restricted to essential hypertension and diabetic nephropathy. Some of these studies found that smoking is an independent predictor of microalbuminuria in healthy patients with primary hypertension. It is well known that urinary albumin is a sensitive marker of glomerular injury , and theet al.  studied et al. ,19. Multet al. ,21. Suchet al. [et al. [et al. [Smoking causes kidney deterioration in diabetic patients with adverse effects on four different aspects of albumin excretion: It increases the risk of microalbuminuria, shortenet al.  reported [et al.  calculat [et al.  which coet al. [To determine the risk factors for noninsulin dependent diabetes in a cohort representative of middle aged British men, Perry et al.  conducteet al. .et al. [et al. [Another question would be the effect of smoking cessation on kidney function. In patients with IDDM, Chase et al.  found th [et al.  studied et al. [One of the other diseases that exacerbate with smoking is autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), Chapman et al.  found thet al. . The medet al. .et al. [et al. [Appel et al.  studied  [et al.  stated tet al. [et al. [A previous, hospital-based case-control study  found a et al.  reported [et al.  did not  [et al. .et al. [The increment of GFR induced by smoking may play a role in the genesis of hyperfiltration as a potential mediator of accelerated progression of chronic renal disease ,35. Pawlet al.  studied et al. ,38. On tet al. -41.Smoking also alters the proximal tubular function leading to increased excretion of N-acetyl-f3-glucosaminidase (NAG) and impairment of organic cation transport  which coIn conclusion, our study found that smoking, particularly heavy smoking (> 30 pack/year), is an important risk factor to the development of CKD. The association was strongest for CKD classified as hypertension and diabetic nephropathy. These results raise the importance of smoking cessation to decrease the incidence of CKD and other preventable diseases as COPD, coronary artery diseases, and cancers.The authors declare that they have no competing interests.RY is the principle investigator, participated is study design, data analysis, data collection and manuscript preparation. HH participated on study design, data collection and manuscript preparation. AL participated in study design and manuscript preparation. RAA participated in data analysis and manuscript preparation. LV participated in data analysis and manuscript preparation. GA participated in data collection and manuscript preparation. NKA participated in data collection and manuscript preparation. SA participated in data collection. SAA participated in data collection. SAB is the supervisor, participated in study design and manuscript preparation.All authors read and approved the final manuscript.The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/10/731/prepub


Electronic noses (E-noses) use various types of electronic gas sensors that have partial specificity. This review focuses on commercial and experimental E-noses that use metal oxide semi-conductors. The review covers quality control applications to food and beverages, including determination of freshness and identification of contaminants or adulteration. Applications of E-noses to a wide range of foods and beverages are considered, including: meat, fish, grains, alcoholic drinks, non-alcoholic drinks, fruits, milk and dairy products, olive oils, nuts, fresh vegetables and eggs. A third category is based on artificial neural networks (ANN). A neural network consists of a set of interconnected processing algorithms functioning in parallel. On a very simplified and abstract level, ANN is based on the cognitive process of the human brain [The two main components of an electronic nose (E-nose) are the sensing system and the automated pattern recognition system. The sensing system can be an array of several different sensing elements or a single device or a combination of both. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) presented to the sensor array produces a signature or pattern which is characteristic of the vapor. By presenting many different chemicals to the sensor array, a database of signatures can be build up. Data analysis and pattern recognition (PARC) in particular, are also fundamental parts of any sensor array system. There are a variety of PARC methods available which can be categorized in three classes. The choice of the method depends on available data and the type of result that is required. Graphical analysis with bar charts, profiles polar and offset polar plots are simple forms of data treatment that may be used with an electronic nose. A second way of analysing E-nose signals is by means of multivariate analysis. Multivariate analysis generally involves data reduction. It reduces high dimensionality in a multivariate problem where variables are partly correlated, allowing the information to be displayed in a smaller dimension. There are many multivariate techniques to choose from: principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CLA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), partial least squares (PLS), an brain ,2.2) doped with a small amount of a catalytic metal such as palladium or platinum. By changing the choice of catalyst and operating conditions, tin dioxide resistive sensors have been developed for a range of applications. Materials with improved performance with respect to relative humidity variations have been found by empirical experimentation [2) and tungsten oxide (WO3).Gas sensors, based on the chemical sensitivity of metal oxide semi-conductors (MOS), are readily available commercially. They have been more widely used to make arrays for odor measurement than any other class of gas sensors . Althougentation . TitaniuIn addition to variations in the composition of MOS sensor materials, the metal oxide film deposition is an important variable governing sensor performance design . Deposit2 is coated onto the outside of the tube with any catalytic additives. Gas samples are sensed by the change in the electrical resistance of the metal oxide semi-conductor. Resistance changes due to combustion reactions occurring within the lattice oxygen species on the surface of metal oxide particles [p or n type. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the material's majority carrier. N types are semi-conducting materials, which are doped with atoms capable of providing extra conduction electrons to the host material. This creates an excess of negative (n-type) electron charge carriers. P type semi-conductor (p for positive) is obtained by carrying out a process of doping, that is adding a certain type of atoms to the semi-conductor in order to increase the number of free charge carriers (in this case positive). For p type oxides, an increase in the resistance is found in the presence of reducing gases, while the resistance decreases in response to oxidizing gases; n-type oxides show opposite behavior [n type oxides are SnO2 and WO3; and a p-type oxide is CTO.The sensor usually comprises a ceramic support tube containing a platinum heater coil onto which sintered SnOarticles . The sigbehavior . ExampleAn electronic nose can detect and estimate odors quickly though it has little or no resemblance to animal noses. Sensors used in E-noses are less independent and are more narrowly tuned to certain VOCs, compared with olfactory receptors from invertebrate animals like fruit flies . AlthougThis review article focuses on the use of MOS-based electronic noses for food applications, the technical limitations for some applications and the different approaches undertaken to overcome them. Problems that have been tried to solve with MOS-based electronic noses are those related to quality control, monitoring process, aging, geographical origin, adulteration, contamination and spoilage .2.2.1.et al. [2 based Taguchi type sensors . Compared to MOS sensors, MOSFETs rely on a change of electrostatic potential and they are based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all other device regions by a gate dielectric layer which in the case of a MOSFET is an oxide, such as silicon dioxide [et al. [Salmonella typhimurium using a metal oxide based electronic nose. The E-nose housed seven thick film SnO2 MOS sensors . Microbiological measures as a standard method to determine spoilage level included Salmonella counts and total aerobic counts. The average prediction accuracy of the E-nose responses was 69.4% using step-wise linear regression principal components (PC) as input. The accuracy of predicting was improved to 83% when using independent components (IC). PCA is a second-order linear transformation method of data representation which assumes that data follows a Gaussian distribution and uses the variance within the data set to estimate the transform. IC analysis is a relatively new multivariate data analysis that assumes data is non-Gaussian and uses data density information to estimate the transform [Meat is an ideal growth medium for several groups of pathogenic bacteria. Estimation of meat safety and quality is usually based on microbial cultures. Bacterial strain identification requires a number of different growth conditions and biochemical tests with overnight or large incubation periods and skilled personnel, which means that testing may not be frequently performed. Other methods of determining meat safety involve quantifying volatile compounds associated with the growth of microorganisms on meat but these are also time consuming –18. Winqet al.  evaluate [et al.  evaluateransform .et al. [Vernat-Rossi et al.  studied i.e., non-castrated males, is discouraged because of the unpleasant cooking odor known as “boar taint”. 5a-Androst-16-en-3-one (5a-An) has been identified as the main compound responsible for the urine like-odor associated with boar taint [et al. [Although most applications of metal oxide semi-conductors based sensors in meat have been focused on rapid methods for detecting spoilage by bacterial contamination, some work has also been conducted to determine the presence of off-flavors in meat. In many countries pork production from intact, ar taint , with 3-ar taint . Bourrou [et al.  used 14 2.2.et al. [Freshness is the most important factor for fish quality. Traditionally, fish quality evaluation has been based on organoleptic tests. This type of testing is subjective even when performed by experienced and well-trained personnel. Gas chromatography has revealed that many volatile compounds are released from degrading fish, some of which can be used as indicators of spoilage. Electronic nose are suitable instruments for measuring fish freshness since a large number of volatile compounds are related to “offness” . Olafsdoet al.  employedThe same E-nose was later used to control processing of smoked salmon in a production plant . It was et al. [Sardines have also been the subject of research with the metal oxide semi-conductor sensors. El Barbri et al.  developeet al.  later in2.3.It is in the area of milk and other dairy products that there has been extensive research in evaluating electronic noses for monitoring the quality of these products. Areas of research have ranged from detecting adulteration/contamination of milk to determining the geographical origins of cheese. A list of reported applications is given below.2.3.1.etc. [et al. [Liquid milk is an essential nutritional food for infants. Adulteration of milk with water is a matter of serious concern because of the lower nutritional value provided to consumers. The dairy industry employs various quality checks which include the determination of fat and total solids by chemical or physical analyses; estimation of sediment; determination of bacterial count, determination of freezing point, protein, etc. . However [et al.  monitoreet al. [Another area related to milk quality and safety is the detection of contaminants, including aflatoxins, in milk. Benedetti et al.  studied et al. . Factorset al. . Great eet al. . QMB are2.3.2.2 thin films, prepared using sol-gel technology, was used to measure the development of rancidity in UHT and pasteurized milk during 8 and 3 days, respectively. The sensors could distinguish between both types of milk as well as determine the degree of rancidity of milks  . E-nosesof milks . Labrech , mass spectrometer system (MS), MOSFET and a set of MOS . On thei2.3.4.Lactococcus lactis strains isolated from Nature for the production of aroma in cheeses and other dairy products [Lactococcus lactis strains as cheese starter cultures [Lactococcus lactis were isolated from dairy sources such as boutique raw-milk cheeses, non-dairy sources, and commercial starter cultures . PCA based on E-nose data revealed four distinctive groups based on aroma profiles that were not correlated with their origin, which also agreed with the results of the sensory analysis.There is a strong interest in exploring the potential of novel products . A MOS-bcultures . Twenty-2.3.5.Emmental cheese can develop a “rind taste” off-flavor that can be identified by tasting the cheese at the hoop side (curved side). The components responsible for this off-flavor are often not eliminated during manufacturing, and so may therefore be present in the final product. Cheese loaves must therefore be treated carefully during ripening in order to avoid this problem. The cut pieces are either used fresh or stored in a freezer room which slows down the oxidation process. Attempts to identify the volatile basis of “rind taste” using GC-MS have been unsuccessful . Tainted2.3.6.A study on the discrimination of caseinates from different origins was conducted with an E-nose  . PCA and2.4.et al. [One of the main concerns of the egg industry is the systematic determination of egg freshness, because some consumers perceive variability in freshness as lack of quality . The modet al.  used fouet al. [et al. [i.e., Haugh unit and yolk factor (ratio of yolk height and width), using E-nose responses indicated a good prediction performance  are highly toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, mainly the genus cotoxins . Because [et al.  employed [et al.  demonstret al. [2 semi-conductors. Prediction of the degree of ‘mold/musty’ odor was also included in the study. The E-nose correctly classified 75% of samples according to the four descriptors. Ninety percent of the samples could be correctly assigned using a two-class system ‘good’ and ‘bad’. These values exceed the levels of agreement between two human grain inspectors classifying the same samples. Jonsson at al. [−1, respectively.Other applications of E-nose to grains include measuring off-odors indicative of past or ongoing microbial deterioration ,53. Borjet al.  tried to2.6.et al. [835 E-nose with six thin film MOS sensors was tested for its ability to determine microbial contamination in canned peeled tomatoes [Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli) as well as classify spoiled tomato samples with high fidelity.The aroma of fruits and vegetables are either formed during ripening or upon tissue disruption, which occurs after maceration, blending or homogenization. Many volatile compounds are naturally formed by enzymes found in the intact tissue of fruits and vegetables. They originate from secondary metabolites with various biosynthetic pathways. The characteristic aroma of fruits is an important factor in their overall acceptance by the consumer. For many years human senses have been the primary “instrument” that has been used to determine fruit quality. More recently, techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) have been used to characterize the volatile profiles of fruits and vegetables. However, it is neither feasible nor practical to use techniques such as GC-MS or sensory panel to assess cultivars or product found at storage stations. Consequently, E-noses have the potential to fill this gap since they are a rapid, transportable and an objective measurement tool for aroma analysis. Gomez et al.  evaluatetomatoes . Tomatoeet al. [et al. [Other fruits including blueberries, melons, snake fruit and mandarins have been evaluated by MOS-based electronic noses either to predict the optimal harvest day (OHD) or to monitor shelf life. Blueberry is a highly perishable fruit that must be processed properly and with care otherwise it can develop damage such as cracks, leaks, soft spoilage, which will be apparent to the consumer. Simon et al.  were ablet al. . For manet al. . In contet al. . In a diet al. ,61. OHD  [et al.  suggeste [et al. . Likewis [et al. ,64.2.7.et al. [Virgin olive oils (VOO), and in particular, extra-virgin olive oils (EVOO), are produced using cold pressing techniques. They are sought-after olive oil product because of their aroma, taste, antioxidant, and nutritional properties. The cultivation of olive trees, harvesting of the fruit, and extraction of olive oil are labor intensive and time consuming tasks which add considerably to the overall cost of the oil. Attempts to adulterate VOO with less expensive vegetable oils or lower quality olive oils are thus by no means rare. Not only does this practice defraud consumers, but also constitutes a threat to the reputation and economic development of Mediterranean agricultural communities . Aroma iet al.  used an et al. [2 = 0.97 and 0.98 for Spanish and Italian VOO, respectively). The same E-nose was evaluated for its capacity to detect other attributes in olive oils like “rancid” and “fusty” [Other common problems in olive oils are defects caused by chemical taints, mainly volatiles. These may be formed from a number of sources. These include oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, overripe fruit, molds or bacterial contamination. Trained panels are commonly used to evaluate these defects. Indeed, regulators in the European Union and the International Olive Oil Council (IOOC)  have adoet al.  studied  “fusty” . In this2.8.2 and foam formation when the samples are heated for headspace sampling. Different approaches have been tested to liberate CO2 such as NaCl addition at low temperature [While metal oxide semi-conductors are probably the most widely used of the E-nose sensors, they have still some significant limitations when applied to alcoholic drinks. MOS responses depend logarithmically on the concentration of analyte gases. In the presence of very high concentrations of analyte, such as ethanol in alcoholic beverages, sensors become saturated and mask the responses to other volatile compounds. Consequently, samples tend to be differentiated on the basis of variations in ethanol content rather than the other volatile compounds which are responsible for the aroma . Severalperature , nitrogeperature  or simplperature . Notwith2.8.1.et al. [3) semi-conductor thin film sensors. Static headspace sampling (SHS) was used to sample the volatile compounds above the wine sample. Although SHS, as recognized by the authors [et al. [i.e., chemical analysis, E-nose, Etongue and color measurements) correctly classified 100% of wines into their region. The error rate using only E-nose responses was not disclosed. Berna et al. [Discrimination of wines is not an easy task due to the complexity and heterogeneity of the headspace. However, classification of wines is an economically important application because of high value of wines from specific geographical regions and also the need to prevent illegal substitution or adulteration. Current methods to evaluate wines include sensory analysis but, because of its high cost, E-noses have been evaluated as an alternative. Penza et al.  tested t authors , is very authors  employed [et al.  employeda et al.  comparedet al. [2.Di Natale et al. , 88 empl2.8.2.et al. [et al. [et al. [Aging of wines and beers allows desirable flavors and aromas to develop and off-flavor notes to diminish. Volatile chemicals are an important component of wine and beer flavor and it is desirable to monitor them through aging. Garcia et al.  analyzed [et al.  used 20  [et al.  attempte2.8.3.et al. [et al. [et al. [2 based MOS sensors . Without the removal of the ethanol content (similar in each sample), it was impossible to discriminate beer brands  and 4-ethylguaiacol (4EG). Typically these taints are described as “barnyard”, “sweaty saddle” and “band-aid” when present in red wine at concentrations of several hundred μg L−1 or more. Using nylon membranes to remove ethanol, Berna et al. [−1 for 4EP and 91 μg L−1 for 4EG , housing six thin-film semi-conductor MOS, to monitor the ripening or seasoning process of commercial coffee blends, made from 12 different types of monocultivar Arabica coffee. Although the authors focused on the investigation of sampling conditions and feature selection for improving classification performance, the results showed that EOS835 was suitable to monitor coffee blends during the seasoning process. Only two sensors performed adequately for this application.Falasconi et al.  used a n2.10.et al. [Cichorium intybus) and carrots (Daucus carota). PCA of the data demonstrated that E-nose responses correlated well with classical evaluation of vegetable spoilage, i.e., microbial population and color index. E-nose is therefore a suitable tool for monitoring the storage of these products.Electronic noses have also been evaluated for their ability to measure shelf life of products like nuts and fresh cut vegetables ,105. Becet al.  used an et al. [Staphylococcus and one of Micrococcus. These microbes are of interest since they have been reported to be present in fermented sausages [Discrimination of bacterial species is also of interest to the food industry although E-noses have not been extensively investigated in this application. Rossi et al.  looked asausages . Factori3.i.e., these laboratory-based assays are moved into the industry, a number of challenges still need to be met; these are to properly assess various characteristics of electronic nose performance, including drift, humidity influence, redundancy of sensors, selectivity and signal to noise ratio. Although new sensor materials and designs, and correction algorithms that can be applied for each sensor, are being reported, the major limitation of currently available MOS sensors remains their independence and selectivity. Sensors with poor selectivity affect adversely the discriminating power of the array. Additionally, with the technology developed so far, it is unrealistic to envisage a universal electronic nose that is able to cope with every odour type as specific data processing and, sometimes instrumentation, must be designed for each application.Potential applications in odour assessment by electronic noses in the food area are numerous; they have been used for quality control, monitoring process, aging, determination of geographical origin, adulteration, contamination and spoilage. In most cases classification of samples was above 85%, but, before these specific applications can become a reality,


Mitochondria are intracellular organelles that play a crucial role in energy metabolism. Most cell energy is obtained through mitochondrial metabolic pathways, especially the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain which is the main site for production of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals. Brain tissue is highly sensitive to oxidative stress due to its high oxygen consumption, iron and lipid contents, and low activity of antioxidant defenses. Thus, energy metabolism impairment and oxidative stress are important events that have been related to the pathogenesis of diseases affecting the central nervous system.In the present issue, the pathogenesis of common Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's (PD) diseases is addressed in five papers. Mondragón-Rodríguez et al. proposed that phosphorylated tau protein could play the role of potential connector and that a combined therapy involving antioxidants and check points for synaptic plasticity during early stages of the disease could become a viable therapeutic option for AD treatment. This paper is accompanied by a study by T. Rohn that explores the potential role that the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) normally plays and how loss of function may contribute to AD pathogenesis by enhancing oxidative stress and inflammation within the central nervous system. Additionally, O. Myhre et al. review the possible impact of environmental exposures in metal dyshomeostasis and inflammation in AD and PD. Furthermore, T. Omura et al. explore recent studies on the mechanism of endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced neuronal death related to PD, focusing on the involvement of human ubiquitin ligase HRD1 in the prevention of neuronal death as well as a potential therapeutic approach for PD based on the upregulation of HRD1. Lastly, S. Matsuda et al. showed a concise overview on the cellular functions of the mitochondrial kinase PINK1 and the relationship between Parkinsonism and mitochondrial dynamics, with particular emphasis on a mitochondrial damage response pathway and mitochondrial quality control.Three of the papers deal with aspects of oxidative stress implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. W. Liu et al. reviewed the current literature on the effects of oxidative stress due to exhaustive training on uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) and Bcl-2/Bax in rat skeletal muscles. A.-M. Enciu et al. explore the possibility of oxidative-induced molecular mechanisms of blood-brain barrier disruption and tight junction protein expression alteration, in relation to aging and neurodegeneration. Moreover, M. Tajes et al. suggest that peroxynitrite induces cell death and is a very harmful agent in brain ischemia.β-synuclein, suggesting that α- and β-synucleins might play differential roles in the mitochondrial pathology of α-synucleinopathies. The paper by P. F. Schuck et al. showed that trans-glutaconic acid is toxic to brain cells in vitro, by causing alterations in cell ion balance and probably neurotransmission, as well as oxidative stress in rat cerebral cortex. To complete the issue, M. J. Rodríguez et al. discuss the mitochondrial KATP channel as a new target to control microglia activity, avoid its toxic phenotype, and facilitate a positive disease outcome. Fortes et al. showed that 5TIO1 can protect the brain against neuronal damage regularly observed during neuropathologies. These papers are accompanied by a review by Z. Yu et al. on how the neuroglobin's neuroprotection is related to mitochondria function and regulation. A. Hosseini and M. Abdollahi review the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy with a focus on oxidative stress and introduced therapies dependent or independent of oxidative stress. A. Sekigawa et al. review the currently available evidence that neither mitochondria nor leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) was present in the swellings of mice expressing P123H By compiling these papers, we hope to enrich our readers and researchers with respect to mitochondrial dysfunction, energy metabolism impairment, and oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases.Emilio L. StreckEmilio L. StreckGrzegorz A. CzapskiGrzegorz A. CzapskiCleide Gonçalves da SilvaCleide Gonçalves da Silva


Il presente contributo focalizza l'attenzione sulla relazione clinica con soggetti stranieri che riportano quadri post-traumatici. Partendo dalla discussione dei concetti di cultura e di contesto tra paradigmi moderno e post-moderno, si propone un modello generale di intervento clinico implicante una forma di setting negoziale fondato sull'estraneità e sulla contingenza. Contesto e cultura non rispondono a categorie universali e circoscritte spaziotemporalmente ma sono il modo con cui il soggetto significa il mondo. Tale disposizione semiotico-clinica rappresenta un criterio di conoscenza delle configurazioni della persona ma anche uno strumento di emersione delle forme post-traumatiche. Dunque, il clinico conosce sia il modo con cui l'altro dà senso alla propria esperienza che la forma che il trauma assume sul suo funzionamento di base. La prospettiva negoziale prende le distanze da un'idea dell'altro come portatore di sofferenza o come vittima e connota il soggetto come costruttore di esperienza, dunque dotato di agentività. Perciò, è possibile intercettare le risorse personali per orientare un intervento basato sulla contingenza che promuova un processo di co-costruzione di senso, prodotto della relazione tra gli attori. Quest'aspetto generativo interviene sulle forme traumatiche del soggetto agente, aprendo ad una prospettiva di sviluppo e di cambiamento. Il presente approccio psicologico tratta la crisi dell'altro non come categorie fenomeniche, psichiatriche e classificazioniste, ma secondo il senso che l'altro dà alla propria esperienza, anche quando disfunzionale alla propria esistenza. In tal modo, l'oggetto della relazione è il processo relazionale stesso ed è il soggetto nella sua complessità, quindi non solo nella sua accezione di traumatizzato e/o di straniero, condizioni parziali e di stato e non esistenziali.BibliografiaCarli, R., Paniccia, R. M. (2003). Analysis of the demand. Theory and Technique intervention in clinical psychology. Il Mulino Edition.Psychology and Culture: Contexts, Identities and Interventions (pp. 129–158). Rome, Carlo Amore Edition.Salvatore, S. (2004). Unconscious and speech. The unconscious as a discourse. In M. B. Ligorio (Eds.), Yearbook of Idiographic Science: Vol. 1/2008 (pp. 273–283). Rome, Firera & Liuzzo Publishing.Venuleo, C. (2008). What is the nature of idiographic date? In This paper focuses on the clinical relationship with foreign entities who report the aspects of post-traumatic stress. Starting from the discussion of the concepts of culture and context between modern and post-modern paradigms, a general model of clinical intervention involving a form of negotiation setting based on extraneousness and contingency is proposed. Context and culture do not respond to universal categories and limited space-time frames, but they are the way in which the subject means the world. This semiotic clinical disposal represents a criterion of knowledge of the individual configurations and also an instrument of emerging post-traumatic forms. The clinician knows the way in which the individual gives meaning to their experience and the form that the trauma takes on its basic operation. The negotiating prospect moves away from the idea of the person as a suffering carrier or a victim and connotes the person as a builder of experience, so with agency. It is possible to intercept the personal resources to orient a contingency-based intervention that promotes a process of co-construction of meaning, a product of the relationship between the actors. This generative aspect acts on the traumatic forms of the agent, opening a prospect of development and change. This psychological approach to the crisis is not like the phenomenal, psychiatric and ordinal categories, but in the sense that the subject gives the experience, even when it is dysfunctional for their existence. The object of the relation are the relational process and the person in its complexity, not only in the sense of traumatized and/or a stranger but also as the conditions of partial state and nonexistence.


Nutrients [et al. 2004 paper published in the American Journal of Physiology [We found an error in our paper recently published in utrients . In our et al. 2004 paper  [This error impacts on the conclusions we draw, as our paper refers to this dose as ‘large’, when in actual fact, the dose of BCAA administered in the Karlsson . 7.44g) . We apologise for any inconvenience caused to the readers.


Dietary fiber and whole grains contain a unique blend of bioactive components including resistant starches, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidants. As a result, research regarding their potential health benefits has received considerable attention in the last several decades. Epidemiological and clinical studies demonstrate that intake of dietary fiber and whole grain is inversely related to obesity, type two diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Defining dietary fiber is a divergent process and is dependent on both nutrition and analytical concepts. The most common and accepted definition is based on nutritional physiology. Generally speaking, dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants, or similar carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Dietary fiber can be separated into many different fractions. Recent research has begun to isolate these components and determine if increasing their levels in a diet is beneficial to human health. These fractions include arabinoxylan, inulin, pectin, bran, cellulose, β-glucan and resistant starch. The study of these components may give us a better understanding of how and why dietary fiber may decrease the risk for certain diseases. The mechanisms behind the reported effects of dietary fiber on metabolic health are not well established. It is speculated to be a result of changes in intestinal viscosity, nutrient absorption, rate of passage, production of short chain fatty acids and production of gut hormones. Given the inconsistencies reported between studies this review will examine the most up to date data concerning dietary fiber and its effects on metabolic health.  Dietary fiber and whole grains contain a unique blend of bioactive components including resistant starches, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidants. As a result, research regarding their potential health benefits has received considerable attention in the last several decades. Epidemiological and clinical studies demonstrate that consumption of dietary fiber and whole grain intake is inversely related to obesity , type twThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved two health claims for dietary fiber. The first claim states that, along with a decreased consumption of fats , an increased consumption of dietary fiber from fruits, vegetables and whole grains may reduce some types of cancer . “IncreaRecent studies support this inverse relationship between dietary fiber and the development of several types of cancers including colorectal, small intestine, oral, larynx and breast ,6,7. AltThe second FDA claim supporting health benefits of DF states that diets low in saturated fat  and cholesterol and high in fruits, vegetables and whole grain, have a decreased risk of leading to coronary heart disease (CHD) [Obviously, many studies support the inverse relationship of dietary fiber and the risk for CHD. However, more recent studies found interesting data illustrating that for every 10 g of additional fiber added to a diet the mortality risk of CHD decreased by 17–35% ,4. Risk Although only two claims have been adopted and supported by the FDA, multiple other “potential claims” have been researched and well documented. Those conditions of particular importance, due to their increasing prevalence among the general population, include obesity and type two diabetes ,17. The i.e., starch, simple sugars, and fructans) is easily hydrolyzed by enzymatic reactions and absorbed in the small intestine. These compounds can be referred to as non-structural carbohydrates, non-fibrous polysaccharides (NFC) or simple carbohydrates. The second group  are resistant to digestion in the small intestine and require bacterial fermentation located in the large intestine. These compounds can be referred to as complex carbohydrates, non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) or structural carbohydrates and are reflective in Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) analysis. NDF consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin while ADF consists of cellulose and lignin. However, NDF and ADF analysis are used primarily for animal nutrition and the analysis of roughages. In the simplest form, carbohydrates can be separated into two basic groups based upon their digestibility in the GI tract. The first group  and non-structural carbohydrates provide the basis for beginning to define and understand dietary fiber. This task has been a divergent process and has depended on both nutrition and analytical concepts. The most common and accepted definition is based on nutritional physiology. However, chemists and regulatory boards have leaned toward analytical procedures to factually define dietary fiber. The physiological definition is easier for the general public to understand and adopt for practical use. A recent description, as suggested by the American Association of Cereal Chemists , terms dThis definition describes in more detail the components of dietary fiber as well as its genetic makeup. Furthermore, the changes set forth in its description require few changes for its analytical evaluation .The World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) agree with the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) definition but with a slight variation. They state that dietary fiber is a polysaccharide with ten or more monomeric units which is not hydrolyzed by endogenous hormones in the small intestine .NSP can be further subdivided into the two general groups of soluble and insoluble. This grouping is based on chemical, physical, and functional properties . SolubleDietary fiber and whole grains are an abundant source of nutrients including vitamins, minerals, and a slowly digestible energy. In addition, they contain phytochemicals such as phenolics, carotenoids, lignans, beta-glucan and inulin. These chemicals, secreted by plants, are not currently classified as essential nutrients but may be important factors in human health . The synApproximately 66% of U.S. adults are overweight or obese  resultinSubstantial research has been conducted to evaluate the effect of dietary fiber and body weight, most all of which show an inverse relationship between dietary fiber intake and change in body weight. Tucker and Thomas  supporteet al. [Koh-Banerjee et al.  concur wet al. [Dietary fiber’s ability to decrease body weight or attenuate weight gain could be contributed to several factors. First, soluble fiber, when fermented in the large intestine, produces glucagon-like peptide GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) . These t and peptet al.  observedet al. [It should also be noted that the inverse relationship between dietary fiber and ME was independent of dietary fat. Therefore, ME decreased as dietary fiber increased in both high and low fat diets. However, when dietary fiber was split into soluble and insoluble fiber, the results were much more inconclusive. Soluble fiber decreased ME when added to a low fat diet but increased ME when added to a high fat diet . It is net al.  showed set al. . This coet al. . Subsequet al. . More reInsoluble fiber seems to have the opposite effect to that of soluble. When insoluble fiber intake was increased in mice consuming a high fat diet, body weight decreased . ResearcAccording to the data presented above, both soluble and insoluble fiber may lead to weight loss. However, there seems to be a relationship between the type of diet (high or low fat) and the type of fiber consumed. Insoluble fiber may play a more important role for weight loss during consumption of a high fat diet. Since resistant starch is a constituent of dietary fiber and undergoes the same digestion as insoluble fiber, comparing resistant starch and insoluble fiber may give us a better understanding of how dietary fiber can be used to treat and prevent obesity. Adding resistant starch to a diet dilutes its ME, but not to the degree of insoluble fiber .Numerous studies ,40 have Type two diabetes has increased exponentially over the past several years. Since 1990, self reported diabetes increased 61% . Althouget al. [Meyer et al.  observedet al. [et al. [i.e., high glycemic load) tissues such as skeletal muscle, liver and adipose become resistant to insulin. While Hu et al.  found th [et al.  found a et al. [P = 0.005) inverse relationship between dietary fiber intake and diabetes when adjusted for age and BMI. Women consuming an average of 26 g/d of dietary fiber had a 22% lower risk of developing diabetes when compared to women only consuming 13 g/d. Schulze et al. [P < 0.001) with the consumption of an additional 12 g of dietary fiber per day. According to these findings, it may be more significant to focus on an increased consumption of dietary fiber to prevent diabetes than glycemic index/load. Although a majority of studies show a positive correlation between high glycemic foods and type two diabetes, several studies disagree with these findings. Meyer et al.  found the et al.  agreed wet al. [et al. [et al. [It is important to note that the inverse relationship between dietary fiber and diabetes observed by Meyer et al.  and Schu [et al.  was inde [et al.  supporteversus insoluble fraction of fiber may give some insight on the efficacy of dietary fiber on diabetes and its mechanisms. Early research regarding soluble fiber demonstrated delayed gastric emptying and decreased absorption of macronutrients, resulting in lower postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels [According to recent research, the soluble n levels . This isn levels ,43,45.et al. [P = 0.0012) inverse relationship between insoluble fiber and the risk of type two diabetes while soluble fiber had no effect. Montonen et al. [Although some studies have been contradictory, showing no differentiation between soluble and insoluble fiber on diabetes , a majoret al.  using hen et al.  also foun et al. . Daily iet al. [Insoluble fiber only has a small effect on macronutrient absorption . Therefoet al.  found thet al. . GIP is et al. . This maet al. ,50. Earlet al.  and oralet al. . Accordiet al. , increasThe inverse relationship between cereal grains and diabetes may also be attributed to an increased consumption of magnesium. Increased intake of magnesium has been shown to decrease the incidence of type two diabetes ,54. Hypoet al. [According to recent research, increasing levels of dietary fiber may contribute a non–pharmacological way to improve carbohydrate metabolism. However, some inconsistency does exist and may be contributed to the classification of dietary fiber and whole grains. Subjects with diagnosed type two diabetes may also add to the irregularity among the data. In a study of men and women with established diabetes, Jenkins et al.  observedDietary fiber can be separated into many different factions . Recent Arabinoxylan (AX), a constituent of hemicelluloses, is comprised of a xylose backbone with arabinose side chains. AX is a major component of dietary fiber in whole grains having considerable inclusions in both the endosperm and bran. In wheat, AX account for around 64–69% of the NSP in the bran and around 88% in the endosperm . During et al. [Lu et al. , observeet al. . FastingThe lower glycemic index of AX may also play a role. Breads made with a flour rich in AX have a relatively low glycemic index of around 59. Whole wheat flour, although high in fiber, has a glycemic index of around 99 . ArabinoInulin is a polymer of fructose monomers and is present in such foods as onions, garlic, wheat, artichokes and bananas and is used to improve taste and mouthfeel in certain applications. It is also used as a functional food ingredient due to its nutritional properties. Because of this, inulin products can be used as a replacement for fat or soluble carbohydrates without affecting the taste and texture and still contribute to a foods nutritional value. Enzymatic hydrolyses in the small intestine is minimal (<10%) since inulin consists of beta bonds. Therefore, it enters the large intestine and is almost completely metabolized by the microflora. When fermented, they tend to favor propionate production which, in turn, decreases the acetate to propionate ratio leading to decreased total serum cholesterol and LDL , which abifidobacteria while restricting the growth of potential pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli, Salmonella, and Listeria. This could prove to be beneficial in such disorders as ulcerative colitis and C. difficile infections. Rafter et al. [Inulin has also demonstrated the ability to contribute to the health of the human large intestine as a prebiotic . They der et al.  agreed wet al. [Increased mineral absorption may also contribute to the functionality of inulin. Increased calcium absorption, by approximately 20%, was reported in adolescent girls supplemented with inulin . Resultset al. , supportet al. [Inulin may also provide a way to prevent and treat obesity. Cani et al.  demonstrβ-glucan is a linear polysaccharide of glucose monomers with β(1→4) and β(1→3) linkages and found in the endosperm of cereal grains, primarily barley and oats. β-glucan concentrations in North American oat cultivars range from 3.9% to 6.8% . β-glucaet al. [et al. [et al. [The physiological benefits due to β-glucan seem to stem from their effect on lipid metabolism and postprandial glucose metabolism. Many studies agree an inverse relationship exists between consumption levels of β-glucan and cholesterol levels. Several recent studies, in both hypercholesterolemic  and healet al.  found th [et al.  found th [et al.  reportedet al. [Most authors agree that β-glucan’s viscosity in the GI tract is the most probable mechanism in which it decreases serum cholesterol levels as well as improves post prandial glucose metabolism. This gellation property may decrease bile acid absorption by increasing intestinal viscosity and increase bile acid excretion. This subsequently results in a higher hepatic cholesterol synthesis because of the higher need for bile acid synthesis . The samet al.  observedThe production of short chain fatty acids from β-glucan may also be a probable mechanism behind its observed metabolic effects. Fermentation of oat β-glucan has been shown to yield larger amounts of propionate ,74. Propet al. [et al. [Not all research however, agrees that β-glucan can affect lipid and glucose absorption/metabolism. Keogh et al.  observed [et al.  not onlyet al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [The inconsistency between studies is thought to be due to the molecular weight (MW) and solubility of the β-glucan. The MW can be changed by several factors including food processing and the source of the β-glucan. Suortti et al.  states tet al.  and Naum [et al.  both use [et al.  however, [et al.  supportset al. [et al. [et al. [Different sources of β-glucan may also differ in their molecular weight and viscosity. Oats were the β-glucan source for the Theuwissen and Meinsk  and Naumet al.  studies  [et al.  utilized [et al.  found si [et al.  it may bet al. [Oat and barley β-glucan also seem to differ in their solubility which would have a direct effect on intestinal viscosity. Gaidosova et al.  found thet al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [in vitro. It should be noted however, that the β-glucan in this study was not in its natural form. Extracted β-glucan was treated with lichenase to yield the different molecular weights. Oat and barley varieties may also play a role on the MW of β-glucan. Yao et al.  observed [et al.  using a  [et al. , also us [et al. . Kim et  [et al.  disagreePectin is a linear polymer of galacturonic acid connected with α (1→4) bonds. Regions of this backbone are substituted with α (1→2) rhamnopyranose units from which side chains of neutral sugars such as galactose, mannose, glucose and xylose occur. Pectin is a water soluble polysaccharide that bypasses enzymatic digestion of the small intestine but is easily degraded by the microflora of the colon. Citrus fruit contains anywhere from 0.5% to 3.5% pectin with a large concentration located in the peel. Commercially extracted pectins are also available and are typically used in food applications which require a gelling or a thickening agent. Inside the GI tract, pectin maintains this ability to form a gel or thicken a solution. This is thought to be the likely mechanism behind its many beneficial effects on health including dumping syndrome , improveet al. [Shigella, Salmonella, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Proteus and Citrobacter. This is supported by Olano–Martin et al. [Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus in vitro. These bacteria are considered to be directly related to the health of the large intestine and their concentrations depict a healthy microflora population. Several recent clinical studies, Rabbani et al.  and Tripet al. , demonstn et al.  who obseThe quality of fibrin is thought to be an important risk factor for atherosclerosis, stroke and coronary heart disease. Pectin has been shown to increase fibrin permeability and decrease fibrin tensile strength in hyperlipidaemic men . Althouget al. [Pectin may also have a potential role in the complicated area of cancer prevention. Nangia–Makker et al.  found ththe food which is produced by grinding clean oat groats or rolled oats and separating the resulting oat flour by sieving bolting, and/or other suitable means into fractions such that the oat bran fraction is not more than 50% of the original starting material and has a total betaglucan content of at least 5.5% (dry-weight basis) and a total dietary fiber content of at least 16.0% (dry-weight basis), and such that at least one-third of the total dietary fiber is soluble fiber.” [Bran is the outer most layer of a cereal grain and consists of the nucellar epidermis, seed coat, pericarp and aleurone. The aleurone consists of heavy walled, cube shaped cells which are composed primarily of cellulose. It is low in starch and high in minerals, protein, and fat. However, due to its thick cellulosic walls, these nutrients are virtually unavailable for digestion in monogastric species. The AACC defines oat bran as “ fiber.” .Bran from a wide array of cereal grains have been shown to have an effect on postprandial glucose levels, serum cholesterol, colon cancer, and body mass. Although the efficacy of bran may change due to its source, the purpose of this section will just evaluate bran’s general effect on the parameters listed above. et al. [et al. [et al. [In a recent study of healthy adults, 31 g of rye bran decreased peak postprandial glucose levels by 35% when compared to the control . This efet al.  found th [et al.  observedet al. [et al. [et al. [In addition to a possible effect on carbohydrate absorption and metabolism, bran also seems to have the same effect on lipids. In a long term clinical study, Jensen et al.  reported [et al.  who foun [et al.  found th [et al. .Cellulose is a linear chain of β(1→4) linked glucose monomers and is the structural component of cell walls in green plants and vegetables. It is water insoluble and inert to digestive enzymes in the small intestine. However, it can go through microbial fermentation to a certain degree in the large intestine in turn producing SCFA. Natural cellulose can be divided into two groups: Crystalline and amorphous. The crystalline component, which is made up of intra and intermolecular non covalent hydrogen bonds, make cellulose insoluble in water. However, many modified celluloses such as powdered cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose and hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose have been developed and are used as food ingredients. The difference between natural and modified celluloses is the extent of crystallization and hydrogen bonding. When these hydrogen bonds are disrupted and the crystallinity is lost, the cellulose derivative becomes water soluble .Little research has been conducted evaluating the effects of cellulose in humans. Therefore, studies in other models such as the rat will be discussed. The translation to human relevance is poorly understood and debatable. Cellulose pills have been made available for human consumption with the theory that cellulose may decrease a person’s caloric intake. Although no human studies could be found to support this, several animal studies using cats , dogs 1 and ratset al. [Many studies have evaluated the effect of cellulose on blood glucose and insulin levels in many different models. However, the data is extremely contradictory and may depend on the subject, type of cellulose and other unknown factors. Using the rat , dog 10 and cat et al.  reportedet al. [Modified cellulose has also been reported to effect lipid metabolism. Maki et al. ,112 bothAccording to this, modified celluloses may be more beneficial than natural cellulose. These modified celluloses, as described above, act like soluble fiber thus adding to the viscosity of the GI tract. Therefore, it is assumed that increased intestinal viscosity delays nutrient absorption and increases bile acid excretion. Resistant starches (RS) are defined as any starch not digested in the small intestine . RS behaet al. [RS has been classified into four basic “types”. Type 1 (RS1) is made up of starch granules surrounded by an indigestible plant matrix. Type 2 (RS2) occurs in its natural form such as in an uncooked potato and high amylose maize. Type 3 (RS3) are crystallized starches made by unique cooking and cooling processes. Type 4 (RS4) is a starch chemically modified by esterification, crosslinking, or transglycosylation and is not found in nature. Few studies have compared types, but one recent study by Haub et al.  reportedet al. [et al. [et al. [A majority of human studies involving RS have shown a decrease in postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels. However, it is difficult to completely understand these effects due to differences in study design and the type of RS used. Behall et al.  found th [et al.  reported [et al. , howeveret al. [et al. [et al. [Several studies report that longer term consumption of a RS may decrease fasting cholesterol and triglyceride levels. In a five week study, Behall et al.  found th [et al.  reported [et al.  suggest  [et al. , report et al. [et al. [et al. [Research has also been conducted which evaluates the effect of RS on fat oxidation and storage. However, data between studies are contradictory with no clear conclusions. Tagliabue et al.  reported [et al.  may sugg [et al.  reportedIn a simplified definition, dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that resists digestion and absorption and may or may not undergo microbial fermentation in the large intestine. This definition is essentially the basis to its correlation between consumption levels and possible health benefits. Dietary fiber consists of many different constituents, however; some are of particular interest and include arabinoxylan, inulin, β-glucan, pectin, bran and resistant starches. These individual components of dietary fiber have been shown to significantly play an important role in improving human health. Current research is paying particular attention to these elements; although further research is needed to better understand particular health claims and the mechanisms involved. A large amount of research has reported an inverse relationship between fiber consumption and the risk for coronary heart disease and several types of cancer. For that reason, the FDA has adopted and published the claim that increased consumption of dietary fiber can reduce the prevalence of coronary heart diseases and cancer. The mechanisms behind these findings are still unclear. However, it is thought to be attributed to several factors including increasing bile acid excretion, decreased caloric intake, increased short chain fatty acid production, carcinogen binding effects, increased antioxidants, and increased vitamins and minerals.Although not as yet adopted by the FDA, dietary fiber is suggested to play a role in other conditions such as obesity and diabetes. Although some data are contradictory, a majority of studies regarding dietary fiber report a decrease of these two conditions with increased consumption of fiber. The digestive and viscosity characteristics of dietary fiber are the likely modes of action which affect diabetes and obesity risk. These mechanisms appear to decrease nutrient absorption, therefore, decreasing metabolizable energy. Dietary fiber may also be able to decrease gross energy of a food due to its lower energy density. etc. These sub fractions may give a better understanding of the health benefits of dietary fiber as well as the mechanisms behind them. Further studies are needed in certain areas of dietary fiber research. Those of particular interest are in the components of fiber such as β-glucan, arabinoxylan, resistant starches,