A “vitamin D hypothesis” has been proposed to explain the increased prevalence of eczema in regions with higher latitude. This review focuses on the current available evidence with regard to the possible effect of vitamin D on the development of atopic eczema. Observational studies have indicated a link between vitamin D status and eczema outcomes, including lower serum vitamin D levels associated with increased incidence and severity of eczema symptoms. Vitamin D is known to have a regulatory influence on both the immune system and skin barrier function, both critical in the pathogenesis of eczema. However heterogeneous results have been found in studies to date investigating the effect of vitamin D status during pregnancy and infancy on the prevention of eczema outcomes. Well-designed, adequately powered, randomised controlled trials are needed. The study design of any new intervention trials should measure vitamin D levels at multiple time points during the intervention, ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure via the use of individual UV dosimeters, and investigate the role of individual genetic polymorphisms. In conclusion, the current available evidence does not allow firm conclusions to be made on whether vitamin D status affects the development of atopic eczema. Changes to our modern lifestyles, with increased indoor employment and relaxation activities, along with increased sun protection behaviours, have led to limited sunlight exposure for many individuals. This can lead to vitamin D deficiency, as humans predominately derive vitamin D by cutaneous synthesis under the influence of sunlight, with limited vitamin D sourced from dietary intake . The conet al. [et al. [et al. [A potential link between vitamin D and the development of allergic disease, the so-called “vitamin D hypothesis”, first emerged when higher rates of allergic disease were observed in higher latitudes ,3,4,5,6  [et al.  found th [et al. , where 3 [et al. . This hiThis review discusses the current evidence with regard to vitamin D and the development of atopic eczema, with a particular focus on the prevention of eczema in early life. MEDLINE and PUBMED database searches were performed using the keywords “atopic dermatitis” or “eczema” and “vitamin D” or “25-hydroxyvitamin D”, limiting to publication dates of 1 January 2000 to 30 November 2014, with the search also limited to human subjects and English language. Some additional original research papers were also identified through other known articles on related topics.Eczema is generally the first manifestation of allergic disease . The natet al. [et al. [Observational studies have indicated a link between vitamin D status and eczema outcomes, with lower serum vitamin D concentrations associated with increased incidence, especially in children more so than in adults ,15,16. Iet al.  and Lee  [et al.  observedRecently eczema phenotypes have also been found to be associated with multiple vitamin D pathway genes . Thus, vIn vitro work has demonstrated that cathelicidin is induced in keratinocytes in response to vitamin D metabolites, which enhances antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus [+/CD25+/Foxp3+ T lymphocytes [Vitamin D can influence the regulation of the immune system in a number of ways. Firstly, it is believed to play an important role with regards to susceptibility to cutaneous bacterial and viral infection . Individs aureus . Moreoves aureus . As wellphocytes ,29.In terms of the skin barrier function, vitamin D and the vitamin D receptor have a regulatory role in the control of proliferation in the stratum basale, regulation of proteins in the stratum spinosum  and stratum granulosum (filaggrin and loricrin), and synthesis of lipids necessary for the barrier function of the strata corneum . Thus, vHumans naturally derive >90% of their vitamin D requirements by cutaneous synthesis under the influence of sunlight via ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation . VariatiIf vitamin D supplementation is to be used, the ideal dose of vitamin D will depend on individual sun exposure, intake of vitamin D rich foods and current vitamin D status. The best indicator of vitamin D status is considered the measurement of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) which is the most abundant and stable vitamin D metabolite . Serum 2Other potentially linked outcomes are eczema, vitamin D status and bone health, especially given the regular use of corticosteroids , chronic inflammation and possible low vitamin D status of eczema affected individuals. A recent large adult study in the USA has observed a higher risk of fractures amongst patients with eczema . Furtherin utero and the risk of eczema development, while others suggest that high levels may be a risk factor [Some observational studies ,37 suppok factor . Howeveret al. [et al. [During pregnancy, fetal vitamin D levels are determined by maternal vitamin D status and the ability of 25(OH)D to cross the placenta . Investiet al.  found hiet al. ,42,43,44 [et al.  found thin utero. in utero period. The heterogeneous findings with regard to maternal antenatal or cord blood 25(OH)D status and off spring eczema outcomes from observational studies illustrates the need for well-designed RCTs on this topic.Measuring maternal 25(OH)D levels during pregnancy is a better methodological approach to determine the degree of vitamin D exposure to the developing fetus in utero on the risk of allergic disease development in the offspring.To date there has only been one published intervention trial investigating the effect of vitamin D exposure n = 180) RCT conducted by Goldring et al. [et al. [This small  and are using higher doses (2400 IU or 4000 IU per day) of maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy. Over the next few years the results of these trials should clarify any effect of vitamin D during pregnancy on early childhood allergic disease.Currently there are several other RCTs also investigating the effect of maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy on allergic disease outcomes (NCT00920621 and NCT00856947). These RCTs are larger D levels of around 25 IU/L from lactating women who have “sufficient” maternal 25(OH)D status . Howevern = 123 infants) placing major limitations on the interpretation of these findings. From the 1920s to the present, the use of vitamin D supplementation has been routinely recommended for the prevention of rickets in many countries particularly in the Northern Hemisphere ,57,58. HIn order to definitively determine whether postnatal vitamin D supplementation has an effect on childhood eczema development well-designed adequately powered randomised controlled trials are essential. The study design of any new intervention trial in this field should measure 25(OH)D levels at multiple time points during the intervention and follow-up period, and ideally also measure UVB radiation exposure via the use of individual UV dosimeters. UV radiation phototherapy as a treatment for moderate to severe eczema symptoms in adults has been appreciated for many years . Howevern = 82) or placebo (n = 82) for 6 weeks in lactating mothers of infants who had facial eczema by one month of age. There were no differences between the groups in eczema severity at 3 months or incidence of eczema at the two year of age follow-up assessment. Unfortunately, any interpretation of the findings from this trial are particularly limited as serum 25(OH)D levels were not measured in either the mothers or the infants. This was a critical study design flaw given that two studies [Maternal vitamin D supplementation in the postnatal period was studied in a RCT  conducte studies ,54 have  studies  was thatPromising results of improved eczema symptoms have been found using oral vitamin D supplementation (1000 IU vitamin D for 1 month) in children, aged 2–17 years, during winter in two double-blinded placebo-controlled RCTs ,63. Bothet al. [et al. [et al. [In adults, mixed results have been found in several randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind trials investigating vitamin D supplementation as a treatment strategy for atopic dermatitis. Using an oral vitamin D supplement of 1600 IU per day for 60 days, both Amestejani et al.  and Java [et al.  found si [et al.  determinet al. [et al. [Calcipotriene is a topical vitamin D3 analogue approved for the treatment of scalp psoriasis. After a case of eczema flare in response to application of calcipotriene cream in a 2 year old boy, Turner et al.  investig [et al. ,69. Hencet al. [et al. [With regard to the possible effects of vitamin D on allergen sensitisation, again we find heterogeneous results from observational studies. Some studies have found higher maternal vitamin D intake from foods during pregnancy  or higheet al.  found thet al. ,45,47 or [et al. . et al. [Some of these “inconsistent” results may be explained by possible “U-shaped associations”, with an increased risk of allergen sensitisation at both low and high levels of vitamin D. This is well illustrated in a study by Rothers et al.  which obet al. . A potenet al. .et al. [In depth genotyping with regard to eczema, IgE synthesis and vitamin D metabolism will likely to be able to shed more light and provide further advances in our understanding of the role of vitamin D on the development of atopic eczema. Liu et al.  identifiet al. .p = 0.0004). Furthermore two CYP2R1 haplotypes increased eczema risk whereas one vitamin D receptor haplotype lowered eczema risk. GC rs7041 and CYP2R1 rs7935792 also interacted to modulate total IgE among these Chinese eczema patients. Recently eczema phenotypes have also been found to be associated with multiple vitamin D pathway genes . In a laet al. [BsmI (rs1544410) G allele, ApaI (rs7975232) C allele and TaqI (rs731236) T allele were all over-represented in patients with severe atopic dermatitis compared to healthy controls. Together these findings suggest that the effect of vitamin D status on allergy outcomes may be influenced by the underlying genetic milieu.Heine et al.  studied et al. [Along with genetic variability, another explanation for the heterogeneous findings with regard to the effect of vitamin D status and atopic eczema may be the source of the vitamin D. Could there be an effect of sunlight exposure or UV radiation on the skin that is independent of the parallel effect that UV radiation has on vitamin D status? An interesting finding from a recent study by Noh et al.  was thatet al. , which iet al. , hence tA lack of well-designed randomised controlled trials investigating the effect of vitamin D  on the development of eczema has resulted in limited and conflicting evidence to date on this topic. The sunlight exposure effect alone on the incidence and severity of eczema especially requires in detailed further examinations at various time points in early life. The use of devices such as individual UV dosimeters, which are now readily available to directly measure UVB radiation exposure, should be an essential measurement outcome in all future studies. Unlocking the role of individual genetic polymorphisms and their influence on vitamin D status in early life and eczema development will also be essential, and may be of some value in explaining the lack of consistency in findings to date. There remains enormous scope for addressing the role of these diet and lifestyle factors as potential allergy prevention strategies. To date, the current available evidence does not allow firm conclusions to be made on whether vitamin D status affects the development of atopic eczema.


Acta Cryst. (2013), E69, m126.Corrigendum to  et al.  is corrected and a reference added for a previously published report of a closely related structure.An erroneous claim in the paper by Royappa  The authors sincerely regret this unintentional oversight.However, the authors were unaware of a previous report (Jakob


Nearly a year ago, UNAIDS launched the ambitious “90–90–90” targets to help end the AIDS epidemic: by 2020, 90% of people living with HIV will be diagnosed, 90% of those diagnosed will be on sustained antiretroviral therapy (ART) with 90% viral suppression in those on ART . A welcoDespite an impressive 40% reduction in mother-to-child HIV transmission (MTCT) in the last five years, there were still an estimated 220,000 new paediatric infections in 2014 . Due to Infants, children and adolescents continue to have the largest gaps in HIV diagnosis and treatment ,4,8. DesIt is well-known that the treatment gap for children remains vast and substantially larger than that of adults, with less than a third of HIV-infected children <15 years receiving ART in 2014 –18, the et al. [In the absence of treatment, perinatally HIV-infected infants experience extraordinarily high mortality, which can be reduced by 75% with immediate ART in children <3 months of age –18,21. Tet al. . Howeveret al. –27.et al. [et al. [et al. [In older children, a causal modelling study showed small but significantly reduced mortality with universal ART in children aged 5–10 years, and studies consistently show better height gain with immediate treatment in children –31. Cohoet al. , increas[et al.  and Rabi[et al.  highligh[et al. ,41.The second and third “90s”, namely retention on ART and achieving viral suppression on first-line therapy, are paramount for children who face lifelong treatment with access to a limited range of alternative drugs. These goals are important to prevent exhausting limited treatment options and to achieve optimal ART outcomes, as well as to prevent transmission of multi-drug resistant viruses when these children grow up with HIV and become sexually active. In addition, sustained virologic suppression, especially from early infancy, is associated with better neurocognitive and growth outcomes as well as reduced viral reservoirs –44.While reports from individual research cohorts suggest that good retention and viral suppression are possible, more routine programmatic data reflects a less optimistic picture ,46. In aet al. [Adolescents experience obstacles to accessing health services on their own, including stigma, lack of youth-friendly services and parental consent policies, making this a key group for targeting 90–90–90 ,13. Whetet al. , and by et al. . Adolescet al. , with HIet al. ,56. Theret al. . Achieviet al. .While the 90–90–90 targets make us think about those already HIV-infected, one of their most important benefits will be in the reduction of new HIV infections . Ending The specific focus on children and adolescents in the UNAIDS 2020 targets, together with alignment of political commitment and financial resources, provides a much-needed opportunity to address previous inequities both in research and service delivery for paediatric HIV. The articles in this issue describe a number of challenges and barriers to achieving the targets, but also important linked strategies for overcoming them, which are represented in the conceptual framework in et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [One of the major barriers to improving paediatric HIV care is the paucity of paediatric HIV research. There is frequently little or no high-quality evidence on which to base policies and guidelines. Many paediatric HIV care recommendations in WHO and national guidelines therefore remain conditional, rather than strong, with a risk of less commitment to their implementation ,62,63. Tet al. , Cotton [et al. , Penazza[et al.  and Rabi[et al. , to the [et al. . While p[et al. , adolesc[et al.  and thos[et al. , as well[et al. .The need for information extends beyond academic research to monitoring and evaluation of routine programmes – we will not know whether we have met the 90–90–90 targets unless we measure them, and we are unlikely to achieve them unless we monitor our progress (or lack thereof) towards them, using the information to improve programmes. In this respect, the lack of access to routine viral load monitoring in many settings is a major obstacle both to achieving 90% suppression and knowing how close or far off we are.et al. [et al. [et al. [We will not reach 90–90–90 for children with a “business as usual” approach. Many articles in this issue discuss innovations both within and outside the health system that show promise in improving paediatric and adolescent HIV care. For example, Essajee et al.  review fet al.  emphasizet al.  point ou [et al.  argue th[et al.  outline Abrams and Strasser  emphasizet al. [et al. [et al. [Integration has been a “buzzword” in adult HIV for several years, with emerging promising practices for children and adolescents. The need for integration is highlighted by a number of articles in this supplement. As described by Chamla et al. , the ratet al. . It aims[et al.  identify[et al.  emphasiz[et al. , prepareet al. [et al. [There is a huge diversity of role players and stakeholders in paediatric and adolescent HIV, both within and outside the health service. Stakeholders include funding agencies, policy makers, researchers, implementing partners, ministries of health, industry , health care workers, non-profit and community-based organizations, as well as, importantly, children, adolescents and caregivers themselves. Like previous targets, the 90–90–90 agenda provides an opportunity for these groups to work towards a common goal, facilitating collaboration. For example, Chamla et al.  highligh [et al. ) is an i [et al. . Demand  [et al. . In conset al. [Intersectoral collaboration needs to extend beyond the health system and its traditional partners. Cluver et al.  point ouThere can be no keener revelation of a society's soul than the way it treats its children.– Nelson MandelaThere are many challenges to reaching the 90–90–90 targets for children and adolescents. They require a range of linked activities by multiple players working together with concerted effort at many levels within and beyond the health system. While targets can be criticized, they drive progress and help to consolidate and renew financial and political commitment to HIV prevention and treatment. These targets therefore offer the global community an opportunity to focus on children, and the very real and remarkable possibility of ending paediatric HIV.


Fire has been used for centuries to generate and manage some of the UK's cultural landscapes. Despite its complex role in the ecology of UK peatlands and moorlands, there has been a trend of simplifying the narrative around burning to present it as an only ecologically damaging practice. That fire modifies peatland characteristics at a range of scales is clearly understood. Whether these changes are perceived as positive or negative depends upon how trade-offs are made between ecosystem services and the spatial and temporal scales of concern. Here we explore the complex interactions and trade-offs in peatland fire management, evaluating the benefits and costs of managed fire as they are currently understood. We highlight the need for (i) distinguishing between the impacts of fires occurring with differing severity and frequency, and (ii) improved characterization of ecosystem health that incorporates the response and recovery of peatlands to fire. We also explore how recent research has been contextualized within both scientific publications and the wider media and how this can influence non-specialist perceptions. We emphasize the need for an informed, unbiased debate on fire as an ecological management tool that is separated from other aspects of moorland management and from political and economic opinions.This article is part of the themed issue ‘The interaction of fire and mankind’. In the uplands, such ecosystems are often collectively referred to as ‘moorland’. While in some northern and western regions these ecosystems may have a natural origin (e.g. [Lagopus lagopus scoticus Latham 1787) on privately owned shooting estates. The current form of rotational patch burning associated with grouse moor management , in mosin  versus continuing an intensive, stereotypical form of traditional rotational heather burning. In reality, existing practices are very spatially heterogeneous and the grouse moor stereotype  Provide robust evidence of the interactions and trade-offs between the various practices associated with peatland management regimes .(2) Consistently classify the effects of all vegetation fires according to fire severity. At its simplest level this means not confounding severe wildfire effects with those from management burns. Management fires are set in winter or early spring when soil heating is minimal. By contrast, wildfires predominantly occur in spring and summer during dry periods  when dee(3) Develop appropriate guidelines for classifying peatland condition that account for their fire ecology.(4) Generate informed and unbiased debate regarding peatland fire management that separates ecology from politics and economics.Here, based on recent peer-reviewed literature on the use of managed fire in the UK uplands, and its subsequent presentation in the wider media, we consider there is an urgent need for researchers to:2.(a)Calluna productivity in all situations. Results from the study by MacDonald et al. [Calluna can regenerate by ‘layering’ and the formation of adventitious roots. This led to the recommendations that managers not burn stands which have not experienced fires in the last 40 years and which have well-developed heather layering; avoid burning Calluna in wet, shaded or humid situations where layering is likely; and concentrate burning activity where Calluna forms dense, continuous stands. While these management suggestions may seem like common sense, there remains surprisingly little scientific evidence to suggest what their outcomes would be in terms of patch or landscape-scale ecosystem structure, function and diversity.Any ecological disturbance has benefits and costs depending on the species or ecosystem in question. Where humans plan ecological disturbances for landscape management goals, it is essential to weigh up the trade-offs involved and make decisions that reflect the weighting given to different priorities. Debate over who should get to make such decisions, and how, is an important philosophical and political issue but is beyond the scope of this paper. In many ecosystems, fire is a natural process that plays a vital role in facilitating plant regeneration, improving forage quality and productivity, defining vegetation community composition, controlling landscape-scale variation in habitat structure, and modulating subsequent wildfire behaviour and severity e.g. ,2,26). M,26. M2,2d et al.  show thaCalluna via burning creates hydrological and light conditions that favour Sphagnum species over pleurocarpous mosses. Evidence from fire-prone black-spruce forested bogs in North America and mires in Sweden, for example, show that Sphagnum species are replaced by pleurocarpous mosses under dense canopies that can be removed by wildfire [Sphagnum plants can regenerate from deeply buried stems [Sphagnum plants have been observed to vigorously resprout following intense wildfires [Calluna canopy density are likely to be required to restore peat-forming vegetation on many degraded bogs, and fire may be an effective way to achieve this particularly if the Calluna is old and unlikely to resprout [Sphagnum abundance was higher in 10-year burn rotations than in both 20-year rotations and locations that had not been burnt for approximately 90 years [Sphagnum populations following managed fires  Hedw, and Sphagnum fuscum (Schimp.) H. Klinggr are particularly resilient to fire, but data are needed on burn effects on other species.It is not our aim here to provide an exhaustive review of the effects of fire on peatland environments or other ecosystems. Instead, we suggest readers refer to holistic reviews of the effect of fire on the environment  and specwildfire ,37. Expeed stems , and in resprout . Evidenc90 years . This rees (e.g. ) and thaum plant . Based oet al. [et al. [et al. [Pluvialis apricaria L. 1758) populations were positively affected by prescribed burning, meadow pippits (Anthus pratensis L. 1758) were negatively impacted. Elsewhere in Europe, researchers have shown the benefit of prescribed fire use in preventing the loss of protected, internationally rare moorland ecosystems more generally , and, andet aly  production (e.g. ) that maet al.  showed tet al. ; (ii) DOg per se ,57, and g per se ,59. Therg per se ,57 thereg per se ) and catg per se ). Furtheg per se . In-streg per se ) will alet al. [Rates of peat accumulation have been noted to be lower in areas burnt by management fires ,65, sugget al.  would suet al. ), recentet al. .Sphagnum, which are highly sensitive to increased nutrient loadings [et al. [Other impacts of long-term use of prescribed burning on the peatland terrestrial habitat may include a lowered water table and lower pH , changesloadings . In this [et al. , that laSphagnum cover in a single case-study catchment to repeated severe wildfires but ascribes its lack of recovery to managed burning. However, they also acknowledge that subsequent nutrient and acid deposition from air pollution may also have been important. In aerial photographs, the area they studied  shows extensive evidence of gullying and it is unclear whether this is related to a transition in the site's hydrological and ecological state following the compounded severe wildfires. When burning, grazing and drainage are carried out indiscriminately, these management practices are likely to be damaging to blanket bogs and may even lead to loss of habitat [Prescribed fire also has the potential for negative interactions with other land-management practices—especially, drainage and grazing (e.g. ). Howeve habitat  and C. R(b)Sphagnum cover [et al. [et al. [While the effects of prescribed burning demand that we make trade-offs between different ecosystem services, there is growing evidence and consensus that severe, uncontrolled wildfires can have very serious consequences. Under drought conditions, wildfires can ignite peat layers causing smouldering peat fires and large emissions of C to the atmosphere ,89. Seveum cover . We re-e [et al. ,39 for i [et al. ,25 and C [et al.  demonstr(c)sensu [et al. [et al. [Calluna-dominated vegetation and mapped burning within such communities. Taking their estimates of a mean proportion of moorland burnt in the UK during the last 25 years (16.7%), the annual percentage area burned and mean fire rotation can roughly be estimated ; Wieder et al. [The effects of fire vary both temporally and spatially with associated benefits and disbenefits depending on the scale one considers as well as the ecosystem services one is most interested in. Some changes are associated with the immediate aftermath of a fire , while others  may only become apparent by taking a longer-term perspective. Fires vary in both their intensity and their severity, which is the result of spatial variation in vegetation/fuel structure and climate, temporal variation in fire weather  between and within seasons and, in the case of prescribed burns, the expertise and care with which burns are managed. It is only by understanding the overall character of current and historic fire regimes (sensu ) that onsensu . In thessensu . That dosensu  and natisensu , while osensu . Some ofsensu ,25. Cruc [et al.  compared [et al.  is one od (sensu ). This r [et al.  suggests [et al.  who show [et al.  summarizr et al.  documentr et al. . That no(d)et al. [Despite the central role of fire in the ecology of UK peatland and moorland ecosystems, and the promotion of fire use for restoration of similar ecosystems in both southern  and nortet al.  suggesteet al. . No atteBox 1.With regard to burning, to be in ‘good condition’ the following conditions must be met in blanket bog habitats:(1) There should be no observable signs of burning into the moss, liverwort or lichen layer or exposure of peat surface due to burning.Sphagnum, other mosses, liverworts and/or lichens.— Ground with abundant and/or an almost continuous carpet of 2 or less. The unevenness should be the result of Sphagnum hummocks, lawns and hollows, or mixtures of well-developed cotton-grass tussocks and spreading bushes of dwarf shrubs.— Areas with notably uneven structure, at a spatial scale of around 1 m(2) There should be no signs of burning or other disturbance (e.g. mowing) in the following sensitive areas:For wet heath habitats to be in good condition, the following conditions must be met:(1) There should be no observable signs of burning into the moss, liverwort or lichen layer or exposure of peat surface due to burning.Sphagnum, liverworts and/or lichens. This target should also be recorded if any evidence of this is found while walking between sample locations.(2) There should be no signs of burning and other disturbance inside the boundaries of the ‘sensitive areas’ which includes ground with abundant, and/or an almost continuous carpet of 3.(a)Prescribed fire provides an array of management benefits and challenges within a UK context that vary depending on the prioritized ecosystem services. Research has a key role in informing scientific, policy and public perceptions and debates on appropriate prescribed fire use. The interaction between research outcomes and society for a large part occurs through the public media. While science communication represents a difficult process of distilling technical research findings and complex messages into simplified media stories, effective and accurate communication is essential if appropriate land and fire management strategies are to be implemented. Unfortunately, the way in which research is presented in the media is not always unbiased, and research can be manipulated or misinterpreted by persons or groups that may have a pre-determined agenda. We emphasize the challenges of such debate through the discussion of recent case studies ,18,99, s(b)et al. [et al. [et al. [et al.'s C-focused discussion there is a reliance on wildfire papers from boreal studies outside the UK . Th. Thet alet al. [The study of Douglas et al.  sets a cet al. ,4,106, cet al.  and sugget al.  themselvet al.  point ouet al. [Sphagnum plants [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [Sphagnum plants, but the focus of this report is on aquatic ecosystems and catchment hydrology; the authors make no direct observations of fire's impact on Sphagnum itself and this assertion is in conflict with the results of Lee et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [Douglas et al.  refer toet al. , nutrienet al. , water qet al. , air polet al. , and Sphm plants . However [et al.  showed t [et al.  reviewed [et al.  assessed [et al.  is citede et al. . Further [et al.  contextu [et al. ,112), he [et al.  one aspe [et al.  did not  [et al. . Unfortu [et al.  report  that ha [et al.  actually species . There i to fire .et al. [et al. [et al. [Later, Brown et al.  point toet al. , there iet al. . Where B [et al.  suggest  [et al. ,25,39. W [et al.  are righet al. [et al. [Calluna regeneration at risk. Further data on variation in prescribed burning practice  would be welcome. The results of Allen et al. [Finally, Brown et al.  rightly  [et al.  are beinn et al.  show thaIn summary, these three case studies create an unbalanced tone in which the outcomes of fire are presented as generally negative. Of course, it is clear that episodic disturbances induce significant changes in a range of environmental parameters, and that variation in disturbance regimes can drive changes in ecological structure and function. Whether these changes/differences are positive, negative or of no consequence is likely to depend upon the spatial and temporal scales, and ecosystem services, one chooses to focus on. A key issue with all three case studies is that some of the evidence upon which they base their assertions is limited or incomplete, and following the citation trail often reveals insufficiently critical reliance upon either unpublished reports or a simplistic (mis)interpretation of complex scientific findings.(c)et al. [et al. [The use of fire as a management tool within the media often appears to similarly lack nuance. For example, a recent newspaper article by Monbiot , provocaet al.  and Doug [et al. , the sub [et al. , the foc [et al. , and the [et al. , the newet al. [et al. [Unfortunately, as scientists we often have little control over the representation of our research within the media. Others have noted how the characteristics of scientific claims change between scholarly writing and non-specialist audiences , and thiet al. , but in  [et al.  paper [1 [et al. –135 are  [et al. . Individ [et al. . We, the [et al. ), and it [et al. . While t [et al. ,139, it  [et al. .Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus, 1758) habitat [There are a wide range of views on issues regarding the socio-economics and ethics of private estate ownership and driven grouse shooting in the UK, both within the research community at large and among the authors here. Effective communication and understanding between different groups currently seems to be minimal. Studies suggesting that some land managers believe they have access to ‘special’ knowledge regarding moorland that others cannot comprehend  are thus habitat . By camp habitat : ‘I was (d)et al. [et al. [et al.'s own discussion of their findings, and the associated outreach and media coverage gives the impression that the paper focused on the environmental and ecological effects of burning. In reality, the work described the spatial distribution of burning and short-term temporal trends in fire; the results of which have been questioned [To determine how non-specialists' perceptions of fire are influenced by differences in reporting in academic and public media, we distributed one of the following to each of six separate groups of six to seven senior undergraduate and graduate students of restoration ecology at The Ohio State University (USA): the results or discussion sections of Douglas et al. ; an assoet al. ; and subet al. ,125. The [et al.  was modiestioned ,25.If we are to debate the use of fire as a management tool, it is essential that authors ensure that the press releases associated with their findings accurately reflect the content of their research as well as the uncertainty associated with ongoing research questions. At the same time, it is also essential that journalists reporting on this clearly contentious topic do not just rely on the content of press releases from campaigning organizations but verify facts by reading the actual paper and consulting with an independent academic expert not involved in the study. Journalists reporting on scientific findings need to decide whether their duty is to report science or further their own or others' agendas. Journalists should preferably adopt a neutral tone and make a clear distinction between research reporting and opinion pieces.4.2 [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [Fire as a management tool is carried out at the landscape scale and induces ecological processes that span from minutes to decades following the burn. Most research relies on small plots of 1 to tens of meters and monitoring might, at best, extend for a couple of years following the fire. The only UK site where long-term evidence is available on peatland burning is Moor House in the Pennines. Even these experimental plots are not at a landscape scale (900 m2 ) and the2 ). Altern [et al. ). Coordi [et al.  across d [et al. ). Limite [et al.  and Davi [et al. ,25. Here [et al.  was reve [et al. , as it b [et al.  that mor [et al. ,149.Recent reviews (e.g. ) have drSphagnum species [et al. [et al. [Whether or not current land-management priorities, burning regimes and other practices are ecologically sustainable, or morally justifiable, in the context of social and environmental change are questions that still require much further study and debate. There is currently little scientific consensus either way, with often contradictory results on the effects of fire on DOC concentrations in moorland water  and gase species ,155 dire [et al.  were rig [et al.  should b [et al.  suggest Calluna dominance. Areas associated with burning tend to have greater Calluna cover but managers do not distribute their effort randomly across landscapes and it is unclear if burning is the result or cause of increased Calluna cover. Time scale is also important. Indeed, not burning vegetation with a substantive Calluna component will increase its dominance at least over a 90-year period, a time range close to the natural historic fire-return interval of 120–200 years [— That regular burning alone increases 00 years .Sphagnum. We need to quantify species responses to fire and to understand the importance of variation in burn severities and frequencies. Sphagnum species display micro-habitat differences  and it is likely that micro-habitats will respond to burning differently given their distinct topography and moisture regimes. We also need to know whether burning limits Sphagnum recovery during peatland restoration and if so, under what fire regimes?— That fire kills or significantly damages — That peatlands are particularly sensitive sites with regard to fire. Northern peatlands elsewhere in the world, notably within boreal regions, can show remarkable ecohydrological resilience to burning ,157. Int— That managed burning helps protect against future wildfires, minimizing fire likelihood and burn severity. How does managed burning affect landscape-scale patterns in flammability; does it reduce the frequency or burn severity of wildfires? How many wildfires actually result from managed burning? In other words, how do wildfire and managed fire regimes interact?— That fire alone can contribute to peatland degradation. At what frequencies or severities is this true, if at all? How can we separate the confounded effects of drainage, grazing, acidification and nutrient deposition? Unlike wildfires, managed burns appear rarely to leave areas of peat exposed, but might this vary according to fire frequency? Over what spatial and temporal scales should degradation be defined?We argue here that the following important factoids are not verified. They require further study and should not be perpetuated in discussions until they are formally addressed:5.Fire is a valued and integral component of the ecosystem manager's tool kit capable of being used as well as abused in a multiplicity of different ways. Throughout Europe, managers, ecologists and conservationists value prescribed burning as a tool to protect and restore globally rare heathland and moorland ecosystems and there is a growing body of scientific literature to inform best practice. Much of this knowledge comes from research in the UK and it is ironic that while the public debate here has shifted strongly against the use of fire, scientists in other countries are using this evidence to promote the reintroduction of burning. Further scientific evidence is urgently needed on the benefits and costs of differing fire regimes for peatland and moorland ecosystem services. Such assessments need to focus on the landscape scale and on elucidating trends over the entire fire rotation rather than just looking at the short-term outcomes of single burns that are a pulse disturbance with obvious negative outcomes for particular metrics. Until integrated evidence is available, all scientists should be concerned when potentially interesting and informative research is used as a forum to propagate what amounts to hearsay or to promote political agendas. The use of press releases to publicize a particular point of view when the actual scientific evidence from a study is incomplete or unrelated should be discouraged.In the absence of sound evidence and consensus, it is vital that managers and scientists adopt an ‘adaptive’ approach to decision making . Core prRestoring resilient peatland ecosystems that protect existing carbon stocks and function as a carbon sink is a priority for the UK and we welcome initiatives such as Scottish Natural Heritage's Peatland Plan . What is


The shape of plasmonic nanostructures such as silver and gold is vital to their physical and chemical properties and potential applications. Recently, preparation of complex nanostructures with rich function by chemical multistep methods is the hotspot of research. In this review we introduce three typical multistep methods to prepare silver nanostructures with well-controlled shapes, including the double reductant method, etching technique and construction of core-shell nanostructures. The growth mechanism of double the reductant method is that different favorable facets of silver nanocrystals are produced in different reductants, which can be used to prepare complex nanostructures such as nanoflags with ultranarrow resonant band bandwidth or some silver nanostructures which are difficult to prepare using other methods. The etching technique can selectively remove nanoparticles to achieve the aim of shape control and is widely used for the synthesis of nanoflowers and hollow nanostructures. Construction of core-shell nanostructures is another tool to control shape and size. The three methods can not only prepare various silver nanostructures with well-controlled shapes, which exhibit unique optical properties, such as strong surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) signal and localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effect, but also have potential application in many areas. In decades past, synthesis of silver nanostructures has been an active research area because of their excellent optical properties such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) 1 and [AgNO3]2 stand for the concentration of AgNO3 in the first and second step respectively. In the first step silver nanorod as shown 3 in EG in the presence of PVP, and then was dispersed in DMF as a seed solution. In the second step, seed solution was added into a DMF solution containing AgNO3 and PVP. With the increase of the ratio of [AgNO3]2/[AgNO3]1, different structures were observed  and PVP. In the absence of Na3CA, nanospheres cannot be prepared because Ag nucleuses are immediately protected by PVP as soon as they form leading to the anisotropic growth of Ag nanoparticles due to selective adsorption of PVP on the (100) facets. When PVP was absent, the products were also nanospheres with larger size. The results indicate that the role of Na3CA is to promote the reduction of Ag+ ion into nanospheres. On the other hand, PVP can promote nucleation and prevent the aggregation of nanoparticles. In our previous work [4 and Na3CA in the presence of PVP. Silver seeds were prepared firstly, and then exposed under light leading to aggregation and were thus welded together, so the final morphology was decided by the concentration of PVP. Wojtysiak [+ ions by NaBH4. Stable Ag nanoclusters only appeared when citrate was added, otherwise reduction of Ag+ ion by NaBH4 under the conditions with citrate led to a precipitate at the bottom of solution. Citrate is a stabilizer as well as a reductant. In this regard, Yi et al. [4 and Na3CA as a double reductant system to prepare Ag nanoplates via a multistage procedure. In the first stage, Ag nanoplates were prepared as seeds with NaBH4 and Na3CA. Then these as-prepared seeds evolved into larger nanoplates with tunable sizes of 40 nm to 260 nm by adding different volumes of Na3CA solution. Each addition of Na3CA solution and seed solution was named one stage, the size of the nanoplate increased without change of shape, and the SPR peak shifted red. To get triangular nanoplates with satisfactory size distribution and yield, Yang et al. [3 by NaBH4 in the presence of Na3CA. In the second step, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was added as stabilizer into the as-prepared silver nanoparticle colloid and then citrate-stabilized silver nanospheres were converted into SDS-stabilized silver nanospheres. In the last step, silver nanoplates were formed under the reduction of SDS-stabilized silver nanospheres by citrate and aged in NaCl solution. When SDS-stabilized silver nanospheres aged in NaCl solution for one week, they began to transformed into nanoplates. Three weeks later, high-yield silver nanoplates with larger size were formed. In their further experiments, if only NaBH4 was used as reductant in the presence of SDS, no silver nanoplates appeared, which indicated citrate is essential to reduce SDS-stabilized silver nanospheres in the third step.Aside from EG and DMF, NaBHg et al.  exploredous work , we prepojtysiak  also stui et al.  used NaBg et al.  applied et al. [3 by AsA in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and SDS. Lou et al. [3 by AsA with Na3CA. Based on these researches of hyperbranched silver nanostructures mentioned above, Wang et al. [3 by AsA in the initial stage of reaction, which are easy to aggregate in AsA [et al. [More recently, a method of using AsA to prepare unique silver nanostructures such as flower-like and string forms has been developed . Zheng eet al.  got silvu et al.  also foug et al.  explorede in AsA . After 2e in AsA  and PEO-e in AsA  also pla [et al. . Their kIn the formula, D is the average size of product, d is the average size of seeds, and N and n are the molar amount of AgCl and seeds respectively. They fixed the amount of AgCl, and used 50 nm silver nanoparticles as seeds, so in theory if they want obtain the products with 100, 150, 200, 250 nm, the (N+n)/n should be 8, 27, 64, and 125 nm respectively. As shown in 4 which are usually used as seeds for further growth of silver nanocrystals, while silver nanoparticles are easy to aggregate together in AsA. Samanta [4 and AsA as double reductants. They prepared Ag nanoparticles in NaBH4 in the first step. When these nanoparticles used as seeds with different amounts were added into AgNO3 solution in AsA, silver nanodiscs and triangular nanoplates formed, respectively. A high yield of triangular nanoplates can be obtained in lower amount of seed solution which provides a new path to synthesize triangular nanoplates.Above all, we can get a conclusion which is that the products tend to be nanospheres of small sizes in NaBH Samanta  presente3.Recently, shape and size control as well as novel nanostructures which can increase SERS enhancement have attracted more attention. The optical properties of nanostructures can be tuned by varying their sizes, therefore it is vital to provide a way to control the size. In addition, these nanostructures with sharp horns such as nanoflowers or nanostars can focus the electromagnetic field on their tips leading to significant SERS effect. The etchant technique can not only control shapes and sizes of nanostructures, but also creates novel nanostructures with hot spots or hollow nanostructures.3.1.2O2 is used to etch pits in metals, which plays an important role of dislocations in determining or affecting the mechanical properties of crystalline materials [2O2—water couple is dependent on the pH value of the solution. In acidic solutions:Early in the 1950s, Haterials . The staIn alkaline solutions:Ag+/Ag (E0=0.7996V) [2O2 can be used as an effective etchant to dissolve metallic silver. Very recently, etching techniques are used for controlling the shapes of Ag nanoparticles because some nanostructures are not easily prepared in high yield or mono-dispersed sizes.Because the potentials are higher than that of 0.7996V) , H2O2 ca2O2, the products were nanospheres, which indicated that H2O2 plays a critical role of Ag nanoprism formation. Sequentially, Zhang et al. [2O2 in the same reaction system. They proposed that H2O2 can remove the relatively unstable nanoparticles in the nucleation stage and promote the formation of anisotropic structures, finally all metallic silver particles can be directly transformed into silver nanoplates regardless of size and shape, but if the concentration of H2O2 was too high, the obtained nanoprisms also would be etched and disappear. To further study the mechanism, Tsuji et al. [νprism < sphereν and νprism < rodν. If either H2O2 or Na3CA is absent, the transformation from spheres to prisms will not happen and Na3CA must be added before H2O2. The major difference between the method and Zhang's is that the etching of metallic Ag nanostructures and reduction of Ag+ ion occur at the same time in the latter reaction process, but the former argued that the first step is complete dissolution of Ag nanowire to Ag+ ion and then reduction of Ag+ ion to Ag0. They also successfully prepared Ag nanoprisms from nanocubes and nanobipyramids. This essay made a great contribution to preparing high-yield Ag nanoprisms from different metallic Ag nanostructures. Among these various shapes, Ag nanoprisms and triangulars have attracted intense interest due to their unique optical properties and related applications. Generally, two main methods have been developed to prepare Ag nanoprisms, including the photochemical method and chemical reduction method. Compared with the photochemical method –63, the g et al.  studied i et al.  examinedet al. [2O2 etching to prepare Au nanoboxes. Because the standard reduction potential of AuCl4−/Au is higher than that of Ag+/Ag, Au can be replaced by Ag following Recently, metallic hollow nanostructures such as cages –70 and fet al.  explored4. By controlling the amount of HAuCl4 aqueous, they can precisely control the thickness of nanoboxes via titrating HAuCl4 aqueous solution as presented in 2O2 etching. 2O2. McEachran et al. [et al. they controlled the thickness of frames by adjusting the amount of deposited gold. Furthermore, they attempted to make similar nanoframes using other silver nanostructures. Results indicated that only nanostructures with (111) facets such as nanorods and icosahedra can be used for the formation of nanoframes. They argued that gold prefers to deposit on the (111) facets, whereas (100) facets are more reactive to cause nanocages or nanoshells. We believe that the etching technique is a facile method to prepare hollow nanostructures with well-controlled shapes and sizes.Based on the chemical equation, silver nanoboxes can be transformed into gold nanoboxes. The synthesis procedure is to form Au-Ag alloy nanoboxes by titrating Ag nanocubes with aqueous HAuCln et al.  proposedet al. [2O2 and NH4OH mixtures. From et al. [2O2 and NH4OH mixture resulting in a 104-fold enhancement of SERS compared with that obtained by pre-etching. Some ways have been reported to attach nanoparticles onto nanowires [It is well known that nanostructures with sharp edges or gaps can enhance SERS intensity –78, theret al.  etched sm et al.  increaseanowires –89, howe3.2.4OH or Fe(NO3)3. Sometimes NH4OH is used with H2O2, which has been discussed in Section 3.1., therefore we will not reintroduce it here. Lu et al. [4OH or Fe(NO3)3 play an important role in the formation of Au nanoboxes. The process consists two steps as follows: (1) preparation of Au/Ag alloy nanoboxes through depositing Au on the surface of Ag nanocubes; (2) removal of Ag from Au/Ag alloy nanoboxes via etching by NH4OH or Fe(NO3)3. After the formation of the Au nanobox, sequent addition of NH4OH or Fe(NO3)3 causes the transformation into nanocages and nanoframes. Another advantage of this method is that NH4OH or Fe(NO3)3 can selectively remove Ag from the walls of Au/Ag alloy nanoboxes leading to good control in the thickness of nanocages which is difficult to achieve by other methods.There are many other etchants applied to modify the morphology of silver nanoparticles, such as NHu et al.  found th4.Although Ag nanostructures have received considerable attention because of their excellent optical properties and wide applications in many areas, people still attempt to develop novel nanostructures for higher requirements. The optical properties of nanostructures can also be tailored by controlling their elemental composition, as well as the internal and surface structures. Most recently, special attention has been paid to core-shell nanostructures because they provide a new system with tunable optical properties. In this case, core-shell nanostructures can be achieved through various methods which have been developed, such as chemical reduction method, nanosphere lithography (NSL) ,92, phot4.1.Au@Ag core-shell nanostructures exhibit finely tuned LSPR and SERS properties based on the shape and size, and have potential applications in sensors ,97–99 anet al. [3 by AsA on the surface of Au nanorods with sodium citrate used as stabilizer, but the repeatability of results is not good and it is difficult to take TEM pictures due to the high concentration of sodium citrate. In this regard, they chose PVP as stabilizer instead of sodium citrate. However, they found that Ag+ ions cannot be reduced in low pH solution, because the redox potential of AsA varied with pH until it was sufficient to overcome that of Ag. Therefore, when NaOH was added or AsA was replaced by citric acid which is a weak acid, Ag shells formed. The results indicated that with the increased amount of AgNO3 added, the thickness of the Ag shell increased and the blue-shift of the longitudinal plasmon mode of the nanorods was enhanced. Later on, Seo et al. [+ ions were reduced and deposited on the decahedral seeds. Then, Ag nanocrystals grew along the longitudinal direction with slight changes along the lateral direction assigned to the selective adsorption of PVP on the (100) facets. The results correspond to the growth mechanism of Ag nanorods proposed by Xia et al. However, in the research of Xia et al. [3 added to the reaction system. In the case of other Au nanorods as seeds, Sanchez-Iglesias et al. [et al. [The shape and size of the Au core is important for the evolution of Ag on Au nanoparticles. Many groups select Au nanorods as cores to construct the Au@Ag core-shell nanostructures to which excellent optical properties are ascribed. Liu et al.  describeo et al.  demonstra et al. , the mors et al.  also pro [et al. , they co2O2 etching, additional seed-mediated growth method are often used to construct Au@Ag core-shell nanoprisms and triangulars. Xue et al. [3, significantly affecting the SPR spectrum. Recently, Tsuji's group developed a combination of microwave and polyol reduction route to prepare Au@Ag core-shell triangles [4 in EG in the presence of PVP under microwave heating conditions. In the second step, as-prepared Au seeds were added into a DMF solution of AgNO3 to form Ag shells in an oil bath. The method can prepare not only triangular Au@Ag core-shells, but also nanoplates, octahedrons and decahedrons depending on the shapes of the Au seeds. In addition, these Ag shell shapes are significantly different from those prepared in EG by microwave heating from the same Au seeds. The reason is the favorable facets of Ag nanostructures produced in EG and DMF are different, which has been discussed before. Using the microwave-polyol method, their group also prepared Au@Ag core-shell icosahedrons [As with the above-mentioned Ag nanoprisms and triangular synthesized by He et al.  reportede et al. . Compareriangles  as Figurahedrons . In 2012ahedrons . They aret al. [et al. [3 or Au seeds which were close to the calculated results, and the thickness of Ag shell can be controlled precisely from 1.2 to 20 nm because the seeds are isotropic and have uniform size. Moreover, they found that the effect of CTAC as capping agent on the formation of Au@Ag core-shell nanocubes was better than that of CATB.In addition to these Au@Ag core-shell nanostructures above, Ag nanocubes also receive much attention. Fan et al.  synthesi [et al.  describe4.2.et al. [3 and Cu(OAc)2·2H2O in EG, then they used Ag@Cu alloy to produce new Ag@Cu alloy Cu shells, which was consistent with the rules. Hu et al. [et al. [According to et al.  synthesiu et al.  proposed [et al.  via a ch5.In the past decades, silver nanoparticles have been applied to many areas because of their excellent optical properties. The three methods introduced in this essay can not only control the shapes and sizes of silver nanostructures well, but also their LSPR properties, leading to more potential applications.et al. have synthesized silver nanoflags which combine a nanowires and a triangular nanoplate by a double reductant method as shown in et al. [et al. [2O2 etching technique. In 2O2. Because the scattering and absorption of Au nanocages can be tailored by controlling the size and porosity, Chen et al. [As mentioned in Section 1.1, Tsuji n et al.  studied n et al. . The res [et al. . They prn et al.  functionet al. [et al. [et al. [Au@Ag core-shell nanostructures have attracted considerable attention because of their improved properties compared with silver nanostructures or gold nanostructures, especially optical properties, which allows them to be used as SERS substrates. Generally, SERS substrates should be sensitive, stable and rapid. Khlebtsov et al.  investiget al. . This op [et al. . They pr [et al.  found th2+, Cu2+) in a simple, rapid and ultrasensitive way [2+ was 10−12 M by using a single-metallic nanostructures as sensor. To further decrease the detection limitation, Du et al. [2+ as shown in 2+ was added onto the chip, the Raman signals of Dpy obviously quenched due to the formation of Hg2+-Dpy complex. The results in −14 M Hg2+ can been detected due to the more excellent SERS properties of Au@Ag core-shell nanostructures. In addition, this approach just needs 4 min and 20 μL of sample. Therefore, Au@Ag core-shell nanostructures can be used for the ultrasensitive detection of trace Hg2+. Similar to Hg2+, Cu2+ has paramagnetic properties which can transfer electrons or energy resulting in photoluminescence (PL) quenching of Au@Ag core-shell nanoparticles. Gui et al. [2+. As the concentration of Cu2+ increased, the PL spectra of Au@Ag core-shell nanoparticles dropped dramatically, so we can analyze Cu2+ according to the intensity of PL spectra. In addition to metallic ions analyses, biomolecules and organic molecules have attracted much attention. Panfilova et al. [et al. [Metal ions do not have Raman signals, which have to be detected by indirect methods leading to inefficiency. To solve the problem, many efforts have been devoted to find ways to detect metal ions (such as Hgtive way –120. Howu et al.  applied i et al.  first ema et al.  first st [et al.  reportedet al. [In the research of Zheng et al. , Au@Ag cet al. . Althouget al. , they ca6.In this review, we present double reductant methods, etching techniques and construction of core-shell nanostructures routes which can synthesize novel shape-controlled silver nanostructures. Various silver nanostructures have been prepared by using the three methods. The double reductant method takes full advantage of different favorable facets of nanostructures produced in different reductants. In this case, complex nanostructures which are not easily prepared by one-step methods can be prepared in high yield with mono-dispersed sizes. The etching technique can synthesize hollow nanostructures with tunable silver shell thickness which can be used for controlling their LSPR. Moreover, etching technique can also increase the roughness of the surface of silver nanostructures, significantly increasing SERS enhancement and LSPR effect. The construction of core-shell nanostructures can not only control their shapes and sizes well, but also exhibit more excellent optical properties than that of individual metal nanostructures. Finally, we introduce applications of silver nanostructures produced by the three methods. Because of their excellent optical properties, such as LSPR properties and SERS effect, these silver nanostructures have potential applications for the development of plasmonic nanodevices and detection.


As lame cows produce less milk and tendto have other health problems, finding and treating lame cows is very importantfor farmers. Sensors that measure behaviors associated with lameness in cowscan help by alerting the farmer of those cows in need of treatment. This reviewgives an overview of sensors for automated lameness detection and discussessome practical considerations for investigating and applying such systems inpractice.Despite the research on opportunities toautomatically measure lameness in cattle, lameness detection systems are notwidely available commercially and are only used on a few dairy farms. However, farmers need to be aware of the lame cows in their herds in order treat themproperly and in a timely fashion. Many papers have focused on the automatedmeasurement of gait or behavioral cow characteristics related to lameness. Inorder for such automated measurements to be used in a detection system, algorithms to distinguish between non-lame and mildly or severely lame cowsneed to be developed and validated. Few studies have reached this latter stageof the development process. Also, comparison between the different approachesis impeded by the wide range of practical settings used to measure the gait or behavioralcharacteristic  and by the differentdefinitions of lame cows. In the majority of the publications, mildly lame cowsare included in the non-lame cow group, which limits the possibility of alsodetecting early lameness cases. In this review, studies that used sensortechnology to measure changes in gait or behavior of cows related to lamenessare discussed together with practical considerations when conducting lamenessresearch. In addition, other prerequisites for any lameness detection system onfarms  are discussed. To properly tackle the lameness problem, farmers need to be aware of the number of lame cows in their herd and the severity of their lameness. The commonly accepted methodologies to quantify lameness rely on identifying changes in the gait and posture of the cows and are discussed in the first part of this review . In pracSince the 1980s, various sensors and technologies have been investigated for their potential to measure health indicators from individual cows . AutomatAutomatic measurement systems could support the dairy farmer and tackle the problem of the visual scoring systems, resulting in more objective measurements. However, the raw data collected from such sensor-based techniques still have to be translated into understandable gait variables that are functionally relevant for cattle gait (and therefore related to gait attributes used in locomotion scoring systems). This review summarizes several approaches to automatically measure lameness and related characteristics in dairy cows. The wide range of practical settings during the experiments, together with the definitions used to distinguish non-lame from lame cows, impede comparison between the different automated approaches. The factors obstructing such comparison and the need for specific characteristics  of an automated lameness detection system are discussed.et al. [Several techniques have been proposed for automatic gait analysis, such as force platforms, electromyography, accelerometers and image-based technologies. In their review, Rutten et al.  divided et al. [In 2013, 38 publications on lameness were described in the review by Rutten et al. , but onlet al. [i.e., integral of GRF over time), and area under the Fourier transformed curve of GRF [Rajkondawar et al.  developeet al. . In 2006e of GRF .®  was introduced into the market in 2008. The model in this system used 5 limb movement variables and calculated the probability of one of the hind limbs being lame (SMX score). The StepMetrix was tested in a field trial by Bicalho et al. [®. Hence, lame cows were still being misclassified by the model. Liu et al. [et al. [Based on these publications, the automatic lameness detection system StepMetrixo et al. . They reu et al.  improved [et al.  the sensForces exerted by the hooves on the ground can be measured using force plates—usually installed in the ground—that give information in one or three dimensions . Useful information of the ground reaction force can only be collected when no more than one limb at a time is on the force plate . In cattet al. [et al. [Thorup et al.  used the [et al.  and showet al. [Pastell et al.  introducet al. .et al. [In an earlier study, Pastell et al.  started et al. . Pastellet al.  built a et al.  used CUSet al. . For theet al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [Neveux et al.  used a p [et al. ,24 and P [et al.  to measu [et al.  suggesteChapinal and Tucker  used a set al. [et al. [Using a pressure distribution plate (RsScan), van der Tol et al.  measured [et al.  used thiet al. [et al. [Maertens et al.  develope [et al.  revealed [et al. . In a fo [et al. . Indeed, [et al. . Moreove [et al. . A test- [et al. .et al. [et al. [et al. [2 = 0.81). In an initial experiment on 15 cows, the measured step overlap seemed to be significant for the distinction between non-lame and mildly lame cows. However, in a second experiment using a simplified scoring system on 104 cows, this distinction was only seen between non-lame and severely lame cows for the minimal step overlap and between mildly and severely lame cows for the maximal step overlap. When combining a camera system with the Gaitwise system, an algorithm to automatically calculate touch and release angles and range of motion was developed [Flower et al.  were the [et al.  used vid [et al.  wrote aneveloped . A decreet al. [et al. [Another promising variable for lameness detection is the back arch. Poursaberi et al.  automatiet al. . An algo [et al. , who repet al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [The algorithm proposed by Viazzi et al.  was not  [et al.  showed t [et al. , Van Her [et al.  and Viaz [et al. ; (1) lac [et al.  could no [et al. .et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [To overcome the difficulties with back posture analysis based on side-view images from 2D cameras, Van Hertem et al.  and Viaz [et al.  tested t [et al. . In the  [et al. , the cor [et al.  reported [et al. . The use [et al. .et al. [Driven by the positive results of infrared thermography for lameness detection in horses , this teet al.  used infet al. [i.e., average steps / hours) for lame cows ranged from 9 to 68% and almost half of the lame cows showed a reduction of more than 5% during the 7 to 10 days prior to clinical signs. In 92% of the lameness cases, the decrease in activity was above 15%. As such devices are currently used for oestrus detection in cattle, Steensels et al. [et al. [Other studies use accelerometers to measure the activity or gait features of cows and their relation to lameness. In a study by Mazrier et al.  the redus et al.  also sug [et al.  used a cet al. [et al. [Chapinal et al.  used fivet al. . On theset al. . Using a [et al.  were ablet al. [et al. [et al. [Almost a decade ago, Munksgaard et al.  suggeste [et al.  were con [et al. , where det al. [et al. [Similar sensors are used to investigate the link between lying behavior of cows and lameness. The results of Yunta et al.  suggest  [et al.  and Cald [et al.  were ablet al. [i.e., the daily milk yield 4 days before diagnosis, the slope coefficient of the daily milk yield 4 days before diagnosis, the night time to day time neck activity ratio 6 days before diagnosis, the milk yield week difference ratio 4 days before diagnosis, the milk yield week difference 4 days before diagnosis, the neck activity level during the daytime 7 days before diagnosis, and the ruminating time during night time 6 days before diagnosis. Similarly, Kamphuis et al. [Van Hertem et al.  used sens et al.  used datet al. [et al. [Activity data in terms of lying behavior, combined with milk yield and feeding data in the form of concentrate left-overs in the milking robot, were used to detect lameness by de Mol et al.  with an et al.  combined [et al.  combinedDiscrepancy in the experimental set-ups during validation. As this review focuses on the development of systems to help farmers in their daily routine, the sensors and technologies summarized were limited to measurements of variables related to ‘visual’ characteristics of lameness in cows that are used in daily practice  whether or not combined with information on feeding/drinking behavior, milking process and others  to 5 (severely lame) using different scoring systems. Next, different cut-off values to differentiate between non-lame and lame groups of cows were used . Based on the summary in In addition, there is large variation in Finally, if data and lameness classification results were to be available in real-time, cows in need of treatment could be separated from the herd automatically. Obviously, such a procedure would require barn equipment where the cows can be identified and then guided to a separate area . In three out of four studies, the variables were calculated afterwards, and calculations were not always performed fully automated. This means some additional integration work would be needed to obtain a real-time automatic lameness detection system.Need for automated and continuous measurements? Automated measurements can gather data continuously, such that cows can be monitored on a daily basis. In addition, their major advantage is the lack of need for herding the cows. As cows have a stoic nature, guiding them can bias the measurements, because they will try to hide their weakness and pain compared to measurements during normal routine without the presence of a human or predator [predator . IdeallyNeed for ‘early’ detection? Throughout the past 20 years of research on dairy cow lameness and automatic lameness detection systems, scientists have claimed that early detection of lameness signs is beneficial in treating affected animals before the problem becomes too severe. In doing so, long lasting and costly treatments, production losses and reduced welfare long term can be avoided. From a theoretical point of view this might indeed be true, but implementing the concept of “early lameness detection” in practice poses reasonable questions: What is early detection? When is it needed or when does a farmer perceive it as an added value? Nowadays, the biggest challenge for any lameness detection system is the detection of early onset. The definition of ‘early detection’, however, is not so clear, as ‘early’ can be considered in several ways.et al. [A first approach for early detection is ‘detection before the visual clinical signs of lameness are present’. Even though this is the most logical interpretation, this might not be relevant for a lameness detection tool on commercial farms. It can be expected that farmers will not start treatment before obvious signs of lameness are present. According to a study of Alawneh et al. , over 65et al. . As seveet al. ,75). TheNeed for custom-made detection systems? Early detection of lameness should be used only if it is relevant to the farmer, which suggests that there may be a need for custom-made detection systems. For a farmer with low herd lameness prevalence and a good general lameness management, early detection of new cases of lameness or mildly lame cows might create an added value. However, such farmers are rare. Most farmers hugely underestimate not only the prevalence of the lame cows in their herds [i.e., those that cause recurring alarms). In the next step, after prevention and treatment programs have successfully resulted in a lower lameness prevalence at the herd, the threshold settings of the detection system could be changed to also detect the mildly lame cows to further decrease the lameness prevalence to a lower level. In general, it is very important to convince the farmer to trust the lameness detection system. Many farmers may be reluctant to rely on the judgement of an automatic system rather than their own. The farmer’s suspicion might be even worse for early lameness detection, especially if he or she cannot diagnose a treatable problem. In general, a lameness detection system should provide the ideal balance between detecting almost every lame cow (high sensitivity) and having as few false detections as possible (high specificity). Farmers might be more reluctant about a high number of false alerts compared to a missed lame cow, as false alerts create unnecessary labor and time to check the cows on the alert list. However, research on the expectations and use of farmers for a lameness detection system might provide more information on the requested sensitivity and specificity of lameness detection systems.ir herds ,63, but ir herds . The majir herds . Severe Need for real-time measurements? If the detection could be performed in real-time, i.e., immediately after the cow was measured by the system, it becomes possible to automatically separate a cow that is identified as lame by the software and needs extra attention from the farmer. Such decisions made on the spot must be done in less than five seconds, requiring technology with high-speed calculations.Of the measurement approaches shown in Available space. In practice, no free space is available in dairy barns to install any lameness detection system. This might create drawbacks for those sensor technologies that need an alley set-up where measurements are performed  or where video can be recorded (vision techniques). Therefore, measurement systems that need less space or that can be included in the existing farm infrastructure, like measurements of weight differences in the milking robot or measurements with accelerometers, might be more feasible in practice. If not, additional space could be incorporated in the plans for new barns. However, creating sufficient space in any existing barn is challenging, especially as cows should preferably pass this measurement zone daily—if possible, after milking—and should be identified simultaneously. This requires a free zone inside the barn after the milking parlor, rotary or milking robot or even at the exit to the pasture for measurements during the grazing season. This drawback however, is especially present in the smaller dairy farms. In larger dairies, which are the kind of farms which would benefit hugely from this technology, installing a lameness detection system might be easier. However, the most important thing is to ensure good cow traffic, especially if a system is installed after the milking parlor or milking robot. Cows blocking the area around the measurement zone will disrupt the measurements and create measurement failures and might even affect the milking routine [ routine .In spite of the amount of research available on measurement of gait and behavioral characteristics that are relevant to lameness detection, no efficient automated lameness detection system is available on the market yet. This review focused on the discrepancy between the experimental set-ups used in the studies, the stage of automation of the measurements, and the practical considerations when implementing a lameness detection system on farm. Most research on lameness detection focuses on the detection of severely lame cows, often ignoring mildly lame cows or considering them non-lame. On the other hand, the practical feasibility of also detecting the mildly lame cases should be investigated on farms. This might result in custom-made lameness detection systems that are adjustable depending on the degree and severity of mildly and severely lame cases on that farm and the preferences of the farmer for specific characteristics of the system. In addition, several sensor technologies take up quite some space and will need to be very cost-efficient in order for farmers to decide to buy and create the needed space for the installation.


Skeletal muscle mass and function are progressively lost with age, a condition referred to as sarcopenia. By the age of 60, many older adults begin to be affected by muscle loss. There is a link between decreased muscle mass and strength and adverse health outcomes such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Data suggest that increasing dietary protein intake at meals may counterbalance muscle loss in older individuals due to the increased availability of amino acids, which stimulate muscle protein synthesis by activating the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTORC1). Increased muscle protein synthesis can lead to increased muscle mass, strength and function over time. This review aims to address the current recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein and whether or not this value meets the needs for older adults based upon current scientific evidence. The current RDA for protein is 0.8 g/kg body weight/day. However, literature suggests that consuming protein in amounts greater than the RDA can improve muscle mass, strength and function in older adults. The older adult population in the United States is a segment of unprecedented growth . Longer Muscle mass, strength and function are progressively lost with aging . A loss Additional physical changes with aging may occur as a result of changes in skeletal muscle mass . For exaNutrition is an important modulator of health and function in older adults. Inadequate nutrition can contribute to the development of sarcopenia and obesity ,5. As liSeveral studies identify protein as a key nutrient for older adults  recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine ,20. The r adults .The Food and Nutrition Board recognizes a distinction between the RDA and the level of protein intake needed for optimal health. The recommendation for the ADMRs  includesetc., which are common in older adults and have been shown to require protein intake above recommended levels.Experts in the field of protein and aging recommend a protein intake between 1.2 and 2.0 g/kg/day or higher for older adults ,22. CleaIt is not only the quantity of protein intake that is important for optimal health in older adults, it is the quality of the protein . There aEssential amino acids, especially the branched-chain amino acid leucine, are potent stimulators of muscle protein synthesis via the protein kinase mTORC1  ,25,26. Set al. [The majority of published results indicating a potential beneficial effect of increasing protein intake in older adults are either from epidemiological or short-term studies. Two recent publications by Tieland et al. ,34 indicet al. ,34. The et al. . One impversus slow  proteins need to be taken into consideration when developing protein recommendations. When young, healthy subjects were provided with either a whey protein meal (30 g) or a casein meal (43 g), both containing the same amount of leucine, and whole body protein anabolism was measured, the subjects consuming the whey (fast) protein meal had high, rapid increase in plasma amino acids, while subjects consuming the casein (slow) protein meal had a prolonged plateau of essential amino acids [In addition, the difference in digestibility and bioavailability of a protein can impact the quantity of protein that needs to be ingested to meet metabolic needs. The speed of protein digestion and absorption of amino acids from the gut can influence whole body protein anabolism . Proteinno acids . In addino acids . These rno acids . When olno acids . These rversus a beefsteak [versus the beefsteak. Muscle protein synthesis did not differ between the two meals over a six-hour period [Whether or not the amino acid source is an intact protein or a mixture of free amino acids can also influence the rate muscle protein synthesis . For exaeefsteak . Older mr period . These dThe interaction of protein with other substrates  may impact functionality of protein, especially at the molecular level. It is well established that the EAA, especially leucine, are essential for the functional benefits associated with increased protein intake in older adults, such as muscle protein synthesis ,44,45,46Older adults are less responsive to low doses of amino acid intake compared to younger individuals . Howeverversus 13 g of protein at breakfast. However, ingestion of more than 30 g of protein in a test meal does not further stimulate muscle protein synthesis [et al. [et al. [Another issue related to defining the optimal protein recommendations for older adults is defining the optimal timing of protein intake throughout the day. Adults typically consume the majority of their protein (and energy) intake at dinner , 38 g veynthesis . Mamerow [et al.  examined [et al. . This is [et al.  who exam [et al. .et al. [et al. [et al. [versus protein being evenly distributed over four daily mails in hospitalized older patients for six weeks [et al. [versus older adults). In addition, the study by Mamerow et al. [A recent study published by Kim et al.  fails toet al. . Likewis [et al. , conduct [et al. . However [et al. , the womix weeks ,60. Thesix weeks  and incr [et al.  due to dw et al.  only meaThe current RDA for protein may not provide adequate EAA for optimal metabolic roles in adults. It is estimated that 7 to 12 grams of the branched-chain amino acid leucine are necessary per day  to see fversus 113 g of protein.The mechanism by which dietary protein affects muscle is through the stimulation of muscle protein synthesis by the absorbed amino acids consumed in the diet ,63. HoweIt is widely accepted that signaling via mTORC1  is involved in the regulation of several anabolic processes including protein synthesis ,65,66. Iet al. [et al. [versus young adults. In addition, after only seven days of bed rest, older adults had a reduced response to EAA ingestion resulting in no increase in muscle protein synthesis, activation of translation initiation factors (4E-BP1 and p70S6K) and no increase in amino acid transporters [Age-related muscle loss may involve a decreased response to EAA due to dysregulation of translation initiation factors. Older adults also have decreased levels of translational proteins related to muscle protein synthesis as compared to young adults ,73. Olde [et al.  who foun [et al. . While nsporters ,76. ThesIt is also possible that the beneficial effect of protein intake on body composition is due to the stimulation of IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1) secretion. Aging individuals have lower levels of IGF-1 , which cThere are several risk factors associated with reduced protein intake in older adults . These rIt is important to consider optimizing health care and those factors influencing health outcomes when determining dietary recommendations for dietary intake in older adults . The cosInadequate nutritional intake  is common in older adults and may explain the depleted muscle mass. Once in the hospital, physical inactivity combined with inadequate protein intake can result in additional loss of muscle mass which can delay recovery and contribute to higher readmission rates . The breThere is sufficient evidence that protein intake higher than the current dietary recommendations (0.8 g/kg/day) is beneficial for most older adults. Higher protein intakes are associated with increased muscle protein synthesis, which is correlated with increased muscle mass and function. This, in turn, is linked to improved physical function. The evidence presented in this review supports the need for a higher RDA for protein for older adults in order for them to achieve optimal protein intake. Many older people suffering from chronic disease  have reduced appetite and do not consume adequate levels protein. Therefore, it is essential that they have adequate protein intake from high quality protein sources.


Objective of the present study was to investigate the relation between antioxidant status and postpartum anestrous (PPA) condition in Murrah buffalo.Jugular blood samples were collected from two different groups of Murrah buffaloes each group consisting of 20 animals. Group I was of PPA and Group II were of cyclic buffaloes. The animals selected were examined for confirmation for cyclic and acyclic condition (>120 days) after calving by routine transrectal ultrasonography. Heard record was also used for cross confirmation.The analysis of antioxidants in plasma and hemolysates revealed that the levels of vitamin E, β-carotene and reduced glutathione in plasma and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in hemolysate were significantly higher in cyclic animals than PPA animals. The levels of vitamin C, SOD and glutathione peroxidase in plasma did not show any significant difference among the two groups studied. The low antioxidant level in affected animals may predispose them toward PPA condition.Stress imposed by pregnancy and lactation affected the reproductive performance in PPA animals which might be inherently more susceptible to these stressors than those who were normal cyclic as all the animals were maintained under similar feeding and management practices. As the second largest source of milk in the world and about 56.5% of total milk production in India, Buffalo bear premier importance in dairy industry along with its significant contribution in foreign exchange earnings by export of meat . The lowStress responses in heat, pregnancy and milk production lead to formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS). These ROS and RNS include hydroxyl radicals, superoxide ion, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide radicals and are involved in free radical chain reaction affecting lipid peroxidation, apoptosis, and fertility . The bioSo, hypothesizing that the pro-oxidant and antioxidant balance underlining the animal reproductive efficiency; the present study was designed to explore the relation between antioxidant status and PPA condition in Murrah buffalo.The experiments on animals including all procedures of this study were approved by Institutional Animal Ethics Committee.The present investigation was carried out at the animal farms of Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hisar; and Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Hisar. Twenty PPA and twenty normal cyclic Murrah buffaloes were selected on the basis of their reproductive history obtained from farm records. According to the herd records, the buffaloes that had shown anestrous for more than 120 days were selected in postpartum group (PPA) and animal coming in estrous before 65 days of postpartum for more than three consecutive lactations including present lactation were selected in normal cyclic group for conducting the study. The animals selected in the current lactation were having average postpartum anestrous period of 191.47±13.37 days and those in normal cyclic had 60.64±5.38 days. Current status of reproductive organs of all animals in the study was also examined and verified by per rectal examination and ultrasonography. The animals were maintained as per the standard feeding and management practices followed at the farms and were fed for body maintenance and according to the level of milk production, so that the green and dry fodder were appropriately supplemented with concentrate mixture containing mineral mixture. Buffaloes were loose housed in open and closed paddock.Approximately,10 ml of jugular blood sample was collected from each experimental animal in 15 ml sterile polypropylene centrifuge tube containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid as anticoagulant in the month of November and December. Plasma was separated in refrigerated centrifuge at 3000 rpm for 15 min and stored in aliquots at −20°C until analysis of vitamins and antioxidants. Following separation of plasma from blood samples by centrifugation, the white blood cells layer was separated, and the remaining erythrocytes were washed thrice with a cold normal saline solution. Then distilled water was added to erythrocyte pellet slowly and with constant stirring up to 1:1 dilution to prepare hemolysate. It was stored at −20°C for estimation of SOD. All chemicals used in this study were procured from Sigma-Aldrich chemicals, USA.et al. [et al. [Nitric oxide scavenging activity of plasma was measured by the method of Sreejayan and Rao . R-GSH aet al. . Estimat [et al.  and plast-test.All the data were expressed as mean±standard error values. Statistical analyses were carried out using GraphPad Prism v6.0  software implementation of Student’s Plasma vitamin E, β-carotene, and vitamin-C levels were compared between PPA and normal cyclic animals. Vitamin E and β-carotene levels were observed to be significantly (p<0.05) higher in normal cyclic animals in comparison to PPA animals whereas vitamin-C level did not differed significantly between the two groups .The mean plasma nitric oxide scavenging activity, plasma R-GSH, plasma GPX-3, plasma SOD and SOD in RBC between PPA and normal cyclic animals along with their standard error has been depicted in The total plasma protein concentration was observed to be significantly (p<0.01) higher in normal cyclic animals .et al. [et al. [et al. [In the present study, vitamin E was significantly (p<0.05) higher in normal cyclic animals than PPA group which is in corroborate the finding of Kahlon and Singh , Surapanet al.  and Dera [et al.  in cattl [et al. .et al.[et al. [et al. [et al. [The higher level of plasma GSH concentration in normal cyclic animals is also corroborate with the experiments of Ahmed et al., Hanafi .[et al.  and Ahme [et al. , who rep [et al.  reported [et al.  observed [et al. .SOD converts ROS generated by cell to hydrogen peroxide by spontaneous dismutation . In our The current study revealed that plasma GPX-3 level was not significantly different in both group. Similar reports for dairy cow are also documented in related experiments .et al. [et al. [Significantly higher protein in normal cyclic animals than PPA buffaloes has been reported by Amanullah et al.  and Kuma [et al. . The pre [et al. .The vitamin E, β-carotene, reduced glutathione and protein investigated in plasma of buffaloes suffering from PPA were significantly (p<0.05) lower than normal cyclic buffaloes. The SOD level in hemolysate was also significantly (p<0.01) lower in PPA group animal than normal cyclic animals. Whereas plasma vitamin C level, SOD, GPX-3, and nitric oxide scavenging activity (%) were non-significantly (p<0.05) different in both groups. This indicates buffaloes under PPA condition are suffering from stress which may be because of production or reproduction. It also indicates that these animals are more susceptible to stress and apart from normal feeding additional supplementation of antioxidant vitamins can be beneficial to them at time of stress to optimize the performance in buffaloes.RK, MG, and AKB have designed the study and planned the research experiment. RK, MG, and SK performed the research experiments. IS, AKB, and MG supervised the research and performed manuscript preparation. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.