Aemilia (gens)
Imperial-era consular fasti listing several Aemilii
The gens Aemilia, originally written Aimilia, was one of the greatest patrician families at Rome. The gens was of great antiquity, and claimed descent from Numa Pompilius, the second King of Rome. Its members held the highest offices of the state, from the early decades of the Republic to imperial times.[1] The Aemilii were almost certainly one of the gentes maiores, the most important of the patrician families. Their name was associated with two major roads (the Via Aemilia and the Via Aemilia Scauri), an administrative region of Italy, and the Basilica Aemilia at Rome.
Several stories were told of the foundation of the Aemilii, of which the most familiar was that their ancestor, Mamercus, was the son of Numa Pompilius. In the late Republic, several other gentes claimed descent from Numa, including the Pompilii, Pomponii, Calpurnii, and Pinarii. A variation of this account stated that Mamercus was the son of Pythagoras, who was sometimes said to have taught Numa. However, as Livy observed, this was not possible, as Pythagoras was not born until more than a century after Numa's death, and was still living in the early days of the Republic.[1][2]
This Mamercus is said to have received the name of Aemilius because of the persuasiveness of his language (δι᾽ αἱμυλίαν λόγου), although such a derivation is certainly false etymology.[1] A more likely derivation is from aemulus, "a rival".[3] According to a different legend, the Aemilii were descended from Aemylos, a son of Ascanius, four hundred years before the time of Numa Pompilius. Still another version relates that the gens was descended from Amulius, the wicked uncle of Romulus and Remus, who deposed his brother Numitor to become king of Alba Longa.[1]
In the late Republic, a number of minor families claimed descent from the figures of Rome's legendary past, including through otherwise unknown sons of Numa. Modern historians dismiss these as late inventions, but the claim of the Aemilii was much older, and there was no corresponding need to demonstrate the antiquity of a gens that was already prominent at the beginning of the Republic.[4] In any case, the Aemilii, like Numa, were almost certainly of Sabine origin. The praenomen Mamercus is derived from Mamers, a god worshipped by the Sabelli of central and southern Italy, and usually regarded as the Sabellic form of Mars. At Rome, this name, and its diminutive, Mamercinus, were known primarily as cognomina of the Aemilii and the Pinarii, although the Aemilii continued to use it as a praenomen.[1][5] A surname of the later Aemilii, Regillus, seems to be derived from the Sabine town of Regillum, better known as the ancestral home of the Claudian gens, and perhaps alludes to the Sabine origin of the Aemilii.
PraenominaEdit
The Aemilii regularly used the praenomina Lucius, Manius, Marcus, and Quintus, and occasionally Mamercus. The Aemilii Mamercini also used Tiberius and Gaius, while the Aemilii Lepidi, who had a particular fondness for old and unusual names, used Paullus, presumably with reference to the family of the Aemilii Paulli, which had died out nearly a century earlier. An obscure family of uncertain date seems to have used Caeso. The daughters of the Aemilii are known to have used the numerical praenomina Prima, Secunda, and Tertia, although these were frequently treated as cognomina, and placed at the end of the name.
Branches and cognominaEdit
The oldest stirps of the Aemilii bore the surname Mamercus, together with its diminutive, Mamercinus; these appear somewhat interchangeably in early generations. This family flourished from the earliest period to the time of the Samnite Wars. Several other important families, with the surnames Papus, Barbula, Paullus, and Lepidus, date from this period, and were probably descended from the Mamercini. The most illustrious of the family was undoubtedly Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus, three times dictator in the second half of the fifth century BC.
The Aemilii Papi occur in history for about a century and a half, from the time of the Samnite Wars down to the early second century BC.[6] Their surname, Papus, like Mamercus, appears to be of Oscan origin.[7] The name Aemilius Papus occurs again in the time of the emperor Hadrian, but properly speaking these appear to have belonged to the Messia gens, and probably claimed descent from the more illustrious Aemilii through a female line.[8]
Barbula, or "little beard", occurs as the surname of one branch of the Aemilii, which appears in history for about a century beginning in the time of the Samnite Wars, and accounting for several consulships.[9][10][11]
Paullus, occasionally found as Paulus, was an old praenomen, meaning "little".[12] As a praenomen, its masculine form had fallen into disuse at Rome, although the feminine form, Paulla, in various orthographies,[i] was very common.[13][14] As a surname, Paullus appeared in many families down to the latest period of the Empire, but none were more famous than the Aemilii Paulli. This family was descended from Marcus Aemilius Paullus, consul in 302 BC, and vanished with the death of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia, in 160 BC. His sons, though grown, were adopted into the families of the Fabii Maximi and the Cornelii Scipiones. The Aemilii Lepidi revived the name toward the end of the Republic, when it was fashionable for younger branches of aristocratic families to revive the surnames of older, more illustrious stirpes.[15]
The cognomen Lepidus belongs to a class of surnames derived from the habits of the habits of the bearer, and evidently referred to someone with a pleasant demeanor.[16] The Aemilii Lepidi appear only a generation after the Aemilii Paulli, beginning with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 285 BC, and produced many illustrious statesmen down to the first century AD. In the final decades of the Republic, they revived a number of names originally belonging to older stirpes of the Aemilian gens, including Mamercus as a praenomen, Regillus as a cognomen, and Paullus as both. The last generations were related by marriage to the imperial family.[17]
The Aemilii Scauri flourished from the beginning of the second century BC to the beginning of the first century AD. Their surname, Scaurus, referred to the appearance of the feet or ankles; Chase suggests "swollen ankles".[18][10]
The cognomina Regillus and Buca apparently belonged to short-lived families. Regillus appears to be derived from the Sabine town of Regillum, perhaps alluding to the Sabine origin of the gens. The Aemilii Regilli flourished for about two generations, beginning at the time of the Second Punic War.[19][20] Buca, probably the same as Bucca, referred to someone with prominent cheeks, or perhaps someone known for shouting or wailing. The Aemilii Buci are known chiefly from coins, and seem to have flourished toward the end of the Republic.[21][10]
As with other prominent gentes of the Republic, there were some Aemilii whose relationship to the major families is unclear, as the only references to them contain no surname. Some of these may have been descended from freedmen, and been plebeians. Aemilii with a variety of surnames are found in imperial times.
MembersEdit
This list includes abbreviated praenomina. For an explanation of this practice, see filiation.
Aemilii Mamerci et MamerciniEdit
Lucius Aemilius Mam. f. Mamercus, consul in 484, 478, and 473 BC.
Tiberius Aemilius L. f. Mam. n. Mamercus, consul in 470 and 467 BC.
Gaius Aemilius Mamercus, dictator in 463 BC, according to Lydus, but found in no other sources; perhaps an interrex.[22]
Mamercus Aemilius M. f. Mamercinus, dictator in 438, 433, and 426 BC.
Manius Aemilius Mam. f. M. n. Mamercinus, consul in 410 BC, and consular tribune in 405, 403, and 401.
Gaius Aemilius Ti. f. Ti. n. Mamercinus, consular tribune in 394 and 391 BC.
Lucius Aemilius Mam. f. M. n. Mamercinus, consular tribune in 391, 389, 387, 383, 382, 380, and 377 BC.
Lucius Aemilius L. f. Mam. n. Mamercinus, consul in 366 and 363 BC.
Lucius Aemilius L. f. L. n. Mamercinus, magister equitum in 352 BC.
Lucius Aemilius L. f. L. n. Mamercinus Privernas, consul in 341 and 329 BC, and dictator in 335 and 316 BC.
Tiberius Aemilius Ti. f. Ti. n. Mamercinus, praetor in 341 and consul in 339 BC.
Aemilii PapiEdit
Marcus Aemilius Papus, dictator in 321 BC.
Quintus Aemilius (Cn. f.) Papus, consul in 282 and 278 BC.
Lucius Aemilius Q. f. Cn. n. Papus, consul in 225 BC.
Marcus Aemilius Papus, curio maximus, died in 210 BC.
Lucius Aemilius Papus, praetor in 205 BC, received Sicily as his province.
Marcus Messius Rusticus Aemilius Papus, father of the consul of AD 135, and a comes of the Emperor Hadrian.[23]
Marcus Cutius Priscus Messius M. f. Rusticus Aemilius Papus Arrius Proculus Julius Celsus, consul in AD 135.[24]
Marcus Messius M. f. Rusticus Aemilius Afer Cutius, brother of the consul of AD 135.[23]
Aemilii BarbulaeEdit
Quintus Aemilius Q. f. L. n. Barbula, consul in 317 and 311 BC.
Marcus Aemilius Q. f. L. n. Barbula, dictator in an uncertain year between 292 and 284 BC.[25]
Lucius Aemilius Q. f. Q. n. Barbula, consul in 281 BC, and conqueror of Tarentum.
Marcus Aemilius L. f. Q. n. Barbula, consul in 230 BC.
Aemilii PaulliEdit
Marcus Aemilius L. f. L. n. Paullus, consul in 302 BC, defeated Cleonymus of Sparta. The following year he was appointed magister equitum by the dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, who sent him against the Etruscans, but Aemilius was defeated.[26]
Marcus Aemilius M. f. L. n. Paullus, consul in 255 BC, during the First Punic War. He and his colleague, Servius Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior, led a Roman fleet to Africa, and won an important naval victory over the Carthaginians, but much of their fleet was wrecked in a storm on their return.[27][28][29][30][31][32][33]
Lucius Aemilius M. f. M. n. Paullus, consul in 219, triumphed over the Illyrians. Consul for the second time in 216 BC, early in the Second Punic War, he opposed engaging Hannibal at the Cannae, but fought bravely and was slain in battle.[34][35][36][37][38][39]
Lucius Aemilius L. f. M. n. Paullus, afterward surnamed Macedonicus, consul in 182 and 168 BC. The most illustrious of his family, he triumphed over Perseus of Macedon in 167 BC; but his two elder sons were adopted into other gentes, and his younger sons died within days of his triumph, leaving no sons to carry on his name.[40][41][42][43][44][45][46]
Tertia Aemilia L. f. M. n. Paulla, the sister of Macedonicus, married Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. Her daughter, Cornelia, was the mother of the Gracchi, and when she died, her property passed to her adoptive grandson, who was also her nephew, Scipio Africanus Minor.[47][48][49][50][51]
Lucius Aemilius L. f. L. n. Paullus, afterward Quintus Fabius Q. f. Q. n. Maximus Aemilianus, the eldest son of Macedonicus, he was adopted into the Fabian gens.
Aemilius L. f. L. n. Paullus, afterward Publius Cornelius P. f. P. n. Scipio Africanus Aemilianus, or "Africanus Minor", was the second son of Macedonicus, and was adopted by his cousin, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, whose father had defeated Hannibal. Aemilianus was consul in 147 and 134 BC.
Prima Aemilia L. f. L. n. Paulla, married Quintus Aelius Tubero, who served under her father, Macedonicus, in the war with Perseus.[52]
Secunda Aemilia L. f. L. n. Paulla, married Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus, who also served under his father-in-law in the war with Perseus.
Tertia Aemilia L. f. L. n. Paulla, when a little girl, gave her father a favorable omen, when following his election as consul for 168 BC, in order to conduct the war with Perseus, he returned home to find Aemilia crying because her dog, also named Perseus, had died.[53][54]
Aemilius L. f. L. n. Paullus, the elder of two sons of Macedonicus by his second wife, died at the age of fourteen, three days after his father's triumph in November of 167 BC.
Aemilius L. f. L. n. Paullus, the youngest son of Macedonicus, died at the age of twelve, five days before his father's triumph.
Aemilii LepidiEdit
Obverse of a denarius of Aemilius Lepidus the triumvir
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 285 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, consul in 232 BC, and perhaps consul suffectus in 220.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, praetor in 218 BC.
Lucius Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, son of the consul of 232 BC.
Quintus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, son of the consul of 232 BC.
Manius Aemilius M'. f. Lepidus, praetor in 213 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, consul in 187 and 175 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M'. f. M' n. Lepidus, consul in 158 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, military tribune against Antiochus III in 190 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Porcina, consul in 137 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, consul in 126 BC.
Quintus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, probably son of the military tribune of 190 BC.
Marcus Aemilius Q. f. M. n. Lepidus, consul in 78 BC.
Mamercus Aemilius Mam. f. M. n. Livianus, consul in 77 BC.
Manius Aemilius Mam. f. M. n. Lepidus, consul in 66 BC.
Lucius Aemilius M. f. Q. n. Lepidus Paullus, consul in 50 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. Q. n. Lepidus, the triumvir, consul in 42 BC.
Aemilius (M. Lepidi f. Q. n.) Regillus, mentioned by Cicero.
Paullus Aemilius L. f. M. n. Lepidus, consul suffectus in 34 BC.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Lepidus, son of the triumvir; conspired to assassinate Octavianus in 30 BC.
Quintus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 21 BC.
Lucius Aemilius Paulli f. L. n. Paullus, consul in AD 1; conspired against Augustus.
Marcus Aemilius Paulli f. L. n. Lepidus, consul in AD 6.
Aemilia Paulli f. L. n. Lepida (b. 22 BC)
Manius Aemilius Q. f. Lepidus, consul in AD 11.
Aemilia Q. f. Lepida, wife of Publius Sulpicius Quirinus, accused of various crimes and condemned in AD 20.
Marcus Aemilius L. f. Paulli n. Lepidus, put to death by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus, AD 39.
Aemilia L. f. Paulli n. Lepida, the first wife of Tiberius Claudius Drusus.
Aemilia M. f. Paulli n. Lepida (d. AD 36), wife of Drusus Julius Caesar.
Aemilii RegilliEdit
Marcus Aemilius Regillus (d. 205 BC), Flamen Quirinalis and unsuccessful candidate for the consulship in 214 BC.
Lucius Aemilius (M. f.) Regillus, praetor in 190 BC, during the war against Antiochus III.
Marcus Aemilius (M. f.) Regillus (d. 190 BC), brother of Lucius Aemilius Regillus, died in the course of the war against Antiochus.
Aemilii ScauriEdit
Lucius Aemilius Scaurus, an officer in the Roman fleet during the war against Antiochus III in 190 BC.
Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, consul in 115 and 107 BC, censor in 109, and princeps senatus.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. Scaurus, praetor in 56 BC.
Aemilius Scaurus M. f. Scaurus (d. 101 BC), fought against the Cimbri under Quintus Lutatius Catulus.
Marcus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Scaurus, supporter of Marcus Antonius.
Mamercus Aemilius M. f. M. n. Scaurus, orator and poet, twice accused of majestas.
Aemilii BucaeEdit
Denarius issued by Aemilius Buca the moneyer, depicting the laureate head of Julius Caesar, and on the reverse Venus holding Victoria and sceptre
Lucius Aemilius Buca, quaestor in the time of Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
Lucius Aemilius L. f. Buca, triumvir of the mint in 54 BC.
Gravestone of freedmen (liberti) with the nomen Aemilius, from Emerita Augusta, Roman Spain[55]
Aemilia, one of the Vestal Virgins, who miraculously rekindled the sacred flame with a piece of her garment.[56][57]
Aemilia, a Vestal put to death on the charge of incest in 114 BC. Two others, Marcia and Licinia, were acquitted, on the grounds that Aemilia had instigated the crime, but they were condemned to death by Lucius Cassius Longinus Ravilla.[58][59][60][61]
Caeso Aemilius K. f. Varrius, a military engineer of uncertain date.[62][63]
Marcus Aemilius Avianus, a friend of Cicero, and the patron of Avianus Evander and Avianus Hammonius.[64]
Aemilius Macer, a poet who flourished during the early decades of the Empire, and wrote upon the subjects of birds, snakes, and medicinal plants.
Aemilius Macer of Verona, a poet who wrote upon Homeric subjects He flourished toward the end of the reign of Augustus.
Aemilius Rectus, governor of Egypt in AD 15, was rebuked by Tiberius for returning more money to the treasury than had been requested; Tiberius replied that he wanted the governors to shear his sheep, not shave them.[65][66]
Aemilius Sura, annalist, probably a contemporary of Marcus Velleius Paterculus.
Aemilius Rufus, prefect of the cavalry under Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo in Armenia.
Aemilius Pacensis, tribune of the city cohorts at the death of Nero in AD 69; perished fighting against Aulus Vitellius.
Quintus Aemilius Laetus, Praetorian Prefect under Commodus.
Aemilius Asper (late 1st century), grammarian and commentator on Publius Terentius Afer and Publius Vergilius Maro.
Aemilius Asper Junior, a grammarian who flourished during the second century, and the author of Ars Grammatica.
Aemilius Papinianus, a jurist of the late second and early third century.
Aemilius Macer (3rd century), a jurist who lived in the time of Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander.
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus, governor of Pannonia and Moesia, was proclaimed Emperor in 253, but slain by his soldiers.
Aemilius Magnus Arborius, a fourth-century poet, and a friend of the brothers of Constantinus.
Aemilius Parthenianus, a historian who gave an account of the various persons who aspired to the tyranny.
Aemilius Probus, grammarian of the late fourth century, to whom the Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae of Cornelius Nepos was erroneously attributed.
Blossius Aemilius Dracontius a fifth-century Christian poet.
FootnotesEdit
^ In addition to Paulla, the form Polla, was common in Latin, and either could be spelled with one 'l' or two. There were three distinct pronunciations of the vowel, which can be seen from Greek inscriptions, including Παυλλα, Πολλα, and Πωλα. The same variation was probably characteristic of the masculine Paullus, as with other Latin names, such as Claudius, which was frequently spelled Clodius, although this came to be regarded as a plebeian spelling.
List of Roman gentes
Aemilius (disambiguation)
Basilica Aemilia
^ a b c d e Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 30 ("Aemilia Gens").
^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, i. 18.
^ Chase, pp. 122, 123.
^ Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome, p. 10.
^ Chase, pp. 114, 140, 141.
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 120 ("Papus").
^ Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 242, 243.
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 461 ("Barbula").
^ a b c Chase, pp. 109, 110.
^ New College Latin & English Dictionary, s. v. barbula.
^ Kajava, Roman Female Praenomina.
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 153 ("Aemilius Paulus").
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p. 762 ("Aemilius Lepidus").
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp. 735, 736 ("Scaurus", "Aemilius Scaurus").
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 642 ("Regillus").
^ Chase, p. 113, 114.
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 516 ("Buca").
^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 35.
^ a b Birley, The Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 242-244.
^ Birley, p. 243.
^ Broughton, vol. I, p. 187.
^ Livy, x. 1-3.
^ Polybius, i. 36, 37.
^ Eutropius, ii. 22.
^ Orosius, iv. 9.
^ Diodorus Siculus, xxiii. 14.
^ Zonaras, viii. 14.
^ Niebuhr, History of Rome, vol. iii. p. 591.
^ Arnold, History of Rome, vol. ii. p. 593, note 67.
^ Polybius, iii. 16-19, iv. 37.
^ Appian, Bella Illyrica, 8.
^ Livy, xxii. 35, xxiii. 21.
^ Horace, Carmen Saeculare, i. 12.
^ Valerius Maximus, i. 3. § 3.
^ Plutarch, "The Life of Aemilius Paullus".
^ Livy, xxxiv. 45, xxxv. 10, 24, xxxvi. 2, xxxvii. 46, 57, xxxix. 56, xl. 25-28, 34, xliv. 17-xlv. 41, Epitome, 46.
^ Polybius, xxix.-xxxii.
^ Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus, 56.
^ Valerius Maximus, v. 10. § 2.
^ Velleius Paterculus, i. 9, 10.
^ Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum, vol. ii. p. 16.
^ Polybius, xxxii. 12.
^ Diodorus Siculus, excerpta, xxxi.
^ Valerius Maximus, vi. 7. § 1.
^ Plutarch, "The Life of Aemilius Paullus", 2.
^ Livy, xxxviii. 57.
^ Plutarch, "The Life of Aemilius Paullus", 28.
^ Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 46, ii. 40.
^ Année Epigraphique 2003.881.
^ Dionysius, ii. 68.
^ Plutarch, "Quaestiones Romanae", p. 284.
^ Livy, Epitome, 63.
^ Orosius, v. 15.
^ Asconius Pedianus, In Ciceronis Pro Milone, p. 46, ed. Orelli.
^ Karl Julius Sillig, Catalogus Artificium (1827), Appendix, s.v.
^ Desiré-Raoul Rochette, Lettre à M. Schorn, p. 422, 2nd ed.
^ Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares xiii. 2, 21, 27.
^ Cassius Dio, lvii. 10.
^ Orosius, vii. 4.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "article name needed" . Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
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Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Divinatione.
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Diplomacy (game)
(Redirected from Diplomacy game)
Diplomacy is a strategic board game created by Allan B. Calhamer in 1954 and released commercially in 1959.[1] Its main distinctions from most board wargames are its negotiation phases (players spend much of their time forming and betraying alliances with other players and forming beneficial strategies)[2] and the absence of dice and other game elements that produce random effects. Set in Europe in the years leading to the Great War, Diplomacy is played by two to seven players,[3] each controlling the armed forces of a major European power (or, with fewer players, multiple powers). Each player aims to move his or her few starting units and defeat those of others to win possession of a majority of strategic cities and provinces marked as "supply centers" on the map; these supply centers allow players who control them to produce more units. Following each round of player negotiations, each player can issue attack orders and take control of a neighboring province when the number of provinces adjacent to the attacking province that are given orders (written down and declared in advance) to support the attacking province exceeds the number of provinces adjacent to the province under attack that are given orders to support the province under attack.
Allan B. Calhamer
Diplomacy was the first commercially published game to be played by mail (PBM); only chess, which is in the public domain, saw significant postal play earlier. Diplomacy was also the first commercially published game to generate an active hobby scene with amateur fanzines; only science-fiction, fantasy and comics fandom saw fanzines earlier. Competitive face-to-face Diplomacy tournaments have been held since the 1970s. Play of Diplomacy by e-mail (PBEM) has been widespread since the late 1980s.[4]
Diplomacy has been published in the United States by Games Research, Avalon Hill, and Hasbro; the name is currently a registered trademark of Hasbro's Avalon Hill division. Diplomacy has also been licensed to various companies for publication in other countries. Diplomacy is also played on the Internet, adjudicated by a computer or a human gamemaster.
In its catalogue, Avalon Hill advertised Diplomacy as John F. Kennedy[5] and Henry Kissinger's favourite game. Kissinger described it as his favourite in an interview published in a games magazine.[6] Authors Isaac Asimov and Ray Bradbury,[7] and American broadcast journalist Walter Cronkite were also reported to be fans of the game.[8] British journalist, broadcaster, and former Member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister Michael Portillo is known to have played the game whilst studying at Harrow County School for Boys.[9]
The idea for Diplomacy arose from Allan B. Calhamer's study at Harvard of nineteenth-century European history under Sidney B. Fay inter alia, and from his study of political geography.[2] The rough form of Diplomacy was created in 1954, and its details were developed through playtesting until the 1958 map and rules revisions. Calhamer paid for a 500-game print run of that version in 1959 after rejection by major companies.[1] It has been published since then by Games Research (in 1961, then a 1971 edition with a revised rulebook), Avalon Hill (in 1976), by Hasbro's Avalon Hill division (in 1999), and now by Wizards of the Coast (in 2008) in the USA, and licensed to other boardgame publishers for versions sold in other countries. Among these are Parker Brothers, Waddingtons Games, Gibsons Games, Asmodée Editions.[10]
Basic setting and overviewEdit
The board is a map of 1914 Europe plus portions of Western Asia and North Africa. It is divided into fifty-six land regions and nineteen sea regions. Forty-two of the land regions are divided among the seven Great Powers of the game: Austria-Hungary, England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey.[11] The remaining fourteen land regions are neutral at the start of the game.
Thirty-four of the land regions contain "supply centers", corresponding to major centers of government, industry or commerce (e.g., Vienna and Rome); twenty-two of these are located within the Great Powers and are referred to as "home" supply centers. The remaining twelve are located in provinces which are neutral at the start of the game. The number of supply centers a player controls determines the total number of armies and fleets a player may have on the board, and as players gain and lose control of different centers, they may build (raise) or must remove (disband) units accordingly.
A Diplomacy board, showing the different land and sea territories, starting borders and the location of supply centers
The land provinces within the Great Powers which contain supply centers are generally named after a major city in the province (e.g. London, Moscow) while the other land provinces within the Great Powers are generally named after a region (e.g. Bohemia, Apulia). Neutral land provinces are generally named after countries (e.g. Serbia, Belgium). Finland and Syria are both parts of Great Powers as Finland was part of the Russian Empire and Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire in 1914. Tunis is used rather than Tunisia on most boards and North Africa is a single province covering parts of Algeria and Morocco. Although for game purposes the game starts in 1901, the map generally reflects the political boundaries of Europe in 1914 just before the outbreak of the Great War, with Bosnia already annexed to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Balkans reflecting the results of the wars of 1912 and 1913 in the region (except that Montenegro is shown as part of Austria-Hungary). On the other hand, North Africa and Tunis start the game as neutral, despite these regions being part of the French colonial empire in 1914.
All players other than Britain and Russia begin the game with two armies and one fleet; Britain starts with two fleets and one army, and Russia starts with two armies and two fleets (making it the only player to start the game with more than three units). Only one unit at a time may occupy a given map region. Balancing units to supply center counts is done after each game-year (two seasons of play: Spring and Autumn). At the beginning of the game, the twelve neutral SCs are all typically captured within the first few moves. Further acquisition of supply centers becomes a zero sum dynamic with any gains in a player's resources coming at the expense of a rival.
Comparison with other war gamesEdit
Diplomacy differs from the majority of war games in several ways:
Players do not take turns sequentially; instead all players secretly write down their moves after a negotiation period, then all moves are revealed and put into effect simultaneously.
Social interaction and interpersonal skills make up an essential part of the game's play.
The rules that simulate combat are strategic, abstract, and simple - not tactical, realistic, or complex - as this is a diplomatic simulation game, not a military one.
Combat resolution contains no random elements - no dice are rolled, no cards are drawn.
Each military unit has the same strength.
It is especially well suited to postal play,[2] which led to an active hobby of amateur publishing.
Internet Diplomacy is one of the few early board games that is still played on the web.
GameplayEdit
Diplomacy proceeds by seasons, beginning in the year 1901, with each year divided into two main seasons: the "Spring" and "Autumn/Fall" moves. Each season is further divided into negotiation and movement phases, followed by 'retreat' or 'disband' adjustments and an end-of-the-year Winter phase of new builds or removals following the Autumn adjustments.
Negotiation phaseEdit
In the negotiation phase, players communicate with each other to discuss tactics and strategy, form alliances, and share intelligence or spread disinformation about mutual adversaries. Negotiations may be made public or kept private. Players are not bound to anything they say or promise during this period, and no agreements of any sort are enforceable.
Communication and trust are highly important for this strategy game. Players must forge alliances with others and observe their actions to evaluate their trustworthiness. At the same time, they must convince others of their own trustworthiness while making plans to turn against their allies when least expected. A well-timed betrayal can be just as profitable as an enduring, reliable alliance.
Cheating can be a large part of certain diplomacy games. Some hosts allow for players to submit false copies of sheets for other players, thus changing their moves. This only works if the person who has their moves replaced is not paying attention when the host is reading out the moves.
Movement phaseEdit
After the negotiation period, players write secret orders for each unit; these orders are revealed and executed simultaneously. A unit can move from its location to an adjacent space, support an adjacent unit to hold an area in the event of an attack, support another unit to attack a space into which it could move itself, or hold defensively. In addition, fleets may transport armies from one coast space to another when in a chain called a "convoy". Armies may only occupy land regions, and fleets occupy sea regions and the land regions that border named seas. Only one unit may occupy each region. If multiple units are ordered to move to the same region, only the unit with the most support moves there. If two or more units have the same highest support, a standoff occurs and no units ordered to that region move. A unit ordered to give support that is attacked has those orders canceled and is forced to hold, except in the case that support is being given to a unit invading the region from which the attack originated.
Certain countries on the board have two coasts and if this is the case a player must specify which one of the coasts he wants his fleet to occupy. A fleet of a specific coast can only move to coasts and oceans that border the coast that it is on. For example, a fleet occupying the southern coast of Bulgaria cannot move into Rumania or the Black Sea, but a fleet on the east coast could.
End-of-year and supply centersEdit
After each Autumn move, newly acquired supply centers become owned by the occupying player, and each power's supply center total is recalculated; players with fewer supply centers than units on the board must disband units, while players with more supply centers than units on the board are entitled to build units in their Home centers (supply centers controlled at the start of the game). Players controlling no supply centers are eliminated from the game, and if a player controls 18 or more (that is, more than half) of the 34 SCs, that person is declared the winner. Players may also agree to a draw; this also happens when (infrequent) stalemates occur.
VariantsEdit
Several boardgames based on Diplomacy have been commercially published. Additionally, many fans of the game have created hundreds of variants of their own, using altered rules on the standard map, standard rules on a different map, or both.
Rulebook provision for fewer than seven playersEdit
The rules allow for games with two to seven players, closing parts of the standard board, but these are used only in casual play, and are not considered standard Diplomacy in tournament, postal, or most forms of online play. For example, if there are six players, everyone plays one country and Italy is not used; for five players, Italy and Germany are not used. The original rules did not include additional guidelines, but the Avalon Hill set included suggestions, such as individual players using multiple countries, and additions.
Another approach to solving the problem of fewer than seven players is the use of the Escalation Variant Rules by Edi Birsan:
Players start with no pieces on the board
Players put one piece down on the board in any province one at a time (starting with the youngest player)
After reaching the maximum number of pieces the players start the game with ownership of their starting provinces.
At the end of Autumn 1901 with their adjustments players write down their three HOME centers for the rest of the game.
This is done without negotiations and may result in two players declaring the same province. However, in order to build there they still must own it and the province must be open. Players may choose any supply center as a HOME for example: EDI, DEN, ROM
It is suggested that for the number players the following starting pieces are used:
Two - 12 units
Three - 8 units
Four − 6 units
Five - 5 units
Six - 4 units
It is also suggested that for games with 2-4 players that the 'Gunboat' rule applies which means that there are no discussions.
For 4 or 5 players, it is suggested that the 'Wilson' or 'Public Press' rule applies which means that all discussions must take place in the open at the table with no whispers or secret signals.
For 5 or 6 players, it is suggested that regular negotiation rules apply.
The following are the current official suggestions:
Alternative way to playEdit
The following is an alternative way to play the game of Diplomacy when fewer than seven players are present.
Six Players: Eliminate Italy. Italian units hold in position and defend themselves, but don't support each other. Units belonging to any of the players can support them in their holding position. If Italian units are forced to retreat, they're disbanded.
Five Players: Eliminate Italy and Germany (as described for Italy above).
Four Players: One player plays Britain, and the other three play the following pairs: Austria/France, Germany/Turkey, and Italy/Russia.
Three Players: One player controls Britain/Germany/Austria; the second, Russia/Italy; and the third, France/Turkey. Or one player plays Britain/Austria; one plays France/Russia; one plays Germany/Turkey. In this version Italy is not played.
Three Players (alternative[12]): One person plays Russia while the other two control Britain/France/Germany and Austria/Italy/Turkey.
Two Players: This version can be played as a World War I simulation. One player controls Britain/France/Russia while the other plays Austria/Germany/Turkey. Italy is neutral and Italian territory can't be entered. The game begins in 1914. Before the Autumn 1914 adjustments, flip a coin. Italy joins the winner of the toss in Spring 1915. The first player to control 24 supply centers wins. This is also a way for two new players to learn the rules.
In games for 2, 3, or 4 players, supply-center ownership is computed for each individual country, even though the same person plays more than one country. As with the regular rules, adjustments must be made by each country in accordance with its supply-center holdings.
Commercially published Diplomacy variantsEdit
There have been six commercially released variants of Diplomacy  -  Machiavelli, Kamakura, Colonial Diplomacy, Hundred, Ard-Rí and Classical. Imperial is a boardgame with enough similarities to be described as a Diplomacy variant by some.
MachiavelliEdit
Main article: Machiavelli (board game)
Machiavelli was published by Battleline Publications, later taken over by Avalon Hill. Set in Renaissance Italy, the board is controlled by the Republic of Florence, the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan, the Kingdom of Naples, the Papacy, Valois France, Habsburg Austria, and the Ottoman Turks. The game introduces many rules changes such as money, bribery, three seasons per year, garrisons, and random events such as plague and famine. It features scenarios tailored for as few as four and as many as eight players.
KamakuraEdit
Kamakura was published by West End Games in the early 1980s. Its setting is feudal Japan.
Colonial DiplomacyEdit
Published by Avalon Hill in 1994. It is set in Asia in the late 19th century, and much of the board is controlled by various colonial powers: the United Kingdom, the Russian Empire, the Empire of Japan, Holland, Ottoman Empire, China, and France. The game introduces three special features:
The Trans-Siberian railroad extends across Russia from Moscow to Vladivostok. The railroad can be used by Russia to move armies anywhere along the railroad. The TSR may only be used by Russia. Russian armies are allowed to move through other Russian armies, but foreign armies can block the passage of armies on the TSR.
The Suez Canal is the only way to move between the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea. Use of the Suez Canal is controlled by whoever is in control of Egypt. The use of the Suez Canal increases in importance later in the game as expansion becomes both more important and more difficult.
The ownership of Hong Kong counts as a supply center for any country except China.
This map was used as the basis of the Imperial Asia expansion map.[13]
HundredEdit
Hundred is a map for three players by Andy D. Schwarz based on the Hundred Years' War created in 1996 and published by Stupendous Games in 2000.[14][15]
Ard-RíEdit
Ard-Rí is a map by Stuart John Bernard based on pre-Christian Ireland (though it anachronistically includes Vikings), created in 1998, and published by Stupendous Games in 2000.[16][15] Ard-Rí happens to also be the name of a hnefatafl variant played in Ancient Ireland.
ClassicalEdit
Classical is a map by Andy D. Schwarz and Vincent Mous based on the ancient world after the death of Alexander the Great, created in 1998, and published by Stupendous Games in 2000.[17][15]
Diplomacy of the Three KingdomsEdit
Based on the Three Kingdoms in Ancient China, it was created by Edi Birsan to introduce the basic ideas of the main game to a Chinese audience with a setting more close to their own historical experience. It was published by MJS Creations in 2008.
Diplomacy variants not commercially publishedEdit
A wide range of other variants of Diplomacy have been created and played without being commercially published.[18][19] These include settings such as the ancient and renaissance world. Some variants use new maps and rules, whilst others simply vary the original game, such as the Fleet Rome variant which replaces the starting Italian army in Rome with a fleet. One of the most notable non-commercially published is the Youngstown variant which is an extension of the normal map, including Asia and colonies there. For example, in addition to the usual home centers, France starts with a fleet in Saigon (in Cochinchina).[18] Three new Powers were added - India, China, and Japan - with powers without historical Asian colonies being given more home centres. The variant was named after the city of Youngstown, Ohio where the variant was invented.[18][20]
TournamentsEdit
Further information: International prize list of Diplomacy
Diplomacy is played at a number of formal tournaments in many nations. Most face-to-face Diplomacy tournaments longer than one day are associated with either a Diplomacy-centered convention (such as DipCon or Dixiecon) or a large multi-game convention (such as the Origins Game Fair or the World Boardgaming Championships). Some conventions are centered on the games and have a highly competitive atmosphere; others have more focus on meeting and socializing with other players from the postal or e-mail parts of the hobby.
Tournament playEdit
In some tournaments, each game ends after a specified number of game-years, to ensure that all players can play in all rounds without limiting the tournament structure to one round per day. At other events, a game continues until a winner is determined or a draw is voted. Tournaments in Europe are generally played with a specific end year whereas tournaments in North America more often are played until someone wins or a draw is agreed.
Major championship tournamentsEdit
The World Diplomacy Convention (WDC or World DipCon) is held annually in different places in the world. The winner of WDC is considered to be the World Champion of Diplomacy. WDC was first held in 1988 in Birmingham, England, and was held at two-year intervals before becoming an annual event. WDC's site moves among four regions: North America, Europe, Australasia, and the rest of the world, with a requirement that successive WDC's are always held in different regions.[21]
The North American Diplomacy Convention (DipCon) is held annually in different places in North America, to determine the North American Champion of Diplomacy. DipCon was first held in 1966 in Youngstown, Ohio.[22] DipCon's site rotates among West, Central, and East regions.[23]
The European Diplomacy Convention (Euro DipCon) is held annually in different places in Europe, to determine the European Champion of Diplomacy.
Over a dozen other countries hold face-to-face national championship tournaments.[24]
Other major face-to-face tournamentsEdit
Many of the larger multi-game conventions, such as the World Boardgaming Championships, Gen Con, Origins, ManorCon, TempleCon, and Dragonflight also host Diplomacy tournaments. On occasion, WDC or DipCon will be held in conjunction with one of these conventions.
In addition, many of the larger local and regional clubs host tournaments on an annual basis and always encourage visitors from the local area as well as any travelers from around the globe.
Major play-by-email tournamentsEdit
The play-by-email field is constantly changing. There are numerous tournaments generally associated with different websites. As of 2008 there were no official events sanctioned by the manufacturer (Wizards/Avalon Hill). There have been and continue to be events with various sizes and self designated titles such as:
World Masters - every two years in the Worldmasters E-mail Tournament composed of both team and individual events
Diplomacy World Cup - modeled after a Soccer World Cup (players are in teams competing by countries), there have been two world cups so far and a third is under way. The first took place 2007-9 and was won by France, the second 2010-12 and was won by Ireland, and the third version started in January 2013.
Winter Blitz - The 4th Annual Winter Blitzis became open to join in 2011.
Other ways to playEdit
Despite the length of face-to-face Diplomacy games, there are people who organize ad-hoc games, and there are also various clubs that have annual tournaments and monthly club games.
To overcome the difficulty of assembling enough players for a sufficiently large block of time together, a play-by-mail game community has developed, either via Postal or Internet Diplomacy, using either humans to adjudicate the turns or automatic adjudicators.
Postal play and postal hobbyEdit
Since the 1960s, Diplomacy has been played by mail through fanzines. The play-by-mail hobby was created in 1963 in carbon-copied typed flyers by John Boardman in New York, recruiting players through his science fiction fanzine Knowable. His flyers became an ongoing publication under the Graustark title, and led directly to the formation of other zines. By May 1965 there were eight Diplomacy zines.[25] By the end of 1967 there were dozens of zines in the USA, and by 1970 their editors were holding gatherings. In 1969, Don Turnbull started the first UK-based Diplomacy zine, Albion.[26] By 1972, both the USA and UK hobbies were forming organizations. In the 1980s, there were over sixty zines in the main list of the North American Zine Poll, peaking at 72 zines in 1989;[27] and there were nearly as many in the major Zine Poll of the British part of the hobby. In the 1990s and 2000s, the number of postal Diplomacy zines has reduced as new players instead joined the part of the hobby that plays over the internet via e-mail or on websites. In April 2010, Graustark itself ceased publication. As of 2011, there are only a few active postal zines published in the USA, one each in Canada and Australia, and several in the UK and elsewhere. In order to reduce postage and printing costs, as well as for environmental reasons, several zines (e.g. 'Western Front', 'Maniacs Paradise' ) are distributed to subscribers via emailed links to the zine's web page when a new issue appears, or are emailed out as pdf files, for subscribers to read on screen, or print out as they choose. Some zines maintain a dual existence as paper and digital publications.
OnlineEdit
Main article: Internet Diplomacy
Diplomacy has been played through e-mail on the Internet since the 1983 debut of The Armchair Diplomat on Compuserve.[25] From 1986-1990, Peter Szymonik started and moderated dozens of simultaneously running Online Diplomacy games on the GEnie Network with hundreds of players worldwide. This later included the first online Colonia variant games and later branched into and gave birth to Jim Dunnigan's related Hundred Years War Online multiplayer wargame. Adjudication by computer started in 1988. A multitude of play-by-email (PBEM) communities and online tournaments were developed over the coming years, and recent online Diplomacy sites such as webDiplomacy and PlayDiplomacy also allow entirely web-based games of Diplomacy.[28]
In addition to e-mail and web-adjudicated games, numerous variations - ranging from player numbers and slight differences (such as placing an extra Italian fleet in Rome) to entirely fictitious maps set in worlds from pop-culture exist, played with either messaging servers or forums, often hosted by the Diplomacy sites themselves.[29]
There are also apps available for mobile devices, such as Conspiracy, which is designed to play just like Diplomacy. It is developed by badfrog team.[citation needed] Another app named Subterfuge is a more modern adaptation of Diplomacy.
Diplomacy computer gamesEdit
Screenshot from the Paradox computer game
Avalon Hill released a computer game version of Diplomacy in 1984 for the IBM PC. Computer Gaming World in 1994 described it as "a flop".[30]
Hasbro Interactive released a computer game version of Diplomacy in 1999 under the MicroProse label, and developed by Meyer/Glass Interactive. A major fault, like with the Avalon Hill version, was that the computer AI was considered poor, one reviewer remarking "Gamers of any skill level will have no trouble whatsoever whaling on the computer at even the highest difficulty setting."[31]
Paradox Interactive released a new computer version in 2005, which was given negative reviews, partly due to the odd grunts the game used to express the reactions of the AI players during the Movement phase.[32][33][34] None of the computer games supported either text or voice chat, which limited the possibilities for complicated alliances.
Larry Harris commented: "I am convinced that Allan Calhamer's masterpiece should be part of every high school curriculum. Don't tell the kids, but it teaches history, geography, the art of political negotiation, and something else  -  some healthy critical skepticism. By the time you get into high school, you have a pretty good idea that not everyone always tells the truth. But a good game of Diplomacy helps you to understand how skillful some people can be at fooling you!"[35]
Diplomacy was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design Adventure Hall of Fame in 1994.[36]
Diplomacy World
Internet Diplomacy
Lepanto opening
Slobbovia
^ a b Calhamer, Allan (January 1974). "The Invention of Diplomacy". Games & Puzzles (21). Archived from the original on 2009-09-10.
^ a b c Parlett, David. The Oxford History of Board Games. Oxford University Press, UK, 1999. ISBN 0-19-212998-8. pp. 361-362.
^ "Diplomacy Rules 4th Edition (2000)" (PDF). Avalon Hill. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
^ Miller, Millis. "What is njudge?". diplomatic-pouch.org. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
^ McClelland, Edward (April 20, 2009). "All in the Game". Chicago Magazine. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
^ Games & Puzzles magazine, May 1973.
^ "DP F2012R: Diplomacy Strategy and Tactics, Secrets of My Old Age". diplomatic-pouch.org. Archived from the original on 2016-08-08. Retrieved 2016-06-14.
^ McClellan, Joseph. "Lying and Cheating by the Rules," Washington Post, June 2, 1986.
^ Gilligan, Andrew; Sweeney, John (November 27, 1994). "The making of Pretty Polly". The Guardian. Retrieved October 27, 2017. David Mitchell, British comedian, actor, writer and television presenter commented on an episode of Would I Lie to You, that he played Diplomacy with an imaginary friend Stephen Tatlock, (a painted face on a bucket, which was a stand-in for his real friend, Stephen Tatlock), and that sometimes imaginary Stephen Tatlock would win. However, the story was in fact, a lie.
^ "Diplomacy". BoardGameGeek. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
^ Gordon, David. "Diplomacy, Part 1". Retrieved 30 April 2012.
^ Rules for Diplomacy, 2nd Edition/Feb. 1982, p. 9
^ "Imperial - Asia Expansion Map and Rules - Imperial - BoardGameGeek". .
^ "Diplomacy: Hundred Variant - Board Game - BoardGameGeek". .
^ a b c Szykman, Simon. "Three Variants Reviewed". diplomatic-pouch.org. Archived from the original on 2016-08-02.
^ "Diplomacy: Ard-Ri Variant - Board Game - BoardGameGeek". .
^ "Diplomacy: Classical Variant - Board Game - BoardGameGeek". .
^ a b c Sharp.R (1978) 'The Game of Diplomacy Chapter 13 (available online).
^
^ "Youngstown". 2008-01-06. Retrieved 2017-07-03.
^ Peery, Larry. "A History of World DipCon". Diplomatic Corps.
^ At John Koning's home, August 31st 1966
^ Birsan, Edi; et al. "The DipCon Story". Diplomatic Corps.
^ "World Diplomacy Database". North American Diplomacy Association. Archived from the original on February 20, 2012. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
^ a b Meinel, Jim. Encyclopedia of Postal Diplomacy Zines. Great White North Productions, Alaska, USA, 1992.
^ Sharp, Richard. The Game of Diplomacy. Arthur Barker, UK, 1978. ISBN 0-213-16676-3.
^ "1989 Runestone Poll Results", Diplomacy World, Issue 56 (Fall 1989), pp. 69-71.
^ Online Diplomacy is also available on the social networking site Facebook
^ "Online diplomacy screenshot". .
^ Coleman, Terry Lee (July 1994). "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Sovereign". Computer Gaming World. pp. 110-111.
^ "Diplomacy (1999) Review". Yahoo!. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
^ Kosak, Dave (November 10, 2005). "GameSpy: Diplomacy". GameSpy. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
^ "GameSpot review". Archived from the original on 2005-10-24.
^ Clare, Oliver (November 28, 2005). "Diplomacy • Eurogamer.net". Eurogamer. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
^ Harris, Larry (2007). "Diplomacy". In Lowder, James (ed.). Hobby Games: The 100 Best. Green Ronin Publishing. pp. 81-85. ISBN 978-1-932442-96-0.
^ "Origins Award Winners (1993)". Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design. Archived from the original on 2008-01-05. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
Calhamer, Allan. "Diplomacy" chapter of The Games & Puzzles Book of Modern Board Games. Games & Puzzles Publications, London, UK, 1975. ISBN 0-86002-059-2. pp. 26-44.
Sharp, Richard (1979). The Game of Diplomacy. London: Arthur Barker. p. 192. ISBN 0-213-16676-3. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
Kostick, Conor. The Art of Correspondence in the Game of Diplomacy. Curses & Magic, Dublin, Ireland, 2015. ISBN 978-0993415104.
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Diplomacy
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Diplomacy (game)
Diplomacy at BoardGameGeek
"World Domination: the Game"  -  article in the Washington Post, November 14, 2004
Retrieved from ""


Fox squirrel
The fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), also known as the eastern fox squirrel or Bryant's fox squirrel,[2] is the largest species of tree squirrel native to North America. Despite the differences in size and coloration, they are sometimes mistaken for American red squirrels or eastern gray squirrels in areas where the species co-exist.[3]
Fox squirrel [1]
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Order: Rodentia
Family: Sciuridae
Genus: Sciurus
Subgenus: Sciurus
S. niger
Sciurus niger
Linnaeus, 1758
S. n. niger - southern fox squirrel
S. n. avicinnia - mangrove fox squirrel
S. n. bachmani - upland fox Squirrel
S. n. cinereus - Delmarva fox squirrel
S. n. limitis - Texas fox squirrel
S. n. ludovicianus - pineywoods fox squirrel
S. n. rufiventer- western fox squirrel
S. n. shermani - Sherman's fox squirrel
S. n. subauratus - delta fox squirrel
S. n. vulpinus - eastern fox squirrel
Fox squirrel's range (excludes introduced populations)
The squirrel's total body length measures 45 to 70 cm (17.7 to 27.6 in), tail length is 20 to 33 cm (7.9 to 13.0 in), and they range in weight from 500 to 1,000 grams (1.1 to 2.2 lb).[4] There is no sexual dimorphism in size or appearance. Individuals tend to be smaller in the west. There are three distinct geographical phases in coloration: In most areas the animals upper body is brown-grey to brown-yellow with a typically brownish-orange underside, while in eastern regions such as the Appalachians there are more strikingly-patterned dark brown and black squirrels with white bands on the face and tail. In the south can be found isolated communities with uniform black coats. To help with climbing, they have sharp claws, developed extensors of digits and flexors of forearms, and abdominal musculature.[5] Fox squirrels have excellent vision and well-developed senses of hearing and smell. They use scent marking to communicate with other fox squirrels.[5] "Fox squirrels also have several sets of vibrissae, hairs or whiskers that are used as touch receptors to sense the environment. These are found above and below their eyes, on their chin and nose, and on each forearm."[5] The dental formula of S. niger is 1.0.1.31.0.1.3 × 2 = 20[6]
Fox squirrel foraging in the grass in Indianapolis, Indiana.
DistributionEdit
The fox squirrel's natural range extends throughout the eastern United States, north into the southern prairie provinces of Canada, and west to the Dakotas, Colorado, and Texas. They are absent (except for vagrants) in New England, New Jersey, most of New York, as well as northern and eastern Pennsylvania. They have been introduced to both northern and southern California,[7] Oregon,[8] Idaho,[9] Montana,[9] Washington,[9] and New Mexico.[9] While very versatile in their habitat choices, fox squirrels are most often found in forest patches of 40 hectares or less with an open understory, or in urban neighborhoods with trees. They thrive best among oak, hickory, walnut, and pines, storing their nuts for winter. Western range extensions in Great Plains regions such as Kansas are associated with riverine corridors of cottonwood. A subspecies native to several eastern US states is the Delmarva fox squirrel (S. n. cinereus).[4]
Fox squirrels are most abundant in open forest stands with little understory vegetation; they are not found in stands with dense undergrowth. Ideal habitat is small stands of large trees interspersed with agricultural land.[10] The size and spacing of pines and oaks are among the important features of fox squirrel habitat. The actual species of pines and oaks themselves may not always be a major consideration in defining fox squirrel habitat.[4] Fox squirrels are often observed foraging on the ground several hundred meters from the nearest woodlot. Fox squirrels also commonly occupy forest edge habitat.[11]
Fox squirrels have two types of shelters: leaf nests (dreys) and tree dens. They may have two tree cavity homes or a tree cavity and a leaf nest. Tree dens are preferred over leaf nests during the winter and for raising young. When den trees are scarce, leaf nests are used year-round.[12][13] Leaf nests are built during the summer months in forks of deciduous trees about 30 feet (9 m) above the ground. Fox squirrels use natural cavities and crotches (forked branches of a tree) as tree dens.[12] Den trees in Ohio had an average diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) of 21 inches (53 cm) and were an average of 58.6 yards (53.6 m) from the nearest woodland border. About 88% of den trees in eastern Texas had an average d.b.h. of 12 inches (30 cm) or more.[10] Dens are usually 6 inches (15 cm) wide and 14-16 inches (36-41 cm) inches deep. Den openings are generally circular and about 2.9 to 3.7 inches (7.4 to 9.4 cm). Fox squirrels may make their own den in a hollow tree by cutting through the interior; however, they generally use natural cavities or cavities created by northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) or red-headed woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). Crow nests have also been used by fox squirrels.[13]
Fox squirrels use leaf nests or tree cavities for shelter and litter rearing.[10] Forest stands dominated by mature to over mature trees provide cavities and a sufficient number of sites for leaf nests to meet the cover requirements. Overstory trees with an average d.b.h. of 15 inches (38 cm) or more generally provide adequate cover and reproductive habitat. Optimum tree canopy closure for fox squirrels is from 20% to 60%. Optimum conditions understory closure occur when the shrub-crown closure is 30% or less.[10]
Fox squirrels are tolerant of human proximity, and even thrive in crowded urban and suburban environments. They exploit human habitations for sources of food and nesting sites, being as happy nesting in an attic as they are in a hollow tree.[14]
DietEdit
Backyard fox squirrel searching for a location to bury its acorn, in Berkeley, California
Manipulation of food items by paws and head
Eating a Santa Rosa plum in Fullerton, California
Food habits of fox squirrels depend largely on geographic location.[15] In general, fox squirrel foods include mast, tree buds, insects, tubers, bulbs, roots, bird eggs, seeds of pines and spring-fruiting trees, and fungi. Agricultural crops such as corn, soybeans, oats, wheat, and fruit are also eaten.[4][10][13][15] Mast eaten by fox squirrels commonly includes turkey oak (Quercus laevis), southern red oak (Quercus falcata), blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), bluejack oak (Quercus incana), post oak (Quercus stellata), and live oak (Quercus virginiana).[4]
In Illinois, fox squirrels rely heavily on hickories from late August through September. Pecans, black walnuts (Juglans nigra), osage orange (Maclura pomifera) fruits, and corn are also important fall foods. In early spring, elm buds and seeds are the most important food. In May and June, mulberries (Morus spp.) are heavily used. By early summer, corn in the milk stage becomes a primary food.[15]
During the winter in Kansas, osage orange is a staple item supplemented with seeds of the Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus) and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), corn, wheat, eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides var. deltoides) bark, ash seeds, and eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) berries. In the spring, fox squirrels feed primarily on buds of elm, maple, and oaks but also on newly sprouting leaves and insect larvae.[15]
Fox squirrels in Ohio prefer hickory nuts, acorns, corn, and black walnuts. The squirrels are absent where two or more of these mast trees are missing. Fox squirrels also eat buckeyes, seeds and buds of maple and elm, hazelnuts (Corylus spp.), blackberries (Rubus spp.), and tree bark. In March, they feed mainly on buds and seeds of elm, maple, and willow. In Ohio, eastern fox squirrels have the following order of food preference: white oak (Quercus alba) acorns, black oak (Quercus velutina) acorns, red oak (Quercus rubra) acorns, walnuts, and corn.[15]
In eastern Texas, fox squirrels prefer the acorns of bluejack oak, pecans, southern red oak (Q. falcata), and overcup oak (Q. lyrata). The least preferred foods are acorns of swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii) and overcup oak. In California, fox squirrels feed on English walnuts (J. regia), oranges, avocados, strawberries, and tomatoes. In midwinter, they feed on eucalyptus seeds.[15]
In Michigan, fox squirrels feed on a variety of foods throughout the year. Spring foods are mainly tree buds and flowers, insects, bird eggs, and seeds of red maple (Acer rubrum), silver maple (Acer saccharinum), and elms. Summer foods include a variety of berries, plum and cherry pits, fruits of basswood (Tilia americana), fruits of box elder (Acer negundo), black oak acorns, hickory nuts, seeds of sugar (Acer saccharum) and black maple (Acer nigrum), grains, insects, and unripe corn. Fall foods consist mainly of acorns, hickory nuts, beechnuts, walnuts, butternuts (Juglans cinerea), and hazelnuts. Caches of acorns and hickory nuts are heavily used in winter.[15]
BehaviorEdit
Fox squirrels are strictly diurnal, non-territorial, and spend more of their time on the ground than most other tree squirrels. They are still, however, agile climbers. They construct two types of homes called "dreys", depending on the season. Summer dreys are often little more than platforms of sticks high in the branches of trees, while winter dens are usually hollowed out of tree trunks by a succession of occupants over as many as 30 years. Cohabitation of these dens is not uncommon, particularly among breeding pairs.
Fox squirrels will form caches by burying food items for later consumption.[16] They like to store foods that are shelled and high in fat, such as acorns and nuts. Shelled foods are favored because they are less likely to spoil than non-shelled foods, and fatty foods are valued for their high energy density.[17][18]
They are not particularly gregarious or playful, in fact they have been described as solitary and asocial creatures, coming together only in breeding season.[19] They have a large vocabulary, consisting most notably of an assortment of clucking and chucking sounds, not unlike some "game" birds, and they warn of approaching threats with distress screams. In the spring and fall, groups of fox squirrels clucking and chucking together can make a small ruckus. They also make high-pitched whines during mating. When threatening another fox squirrel, they will stand upright with their tail over their back and flick it.[5]
They are impressive jumpers, easily spanning fifteen feet in horizontal leaps and free-falling twenty feet or more to a soft landing on a limb or trunk.
Female fox squirrels come into estrus in mid-December or early January then again in June. They normally produce two litters a year, however, yearling females may only produce one.[15] Females become sexually mature at 10 to 11 months of age and usually produce their first litter when they are a year old.[15]
Gestation occurs over a period of 44 to 45 days. Earliest litters appear in late January; most births occur in mid-March and July. The average litter size is three, but can vary according to season and food conditions.[15]
Tree cavities, usually those formed by woodpeckers, are remodeled to winter dens and often serve as nurseries for late winter litters. If existing trees lack cavities, leaf nests known as dreys are built by cutting twigs with leaves and weaving them into warm, waterproof shelters. Similar leafy platforms are built for summer litters and are often referred to as "cooling beds."[20]
Tree squirrels develop slowly compared to other rodents. At birth, the young are blind, without fur and helpless. Eyes open at 4 to 5 weeks of age and ears open at 6 weeks. Eastern fox squirrels are weaned between 12 and 14 weeks but may not be self-supporting until 16 weeks.[13][15] Juveniles usually disperse in September or October, but may den either together or with their mother during their first winter.[12]
MortalityEdit
Fox squirrel pausing from building its nest in an attic in Berkeley, California.
In captivity, fox squirrels have been known to live 18 years, but in the wild most fox squirrels die before they become adults.[5] Their maximum life expectancy is typically 12.6 years for females and 8.6 years for males. Because of overhunting and the destruction of mature forests, many subspecies of fox squirrel (the Delmarva fox squirrel for example) are endangered.[5] Another major cause of fox squirrel population decline is mange mite (Cnemidoptes sp.) along with severe winter weather.[15]
Relatively few natural predators can regularly capture adult fox squirrels. Of these predators, most only take fox squirrels opportunistically.[4] Fox squirrel predators include: bobcats (Felis rufus), foxes (Vulpes spp. and Urocyon spp.), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), barred owls (Strix varia), and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris).[4][12][15] Nestlings and young fox squirrels are particularly vulnerable to climbing predators such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta), and pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus). In those states where fox squirrels are not protected, they are considered a game animal.[4] Fox squirrels were an important source of meat for European settlers in the 17th and 18th centuries. They are still hunted over most of their range. [4] Overhunting has been reported from small woodlots and public shooting areas in Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana.[15]
Mammals portal
Eastern gray squirrel
Western gray squirrel
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Agriculture document "Sciurus niger".
^ Thorington, R.W., Jr.; Hoffmann, R.S. (2005). "Sciurus (Sciurus) niger". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: a taxonomic and geographic reference (3rd ed.). The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 754-818. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 26158608.
^ a b Linzey, A. V.; Timm, R.; Emmons, L. & Reid, F. (2008). "Sciurus niger". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ Graham, Donna. "Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger)". Northern State University. South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
^ a b c d e f g h i Van Gelden, Richard George. (1982). Mammals of the National Parks. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press
^ a b c d e f "Sciurus niger page". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
^ Koprowski, John L. (1994-12-02). "Sciurus niger". Mammalian Species (479): 1-9. . ISSN 0076-3519. JSTOR 3504263. .
^ "Southern California Fox Squirrel Page". . Retrieved 2008-04-25.
^ "Mammal Species of Oregon - Squirrels". Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
^ a b c d "TREE SQUIRRELS AS INVASIVE SPECIES: CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS" (PDF). . Retrieved 2014-10-08.
^ a b c d e Allen, A. W. 1982. Habitat suitability index models: fox squirrel. FWS/OBS-82/10.18. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service
^ Dueser, Raymond D.; Dooley, James L., Jr.; Taylor, Gary J. (1988). Habitat structure, forest composition and landscape dimensions as components of habitat suitability for the Delmarva fox squirrel. In: Management of amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North America: Proceedings of the symposium; 1988 July 19-21; Flagstaff, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-166. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 414-421
^ a b c d Banfield, A. W. F. (1974). The mammals of Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
^ a b c d MacClintock, Dorcas. (1970). Squirrels of North America. New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc.
^ "Wild Care: Meet the Fox Squirrels".
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Chapman, Joseph A.; Feldhamer, George A., eds. 1982. Wild mammals of North America. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press
^ Koprowski, John L. (1994-12-02). "Sciurus niger". Mammalian Species (479): 1-9. . ISSN 0076-3519. JSTOR 3504263.
^ Preston, Stephanie D.; Jacobs, Lucia F. (2009). "Mechanisms of Cache Decision Making in Fox Squirrels (Sciurus niger)". Journal of Mammalogy. 90 (4): 787-795. JSTOR 27755064.
^ Kotler, Burt P.; Brown, Joel S.; Hickey, Michael (1999). "Food Storability and the Foraging Behavior of Fox Squirrels (Sciurus niger)". The American Midland Naturalist. 142 (1): 77-86. JSTOR 2426894.
^ Carraway, Mike. "Fox Squirrel, North Carolina Wildlife Profiles" (PDF). The North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. n.p. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
^ "DNR: Fox Squirrel". . Retrieved 2015-09-29.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sciurus niger.
Wikispecies has information related to Sciurus niger
"Sciurus niger". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2006-03-26.
Enature treatment: Eastern Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger)
American Society of Mammalogists: Mammalian species account of Sciurus niger
Smithsonian: Eastern Fox Squirrel article
Digimorph: 3D visualization of a Fox Squirrel skull
The Squirrel Project - UIC study of territorial interleavings of Grey and Fox Squirrels, in urban Chicago
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Harding County, New Mexico
Harding County is a county in the U.S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 695,[1] making it the least populous county in the state, and the 14th-smallest county by population in the United States. Its county seat is Mosquero.[2] The county is named for United States President Warren G. Harding, and was created (from parts of Union and Mora Counties) on the day of his inauguration as president on March 4, 1921.
Mosquero post office
Location within the U.S. state of New Mexico
New Mexico's location within the U.S.
Mosquero
Largest village
2,126 sq mi (5,506 km2)
0.4 sq mi (1 km2), 0.02%
Population (est.)
• (2016)
0.3/sq mi (0.1/km2)
Mountain: UTC−7/−6

The only incorporated cities in Harding County are Roy and Mosquero.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,126 square miles (5,510 km2), of which 2,125 square miles (5,500 km2) is land and 0.4 square miles (1.0 km2) (0.02%) is water.[3] It is divided between a high, nearly treeless prairie to the northwest (the southern limit of the High Plains), and a lower semi-desert rangeland to the southeast, by the eastern portion of the steep Canadian Escarpment. The Canadian River, in a deep and narrow canyon, forms the western border with Mora County; the southwest border runs along the edge of the Bell Ranch land in San Miguel County. The eastern part of Harding County is underlain in part by the Bravo Dome carbon dioxide gas field, which is commercially extracted.
Union County - northeast
Quay County - southeast
San Miguel County - south
Mora County - west
Colfax County - northwest
Kiowa National Grassland (part)
1790-1960[6] 1900-1990[7]
2000 censusEdit
As of the 2000 census,[9] there were 810 people, 371 households, and 231 families residing in the county. The population density was 0.38 people per square mile (0.15/km²). There were 545 housing units at an average density of 0.26 per square mile (0.1/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 84.32% White, 0.37% Black or African American, 1.36% Native American, 10.62% from other races, and 3.33% from two or more races. 44.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 371 households out of which 22.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.60% were married couples living together, 7.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.50% were non-families. 35.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.84.
In the county, the population was spread out with 20.20% under the age of 18, 4.60% from 18 to 24, 18.80% from 25 to 44, 28.10% from 45 to 64, and 28.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 49 years. For every 100 females there were 102.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.50 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $26,111, and the median income for a family was $36,667. Males had a median income of $22,750 versus $15,750 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,240. About 12.90% of families and 16.30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.30% of those under age 18 and 11.30% of those age 65 or over.
As of the 2010 census, there were 695 people, 349 households, and 213 families residing in the county.[10] The population density was 0.3 inhabitants per square mile (0.12/km2). There were 526 housing units at an average density of 0.2 per square mile (0.077/km2).[11] The racial makeup of the county was 86.9% white, 1.2% American Indian, 0.3% black or African American, 10.2% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 43.0% of the population.[10] In terms of ancestry, 11.0% were German, and 2.2% were American.[12]
Of the 349 households, 15.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.3% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 39.0% were non-families, and 34.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 1.99 and the average family size was 2.49. The median age was 55.9 years.[10]
The median income for a household in the county was $33,750 and the median income for a family was $56,563. Males had a median income of $36,167 versus $29,111 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,684. About 9.1% of families and 19.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.6% of those under age 18 and 24.7% of those age 65 or over.[13]
CommunitiesEdit
Mosquero (county seat)
Presidential elections results
2016 59.0% 311 29.6% 156 11.4% 60
1924 42.1% 721 41.7% 714 16.1% 276
National Register of Historic Places listings in Harding County, New Mexico
^ a b "State & County QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
^ "Find a County". National Association of Counties. Retrieved 2011-06-07.
^ "2010 Census Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Archived from the original on January 1, 2015. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". Retrieved June 9, 2017.
^ "U.S. Decennial Census". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ a b c "DP-1 Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 Demographic Profile Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-01-24.
^ "Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2010 - County". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-01-24.
^ "DP02 SELECTED SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE UNITED STATES - 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-01-24.
^ "DP03 SELECTED ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS - 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-01-24.
^ Leip, David. "Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections". uselectionatlas.org. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
Coordinates: 35°52′N 103°49′W / 35.86°N 103.82°W / 35.86; -103.82
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The Musical Times
(Redirected from Musical Times)
The Musical Times is an academic journal of classical music edited and produced in the United Kingdom and currently the oldest such journal still being published in that country. It was originally published as The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular from 1844 until 1903.[1][2] Its title was shortened to its present name from January 1904.[3] The journal originally appeared monthly but is now a quarterly publication. It is also available online at JSTOR and RILM Abstracts of Music Literature Full Text.
Former name(s)
The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular
Musical Times Publications (United Kingdom)
ISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)
NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )
Music. Times
MIAR
Past editors include F. G. Edwards (1897-1909),[4] Harvey Grace, Stanley Sadie (1967-1987) and Eric Wen.
^ Publisher Information: Musical Times Publications Ltd. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
^ "Front Matter". The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. 44 (730): 769-776. 1903. JSTOR 904250.
^ "Volume Information". The Musical Times. 45 (731): i-viii. 1904. JSTOR 903288.
^ "Frederick George Edwards. Born, October 11, 1853. Died, November 28, 1909" . The Musical Times. 51 (803): 9-11. January 1910. JSTOR 907487 - via Wikisource.
The Musical Times on Blogger;
The Musical Times from 1845 to 1854 at the Emeroteca Digitale Italiana.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular.
This journalism-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Romani people in Greece
(Redirected from Roma in Greece)
The Romani people of Greece or Romá (Greek: Ρομάνι/Ρομά) are called Arlije/Erlides (Greek: Ερλίδες), Tsiganoi (Greek: Τσιγγάνοι), Athiganoi (Αθίγγανοι), or the more derogatory term Gyftoi (Greek: Γύφτοι) (Gypsies). The number of Roma in Greece has been estimated to be up to 300,000 people.[1] On 8 April 2019 the Greek government stated that the number of Roma people in Greece is around 110,000.[2]
The Romani people originate from the Northern India,[3][4][5][6][7][8] presumably from the northwestern Indian states Rajasthan[7][8] and Punjab.[7] Linguistic evidence has shown that roots of Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts or daily routines.[9]
Arrival into the BalkansEdit
The history of Roma in Greece goes back to the 15th century. The name Gypsy(Gyftos=Γύφτος) sometimes used for the Romani people was first given to them by the Greeks, who supposed them to be Egyptian in origin.[10][11] Due to their nomadic nature, they are not concentrated in a specific geographical area, but are dispersed all over the country. The majority of the Greek Roma are Orthodox Christians who speak the Romani language in addition to Greek. Most of the Roma who live in Western Thrace are Muslims and speak a dialect of the same language.[12]
SettlementsEdit
The Roma in Greece live scattered on the whole territory of the country, mainly in the suburbs. Notable centres of Romani life in Greece are Agia Varvara which has a very successful Romani community and Ano Liosia where conditions are poorer. Roma largely maintain their own customs and traditions. Although a large number of Roma has adopted a sedentary and urban way of living, there are still settlements in some areas. The nomads at the settlements often differentiate themselves from the rest of the population. They number 200,000 according to the Greek government. According to the National Commission for Human Rights that number is closer to 250,000 and according to the Greek Helsinki Watch group to 300,000.[12]
As a result of neglect by the state, among other factors, the Romani communities in Greece face several problems including high rates of child labour and abuse, low school attendance, police discrimination and drug trafficking. The most serious issue is the housing problem since many Roma in Greece still live in tents, on properties they do not own, making them subject to eviction. In the past decade these issues have received wider attention and some state funding.[12]
On two occasions, the European Committee of Social Rights found Greece in violation of the European Social Charter by its policy towards Roma in the field of housing.[13][14] Furthermore, between 1998-2002, 502 Albanian Roma children disappeared from the Greek Foundation for children Agia Varvara.[15] These cases were not investigated by the Greek authorities until the European Union forced an investigation, which only led to the recovery of 4 children. The children who were sold were presumably sold to human traffickers for sexual slavery or organ harvesting, according to a report submitted by the Greek government to the European Commission.[16][17]
ReligionEdit
The majority of the Greek Roma are Orthodox Christian and have taken a Greek identity (language, names) while a small part of them, the Muslim Roma concentrated in Thrace have adopted Turkish identities.
Music and danceEdit
Roma in Greece are known for the zurna and davul duos (analogous to the shawm and drum partnership common in Romani music) and Izmir-influenced koumpaneia music. Koumpaneia has long been popular among Greek Roma and Jews (the latter being some of the most popular performers before World War II).
Notable Roma from GreeceEdit
Kostas Hatzis
Manolis Angelopoulos, singer
Paola Foka, singer
Kostas Hatzis, singer and musician
Irini Merkouri, singer
Christos Patsatzoglou, Greek international football player
Vassilis Saleas, clarinetist
Eleni Vitali, singer and composer
Sotis Volanis, singer
Giorgos Giakoumakis, footballer
Minorities in Greece
^ "Greece NGO". Greek Helsinki Monitor. LV: Minelres.
^ "Premier Tsipras Hosts Roma Delegation for International Romani Day". greekreporter. LV: Nick Kampouris.
^ Hancock 2002, p. xx: 'While a nine century removal from India has diluted Indian biological connection to the extent that for some Romanian groups, it may be hardly representative today, Sarren (1976:72) concluded that we still remain together, genetically, Asian rather than European'
^ Mendizabal, Isabel (6 December 2012). "Reconstructing the Population History of European Romani from Genome-wide Data". Current Biology. 22 (24): 2342-2349. . PMID 23219723. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
^ Sindya N. Bhanoo (11 December 2012). "Genomic Study Traces Roma to Northern India". The New York Times.
^ Current Biology.
^ a b c K. Meira Goldberg; Ninotchka Devorah Bennahum; Michelle Heffner Hayes (28 September 2015). Flamenco on the Global Stage: Historical, Critical and Theoretical Perspectives. p. 50. ISBN 9780786494705. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ a b Simon Broughton; Mark Ellingham; Richard Trillo (1999). World Music: Africa, Europe and the Middle East. p. 147. ISBN 9781858286358. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ Šebková, Hana; Žlnayová, Edita (1998), Nástin mluvnice slovenské romštiny (pro pedagogické účely) (PDF), Ústí nad Labem: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity J. E. Purkyně v Ústí nad Labem, p. 4, ISBN 978-80-7044-205-0, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016
^ "Roma in Greece: Tough Life, Segregation and... Crimes - GreekReporter.com". greece.greekreporter.com.
^ "Αθίγγανοι, Ρομ, τσιγγάνοι ή γύφτοι και από πού κρατούν οι ρίζες τους - ". .
^ a b c "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 September 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2007. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
^ "La Charte sociale européenne" (PDF). Coe.int. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ Mariam, Nicky (29 August 2013). "Agia Varvara Children Still Missing | GreekReporter.com". Greece.greekreporter.com. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ "Hopiema" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ "Children, Racism and the Greek State |". 2ndcouncilhouse.co.uk. 19 October 2013. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
Roma in Greece, 1999
Retrieved from ""


This article is about the artist. For his self-titled album, see Sean Kingston (album).
KiSean Paul Anderson (born February 3, 1990)[2], known professionally as Sean Kingston, is a Jamaican-American singer, songwriter, rapper and record producer whose first album, Sean Kingston, was released in 2007.
Kingston performing at the 2009 Shout Awards at Stadium Putra Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Kisean Paul Anderson
(1990-02-03) February 3, 1990 (age 29)
Miami, Florida, U.S.
Kingston, Jamaica
Reggae fusion
R&B[1]
Beluga Heights
Iyaz
J.R. Rotem
R. City
Born Kisean Anderson in Miami, Florida, Kingston was the first of three children born to Janice Turner.[3] Kingston's family moved to Kingston, Jamaica, when he was six.[4] Kingston attended Ocho Rios High School in Ocho Rios for three years before migrating back to the United States.[5][6] His grandfather was the noted Jamaican reggae producer Lawrence Lindo,[7] who worked under the stage name Jack Ruby.[8][4][9]
2007-08: Sean KingstonEdit
Kingston was discovered on Myspace by Matt Tobin at Beluga Heights, and signed to the label in a partnership deal with Sony.[10] In an interview with HitQuarters label head and producer J.R. Rotem described this process with regards to Kingston:
Sean Kingston was a rapper when we found him and it was a development process to get him more melodic. At Beluga we essentially refine the talent so that it's more of a marketable product.[10]
In a venture between Epic Records and Koch Records, Kingston recorded and released the single "Beautiful Girls" in May 2007.[11] The song peaked at the top of the Billboard Hot 100. "Beautiful Girls" was a success internationally, topping the charts in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, Spain and the United Kingdom. In the latter country, the song spent four weeks at the summit of the UK Singles Chart.[12] In 2007, Kingston was the opening act for Gwen Stefani's The Sweet Escape Tour and for select dates on Beyoncé's The Beyoncé Experience Tour. In 2008, he was one of the opening acts for the Australian leg of Kelly Clarkson's My December Tour.[13] Since Sean was a Jamaican singer, he got his stage name from the capital of Jamaica called Kingston.
2009-10: TomorrowEdit
Kingston performing in 2009.
The album Tomorrow was released on September 22, 2009. Producers involved in the album included former Fugee Wyclef Jean; RedOne (of recent Lady Gaga fame); plus Sean's original mentor, J. R. Rotem.[14] "Fire Burning" and "Face Drop" were released as singles. Additionally, five promotional digital singles were released leading up to the album. Kingston co-wrote Jason Derulo's "Whatcha Say". He also found the R&B-reggae singer Iyaz on MySpace and signed him to J.R. Rotem's record label.[15] He also recorded the track "Miss Everything" for the UK girl-group Sugababes studio album Sweet 7 which was released March 15, 2010, in the UK. Kingston and DJ Khaled are being featured on Bow Wow's new single "For My Hood", from the movie, The Lottery Ticket.[16] He had a performance in the O2 Arena where he was supported by Mumzy Stranger.[17]
2010-2013: Back 2 Life, King Of Kingz "Lee Strike" and other projectsEdit
The album features T-Pain, Nicki Minaj, Kanye West, Flo Rida, Soulja Boy, Wyclef Jean, Cher Lloyd, Akon and Dr. Dre.[18][19] The first single from the album is "Eenie Meenie" featuring Justin Bieber, released on March 23, 2010,[20] which is also included on Bieber's My World 2.0 album. The second single from the album is "Letting Go (Dutty Love)", which features a verse from Nicki Minaj. It was released on iTunes August 3, while the third is "Dumb Love" and was released on iTunes September 8. Sean Kingston's new song "She Moves" samples Irena Cara's "What a Feeling" from the film Flashdance. This has not been release as a single. A fourth single "Party All Night (Sleep All Day)" was released on December 21, 2010.
Kingston represented the continents of North and South America to sing the Official Theme Song of the Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games, "Everyone". He collaborated with four other artists representing their continent, South African Jody Williams representing Africa, Singaporean Tabitha Nauser (Asia), Briton Steve Appleton (Europe) and Australian Jessica Mauboy representing Oceania.[21] However, Kingston was unable to attend the Singapore Youth Olympics 2010 opening ceremony due to passport mix-ups.[22] Sean was invited to be featured with Cash Money Records/former So So Def member Bow Wow on his single "For My Hood". He performed it with him and DJ Khaled on BET's television program 106 & Park the day after release.
Kingston planned to release a mixtape with pop star Justin Bieber, called Our World. It featured about 12-14 songs and included their versions of songs like "Pretty Boy Swag", Eagles hit single, "Lyin Eyes" and "Billionaire". The mixtape was completed and Kingston showed his fans a preview on uStream on August 19, 2010, .[citation needed] However, the album was never released. Kingston also went on to perform on the first leg of Bieber's tour. Kingston released his first mixtape, King of Kingz, on February 3, 2011, as a free download only. The mixtape includes guest appearances by Akon, Flo Rida, Soulja Boy, Justin Bieber, B.o.B and Tory Lanez. Kingston has announced that his new album will be called Back 2 Life.[23] He also said in an interview with MTV that he would be completely re-doing the album and that the previous singles will not be on it. Kingston linked up with T.I. on the set of the video for "Back 2 Life", the street single off his upcoming album of the same name. The two shot the video in Los Angeles with comedian Mike Epps. In November 2012, Kingston performed in the Dubai Caribbean Carnival at Downtown Dubai with Jason Derülo and Bow Wow. On April 13, 2013 iTunes put up the preorder of Back 2 Life, its cover art and track listing as well as a release date of September 10, 2013.[24]
2013-present: Upcoming fourth studio albumEdit
In March 2013, Kingston announced plans for his upcoming fourth studio album while stating that he will be recording with Disney and pop star Zendaya. At the same time, he said that they're both recording a song titled "Heart on Empty", which Kingston described as "a soulful ballad that you all will be sure to remember." In November, Kingston also guest-starred, along with Chance the Rapper, Debra Wilson, Erykah Badu, Mel B, Rochelle Jordan, David Alan Grier and Christopher "Kid" Reid, in the Bob Marley episode of Black Dynamite on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim. In March 2015, Kingston posted on Instagram a picture with Swedish record producer RedOne, confirming that they were working on the album.[25] In May 2015, Sean Kingston posted a snippet of the then-upcoming lead single from his fourth studio album.[26][27] On September 14, 2015, Kingston premiered his first single in two years titled "Wait Up", the lead single off his upcoming fourth studio album.[28] Music videos were released for "One Away" and "All I Got" in January and March 2016, respectively. In March 2017 he announced the release of the "Made in Jamaica" mixtape, preceded by the single "Chance" that featured Vybz Kartel.[29]
In 2018 he participated with Italian singer Giusy Ferreri on the vocal part of the single "Amore e capoeira", by Italian record producers Takagi & Ketra.[30]
ActivismEdit
Kingston filmed a public service announcement with Do Something to encourage teens to become active in their communities by forming a Do Something club.[31] In 2010, he appeared with one of his dogs in an ad for PETA, encouraging people not to chain their dogs outside.[32]
Jet-Skiing accidentEdit
In June 2010 Kingston was involved in a near-fatal jet-skiing accident off Miami, Florida. He was immediately rushed to the hospital. Kingston was cited by Miami police for "careless operation", and required to pay a 180-dollar fine.[33] By 2018, he had begun to ride jet skis again.[34]
CriminalEdit
In 2010, Kingston and his bodyguard were accused of gang rape, with a 19-year-old victim. The case was settled outside of court in 2013.[35]
Main article: Sean Kingston discography
Sean Kingston (2007)
Tomorrow (2009)
King of Kingz (mixtape) (2011)
Back 2 Life (2013)
Awards and nominationsEdit
Image Awards
2008, Outstanding New Artist (Nominated)
MOBO Awards
2007: Best Reggae Ever Acts (Win)
MTV Video Music Awards Japan
2013: Best Reggae Video "Back 2 Life (Live It Up)" (Nominated)
2007: Choice R&B Track "Beautiful Girls" (Win)
2007: Choice Summer Track "Beautiful Girls" (Nominated)
2009: Choice Summer Song "Fire Burning" (Nominated)
^ "Sean Kingston in stable condition following jet ski crash in Miami". ABC7 Los Angeles. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^
^ Richie, Nik (8 February 2017). "EXCLUSIVE: Sean Kingston - The Kingston Family Tradition, Momma Kingston Janice Turner Loves To Chargeback". The Dirty.
^ a b Jeffries, David. "Sean Kingston > Biography". allmusic. Retrieved June 15, 2010.
^ "Jamaica Observer Limited". Jamaica Observer.
^ Lewis, Pete (February 14, 2008), "A Beauuutiful Interview with Sean Kingston", Blues and Soul (1003), retrieved June 15, 2010
^ Unterberger, Richie. "Jack "L. Lindo" Ruby > Biography". allmusic. Retrieved June 15, 2010.
^ Lewis, Pete (August 17, 2009), "Sean Kingston: Fired Up", Blues & Soul (1023)
^ Lucci, Amanda (August 3, 2010). "Sean Kingston talks about touring, third album". Star-News. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
^ a b "Interview With JR Rotem". HitQuarters. April 4, 2010. Retrieved April 8, 2010.
^ Garrity, Brian (August 12, 2007). "No Rap Turf War Here". New York, New Zealand, Southern Hemisphere, Earth, Milky Way Post. Archived from the original on October 11, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
^ "UK Singles Chart". January 9, 2007. Retrieved December 19, 2014.
^ "Sean Kingston At Rod Laver Melbourne". YouTube. Retrieved 2012-01-03.
^ Stephen Clark - Design. "Sean Kingston: Fired up!". bluesandsoul.com. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ "Iyaz: 'Replay'". Digital Spy. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ "Interview: Bow Wow, Brandon T. Jackson and Naturi Naughton of "Lottery Ticket"". ARTISTdirect. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ "Mumzy to support Sean Kingston". DesiHits. 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
^ Koroma, Salima (July 20, 2010). "Dr. Dre Makes Beats For Justin Bieber | Get The Latest Hip Hop News, Rap News & Hip Hop Album Sales". HipHopDX. Retrieved December 11, 2010.
^ "Two New Lil Wayne Songs To Be Looking Out For + Rebirth Album Pushed Back?". Lil Wayne Fansite - Weezy Blog. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ Bartolomeo, Joey (March 4, 2010). "LISTEN: Justin Bieber and Sean Kingston's New Jam". People. Retrieved March 4, 2010.
^ Singapore Youth Olympics 2010 Archived 2011-03-07 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
^ No Kingston at YOG due to passport mix up. Retrieved August 17, 2010.
^ "New Album Title..." Facebook. Retrieved 2011-11-25.
^ "iTunes - Music - Back 2 Life by Sean Kingston". iTunes. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ "Ultimate Music - Sean Kingston's fourth studio album - Working with RedOne". Ultimate Music. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ "Instagram". Instagram. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
^ "Sean Kingston "Speaking Tongues" [New Music] - BeatCog". beatcog.com. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
^ "Instagram". Instagram. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
^ "Sean Kingston Celebrates Jamaican Roots in Video for 'Chance,' Feat. Vybz Kartel: Exclusive Premiere". Billboard. Retrieved 2017-03-17.
^ "Takagi & Ketra: E' uscito "Amore e capoeira", nuovo singolo feat. Giusy Ferreri & Sean Kingston - radioufita.it".
^ "Start a Do Something Club - Sean Kingston". Youtube.
^ "Sean Kingston: Chill With Your Dogs," ABS-CBNnews.com, 15 September 2010.
^ "SEAN KINGSTON Jet Ski Accident Caused By Inattention, Inexperience". TMZ. Retrieved 2018-08-19.
^ "SEAN KINGSTON JET SKIING AGAIN After Near-Fatal Accident". TMZ. Retrieved 2018-08-19.
^
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