CRAIG'S
Common School
Question Book
The New Common School

QUESTION BOOK.
A GENERAL REVIEW OF
COMMON SCHOOL STUDIES.

TO BE USED IN SCHOOLS IN CONNECTION WITH TEXT BOOKS.

BY ASA H. CRAIG.
ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-EIGHTH THOUSAND.
CLEVELAND, O.:
J. R. HOLCOMB & Co., Publishers.
1888.
Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1888, by
ASA H. CRAIG,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
PREFACE.

REVIEWS should be one of the most important features of any school, for by it the pupil is called upon to answer from real memory, instead of the momentary memory direct from the text-books.

I have sometimes thought that the majority of teachers of our district schools do not realize the importance of daily, weekly and monthly reviews. Their greatest zeal appears to be in the advancement of their pupils in their studies. They labor to stimulate them to pass over a certain course, or reach a given point, and it is with pride that they note the rapid progress of their classes. We all know that students are few who can retain the lessons of to-day, without the thought of to-morrow on the same subject.

It is more essential for us to direct a part of our thoughts upon what we have learned, than it is to be continually pressing farther. Far better it is for us to fully understand, and be capable of practically using a part of a science, than to have studied the whole and forgotten the necessary part. If teachers would adopt the plan of asking some questions on previous lessons, at the close of each recitation, a more thorough knowledge would be obtained; their memories would be continually refreshed, until those facts or principles will be so indelibly fixed upon their minds that they cannot be forgotten. It is with this idea of refreshing the memory, that the author collected and formed systematically the general and essential principles
PREFACE.
of the Common School studies. The object is to facilitate the means of reviews, and if, through the publication of this work, teachers are induced to direct the attention of their scholars to questions promiscuously, then much good will be accomplished. The answers which are given are formed of few words, but the intention was to make them clear and concise, and as it is to be used in connection with text books, reference should be made when the teacher or pupil does not fully understand the whole meaning. Errors may be found, and the author will consider it a great favor to be informed of them, that the correction may be made.
ASA H. CRAIG.

QUESTIONS  ON  UNITED STATES HISTORY.

1. What is History?
2. By what terms are the divisions of history expressed?
3. What is Ancient History? Modern? Civil? Sacred? Profane?
4. What are the great events of Ancient History?
5. For what is Modern History distinguished?
6. How was America first settled?
7. What proofs show that America was inhabited by a race of men previous to the Indians?
8. What name have we applied to these people?
9. Why should we suppose that the Indians were a distinct race of men from those of the prehistoric times?
10. What records show that America was discovered previous to the discovery of Columbus?
11. Who were the Northmen?
12. What lands did they discover and what evidences exist of their explorations? Were they of any benefit?
13. Into how many chief epochs can the history of the United States be divided?
14. What idea led to the discovery of America by Columbus? What results were sought?
15. What land did Columbus first discover, and when?
16. Give some account of Columbus' trials and his final success?
17. How many vessels composed his fleet?
18. When and where did Columbus discover the main-land? How many voyages did he make?
19. Who discovered the continent before Columbus, and where?
20. Why was the continent named America instead of Columbia ?
21. What reward did Columbus receive for his discoveries ? Where was he buried ?
22. What nations explored the future United States ?
23. Where did the Spaniards make their claims ? The French? The English ? The Dutch ?
24. Name the most important Spanish discoverers and explorers ?
25. What induced Ponce de Leon to come to the New World ? Where were his discoveries ?
26. What discoveries were made by Vasco de Balboa ?
27. What was the object of De Narvaez explorations ?
28. What of Ferdinand de Soto and his explorations?
29. When and by whom was Mexico discovered ?
30. Give an account of the expeditions of Pedro Melendez. Of De Ayllon. Of Magellan.
31. When and where was the first colony founded on the continent ?
32. When, where, and by whom, was the first permanent settlement made in the United States ? The second ?
33. What sections were explored by the Spaniards ?
34. Who first attempted to form English settlements in America ?
35. When and where was the first permanent English settlement made in the United States ?
36. Who sent out the settlers to Jamestown ?
37. What territory was granted the London Company ?
38. How many charters had the London Company ?
39. Name the most important French discoverers? What sections did they explore ?
40. Who were the most important English discoverers and explorers ?
41. Of whom was the Plymouth Company composed? What territory was granted them ?
42. Who were the first Spanish, French, English and Dutch discoverers ?
43. Where was the first permanent settlement made by the Dutch ? By the French ?
44. Where was the first white child of English parents born in America ? What was her name ?
45. What region of country was called Acadia ?
46. What of note can be mentioned of Sir Francis Drake ?
47. What name did Raleigh give the lands he explored ?

48. Who was Champlain ? What of interest by him ?
49. Who were the Jesuit Missionaries ?
50. Who were the first partial explorers of the Mississippi and its branches ?
51. Who were La Salle and Father Hennepin ?
52. Who discovered the Hudson River ?
53. What was the object of Hudson's explorations ?
54. What is said of the fate of Hudson ?
55. What was that country called explored by Hudson ?
56. What nations claimed it ?
57. How was the dispute settled ?
58. At the close of the sixteenth century, where were the only permanent settlements ?
59. Name five of the first permanent settlements in the New World, at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
60. Who were the English Puritans ?
61. How many Puritans came on the first voyage ?
62. Who was their first Governor ?
63. Was the colony prosperous ?
64. Who was Roger Williams ?
65. What was the treatment by the Puritans of the Quakers ?
66. Who was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson ?
67. What was the United Colonies of New England ?
68. What was the object of this league ?
69. Why was Providence, Rhode Island, so named ?
70. When, and by what nation was negro slavery introduced into the United States ?
71. Who was Captain John Smith ?
72. Who were Pocahontas and Powhatan ?
73. What became of Pocahontas ?
74. When did the first English women come to America ?
75. What valuable plants were discovered in America ?
76. When was the first Indian plot to massacre the English ?
77. When was the first massacre ? The second ?
78. Who was Nathaniel Bacon ? What was the cause of Bacon's rebellion ?
79. When was the first Colonial Assembly ?
80. What colonies composed the United Colonies of New England ?
81. When was King Phillip's war? Who was King Phillip?
82. What was the Navigation Act ?
83. What was the effect of these laws?
84. Was this Act observed in Massachusetts?
85. Who was Sir Edmond Andros?
86. From what was derived the appellation of Charter Oak?
87. Who was Sir William Phipps?
88. What was the cause and result of the Salem witchcraft?
89. What was the cause of the Pequot war? How did it terminate?
90. What name did the Dutch give their colony on Manhattan Island?
91. How was this island obtained?
92. Give a short history of the early government of New York.
93. When and by whom was Connecticut settled?
94. By whom was the first settlement in New Hampshire made?
95. Who made the first settlement in Maine?
96. From what did its early colonists greatly suffer?
97. Why were the Indians so hostile and barbarous?
98. When, and by whom, was Philadelphia founded?
99. Who was William Penn?
100. Why did Lord Baltimore obtain a tract of land north of the Potomac River?
101. What was the cause of Clayborne's rebellion?
102. After this rebellion, what was the condition of Maryland?
103. To whom does the honor of having first established religious freedom in America belong?
104. By whom was Delaware settled? Where and when? What transpired a few years after their settlement?
105. What European wars disturbed the American colonies?
106. What were the causes of King William's war? How long did it last?
107. What was the condition of the colonies during Queen Anne's war?
108. Were the colonies much affected by King George's war?
109. What part did the Indians usually take in these wars?
110. Which of the colonies suffered most in early warfare?
111. Which of the colonies was free from Indian war-fare ?
112. Which was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken by the Indians ?
113. Name the thirteen colonies.
114. When and where were Harvard and Yale Colleges founded ?
115. When, and by whom, was the first newspaper started in America ? Who was the first American editor ?
116. In 1741, what caused great excitement in New York city ?
117. Who was John Eliot ?
118. Who was William Kidd ?
119. By whom was North Carolina settled?
120. When was South Carolina settled ?
121. In 1700, what valuable plants were introduced into this country ?
122. When, and by whom, was Georgia settled ?
123. Why was it called Georgia ?
124. From what nation came the great mass of the early settlers of the United States ?
125. Where were the different nationalities found in the colonies ?
126. In what were the settlers of New England en-gaged? The Middle States? Virginia and Maryland? Georgia and Carolina ?
127. Which was the most commercial colony ? Town ?
128. What was the population of New York? Phila-delphia ? Boston ?
129. Why had Virginia no large towns ?
130. In these times how was trade carried on ?
131. What was used instead of currency?
132. In what money were accounts kept ?
133. How did the use of dollars and cents become es-tablished ?
134. What were the general manners and customs of the early settlers ?
135. What religious beliefs existed in the colonies ?
136. Give an account of religious persecutions.
137. Under what dominion were the colonies?
138. What were proprietary governments ? Give ex-amples of them.
139. Describe royal government. Charter government. Voluntary association.
140. Name two strange delusions in colonial history.
141. Who were the founders of American literature?
142. What influence had the pulpit in the education of the people in colonial times?
143. When were post-offices first established? How many post-offices at the present time?
144. What great men did the colonial times produce? What great sentiment was uttered by James Otis?
145. Where and when was the first permanent settlement made in the Mississippi River valley?
146. What was the cause of the French and Indian war? What parties were engaged in it?
147. Where was the disputed territory?
148. Who was sent to request the French to withdraw from the territory on the Ohio?
149. What was the result of Washington's endeavor to compel the French to abandon the Ohio?
150. How were Col. Washington and his soldiers rewarded by the legislature of Virginia?
151. After Washington's retreat, what general was sent in his place against the French?
152. What was the result of Gen. Braddock's expedition?
153. Who was the only mounted officer saved in this expedition?
154. Was the next expedition against Fort du Quesne successful?
155. At what other points besides the Ohio did the colonists attack the French?
156. What success had the English in their attack on Acadia?
157. What was their success at Crown Point and Ticonderoga?
158. Describe the attack on Ticonderoga.
159. Were they successful at Niagara?
160. Who were the commanders at the battle of Quebec?
161. How was Quebec taken?
162. What generals were killed at the capture of Quebec? What were their dying words?
163. What was the treaty of peace between France and England?
164. What was the cause and result of Pontiac's war?
165. In the French and Indian war, what was the most remarkable battle?
166. What were the effects of this war?
167. At the close of the French and Indian war, what was the population of the colonies ?
168. What were the chief causes which led to the American Revolution?
169. What were Writs of Assistance ?
170. What was the Stamp Act ? When passed ?
171. Who was Patrick Henry ?
172. After the repeal of the Stamp Act, what attempt was made to tax the colonies ?
173. Who were the " Sons of Liberty" ?
174. What was the Mutiny Act?
175. What occurred in Boston in relation to the tea tax ? Who received the name " Boston Tea Party" ?
176. What was the Boston Port Bill ? What effect did this have ?
177. What was the Boston Massacre ?
178. When and where did the first General Congress of the colonies assemble ? What action did it take ?
179. Why do we cherish the name Faneuil Hall? Where is it ? By what other name is it known ?
180. What was the public feeling in England ?
181. Were the people all united in their protestations against the English government ? By what party names were they known ?
182. Who was Paul Revere?

REVOLUTIONARY WAR.

183. Who had command of the British army at the commencement of the Revolution?
184. When and where was fought the first battle of the Revolution ?
185. Describe the battle of Lexington.
186. What effect had this battle? .
187. Who was Israel Putnam? What nickname was given him ?
188. What were some of Putnam's narrow escapes ?
189. When and where was fought the battle of Bunker Hill ? Describe that battle.
190. Who were the commanders in this battle ? What was the force of each army, and the loss ?
191. What American general was killed in this battle ?
192. How did the Americans regard the battle of Bunker Hill?
193. What two forts were captured by the Americans in May, 1775?
194. To whom did these forts surrender?
195. What did Allen say when asked by what authority he demanded the surrender of Ticonderoga?
196. Who were termed "Green Mountain Boys"?
197. When did the second Continental Congress assemble? What did this Congress do?
198. When did Gen. Washington take command of the American army, and how large was his force?
199. What was the result of the American attack on Canada?
200. How did Washington force the British to evacuate Boston?
201. Describe the attack on Fort Moultrie.
202. What daring feat was accomplished by Sergeant Jasper in his attack?
203. Who introduced measures into Congress that "The United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States"?
204. Who were appointed to draw up a declaration of rights?
205. When was the Declaration of Independence accepted by Congress?
206. What did this declaration declare?
207. When were these articles signed, and by how many persons?
208. What became necessary after this declaration?
209. What were these articles called, and when were they to take effect?
210. Were they ratified by Congress immediately?
211. Which State was last to give her consent?
212. Why were the articles of confederation not adapted to the general wants of the government?
213. When was fought the battle of Long Island, and with what result?
214. In the retreat of Washington, through what place did he pass?
215. When was fought the battle of White Plains, and who was victorious?
216. What was the feeling of the colonists at this time?
217. What daring exploit was made by Washington near the close of the year 1776?
218. What was the effect of this brilliant feat?
219. Why did Washington choose Christmas night to attack the Hessians?
220. When and by whom was Rhode Island captured?
221. At the opening of the year 1777, how many British armies in America?
222. What battle soon followed Washington's success at Trenton?
223. What was Cornwallis' mistake in this brilliant achievement of Washington?
224. What great compliment was given to Washington by Frederick the Great of Prussia?
225. During the summer following the battle of Princeton, what transpired between the British and Americans?
226. What was the force of Washington's army?
227. What noted French Marquis joined the Americans at this time? Describe the obstacles which he overcame in order to offer his services to the American Congress.
228. When was fought the battle of Brandywine, and who was victorious?
229. When did Philadelphia surrender to the British?
230. Where did Washington attack the British soon after his retreat from Philadelphia, and with what result?
231. What was one of the most daring and remarkable exploits during the war, and how accomplished?
232. What was the chief object of taking Gen. Prescott? Was the exchange made?
233. Where did the British army go into winter quarters, and what was their condition in the spring? What did Dr. Franklin wittily remark of them?
234. Who was Lydia Darrach?
235. What cheering offset to Washington's defeat greeted the Americans?
236. Who invaded the United States from Canada?
237. What success did Burgoyne have?
238. Who commanded the northern division of the American army? Who the British?
239. What stratagem did Arnold resort to, in order to rout the British, and relieve Fort Stanwix?
240. At the battle of Bennington, how did Gen. Stark inspire his troops, and with what result?
241. What battles were fought by Gates and Burgoyne? Who was victorious?
242. When, where and to whom did Burgoyne sur-render?
243. What was the agreement in this surrender?
244. In this campaign, what noted foreigner tendered his assistance "to fight as a volunteer for American inde-pendence?"
245. What patriotic remark did Gen. Stark make when informed, after the battle of Bennington, that one of his five sons had been unfortunate?
246. What was the Conway Cabal plot?
247. When did Congress adopt the Articles of Confed-eration?
248. Where did Washington quarter his troops during the winter of 1777-1778, and what was their condition?
249. What move was now made by England to effect a reconciliation?
250. When Gen. Reed, of Pennsylvania, was offered ten thousand guineas and high honors to seek a negotiation of peace, what did he say?
251. Who were appointed by Congress to solicit aid from the French government?
252. When and where was a treaty of alliance formed?
253. In the Spring what assistance was sent by France?
254. How long did the British hold Philadelphia?
255. Where did Congress assemble while the British held Philadelphia?
256. When and where was fought the battle of Mon-mouth, and who were victorious? What heroic achieve-ment was performed by a woman in this battle?
257. How was Mary Pitcher rewarded by Congress for her courage and patriotism?
258. What can be said of Gen. Lee in the battle of Monmouth?
259. Describe the campaign in Rhode Island?
260. When did the massacre of Wyoming occur? Who directed it?
261. Describe this massacre.
262. Who had charge of the American forces in the south, in 1779? Who the British?
263. At this time, where were Washington and Clinton?
264. What important posts on the Hudson were surrendered to the Americans in 1779 ?
265. How were these posts taken, and by whom ?
266. What was the result of the American attack on Savannah ?
267. In the siege of Savannah, what nobleman was mortally wounded ?
268. Up to this time, what had been the successes of the American navy and privateers ?
269. Who was Paul Jones ?
270. During this year what Indian attack was made by General Sullivan ?
271. What was the condition of the country at the close of the year 1779 ? What was the condition of the finances of the government ?
272. What was Continental Money?
273. In 1780, where were the military operations mostly carried on ?
274. What was the result of the siege of Charleston ?
275. Who succeeded Lincoln in the command of the Southern forces, and who had command of the British ?
276. When and where was the battle of Camden, who commanded, and who was victorious ?
277. Who received command of the Southern army after the unsuccessful operations of Gen. Gates ?
278. What massacre was perpetrated by Col. Tarleton and a body of British ?
279. What was the condition of the South after these reverses ?
280. What fleet came to assist the Americans in July ?
281. Who was Benedict Arnold ?
282. Who was Major Andre ?
283. What were the names of the captors of Andre, and how were they rewarded ?
284. What were the words of Washington when the proofs of Arnold's treason were placed in his hands ?
285. What became of Arnold and Andre?
286. How was Arnold rewarded for his treachery ?
287. Who rendered gallant assistance in the South in the lawless attacks of the Tories, and often successfully routed small detachments of the British soldiers ?
288. What can be said of the courage, privations and hardships of these men?
289. What was the condition of the British armies at the close of the year, 1780 ?
290. What valuable assistance was rendered by Robert Morris, of Philadelphia ?
291. When and where was fought the battle of Cow-pens, and who was victorious ?
292. What successful operations under Gen. Greene in September ?
293. Did Gen. Greene ever gain a decided victory ?
294. How was the war conducted at the North ?
295. What event brought the war to a close ?
296. When and to whom did Cornwallis surrender ?
297. When and where was the treaty of peace signed ? Who were the commissioners who signed it ?
298. When was peace proclaimed to the American army ?
299. When and where did Washington resign his military commission ?
300. What was the condition of the country at this time ?
301. What noted persons from foreign powers gave their assistance to the Americans ?
302. What was the cause of Shay's rebellion ?
303. When was the national flag adopted ? Describe it.
304. When was the Constitution adopted ?
305. After the adoption of the Constitution, where did Congress first meet ?
306. What were the difficulties with which the new government had to contend ?

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION—1789-1797.

307. When was Washington inaugurated as President of the United States ?
308. Where was the second session of Congress held ?
309. When did the city of Washington become the capital of the United States ?
310. Who were Washington's Cabinet ?
311. How was the credit of the United States put upon a firm basis ?
312. What did Daniel Webster say of Hamilton ?
313. Who was appointed Minister to the United States from France ? Why was he recalled ?
314. What great calamity visited the people of America in August, 1793?
315. What was the whisky rebellion?
316. What difficulties now arose with the Indians, and what expeditions were sent against them?
317. What was the condition of foreign affairs?
318. What treaty was made with England in regard to English debts? How was this treaty received by the American people?
319. What two political parties were now organized? Who were the leaders of these parties?
320. What were the principles advocated by these parties?
321. By what majority was Adams elected?

ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION—1797-1801.

322. When was John Adams inaugurated President?
323. During Adams' administration, what memorable occurrences transpired?
324. What was the nature of the Alien and Sedition Laws?
325. What were the difficulties with France, and what prevented war with that nation?
326. Why was France so hostile to the United States when she had previously rendered such valuable services?
327. In the midst of these events, what memorable event transpired?
328. When was the seat of government removed from Philadelphia to Washington?
329. What was the political feeling during this administration?
330. Who were nominated in this campaign?
331. What tie vote existed in this election?

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION.

332. How was Thomas Jefferson elected President?
333. What was the most important event of Jefferson's administration?
334. What was the cause of the war with Tripoli?
335. What daring exploit was accomplished by Lieut. Decatur?
336. What difficulties arose between England and the United States?
337. What was the American doctrine in regard to naturalized foreigners? What the English?
338. After the capture of the Chesapeake, what did Jefferson order?
339. What was the Embargo Act?
340. What was the Milan Decree?
341. What disastrous event transpired between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton?
342. What was "Burr's Conspiracy"?
343. For what is Robert Fulton noted?
344. At the close of Jefferson's second term what was the political sentiment of each party?
345. When was James Madison inaugurated President?

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION—1809-1817.

346. What Indian disturbances occurred in the year 1811?
347. What acts did England continue to impose upon the United States? What was the result of these depredations?
348. When was war formally declared against Great Britain? How long did it last?

WAR OF 1812.

349. What was the opening event of the war of 1812?
350. Describe the surrender of Detroit.
351. What other attempt was made to invade Canada, and with what result?
352. What were some of the most important naval victories for the Americans in 1812?
353. During this year, how many prizes were captured by the Americans?
354. What effect did these remarkable naval victories have upon the people?
355. What was the plan of the campaign of 1813?
356. What successes had these divisions?
357. Describe Perry's victory on Lake Erie.
358. What daring exploit was performed by Perry?
359. In writing to Gen. Harrison of the victory gained, what memorable words did Perry use?
360. What course did Harrison pursue after hearing of the Erie engagement?
361. What were the principal American naval victories in 1813?
362. What were the important British naval victories in 1813?
363. In what engagement, and by whom, was used the sentence, "don't give up the ship"?
364. What Indian disturbances occurred, and who was sent to punish them?
365. What ravages were committed by Admiral Cockburn?
366. In the third invasion of Canada, what battles were fought?
367. Describe the battle of Lundy's Lane. Who commanded?
368. Describe the battle of Lake Champlain.
369. What were some of the ravages of the British on the Atlantic coast?
370. How did the term "Hartford Convention Federalist" originate? What was the sentiment of the Hartford Convention?
371. When and where were the articles of peace signed?
372. After this treaty, what terrible battle was fought, and with what loss?
373. What was the national debt at this time?
374. At the close of Madison's term of office what was the political feeling?
375. When was James Monroe inaugurated?

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION—1817-1825.

376. What was the Missouri compromise bill? Who proposed this compromise?
377. What foreigner visited this country as "The Nation's Guest"?
378. What was the nature of the Monroe doctrine?
379. How was Florida obtained?
380. What political parties were now before the people? What principles did they represent?
381. From what originated the term "loco-foco"?
382. What is a protective tariff?
383. How was J. Q. Adams elected President?

J. Q. ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION—1825-1829.

384. What important events occurred during Adams' administration ?
385. Where was the first railroad in the United States ?
386. How long is the Erie Canal ?
387. Why was the "American System" (a protective tariff) popular in the East and unpopular in the South ?
388. Why was J. Q. Adams not elected to a second term of office ?
389. What sentiment was often applied to Mr. Adams ?
390. When and by whom was the corner-stone of Bunker Hill Monument laid ?

JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION—1829-1837.

391. What was the character of Jackson's administration ? What was his "rotation in office"?
392. What was the Nullification Ordinance ?
393. Who were the strongest supporters of nullification ?
394. What action did Jackson take ?
395. What was Henry Clay's "Compromise Bill"?
396. Who said "I would rather be right than President"? Why did he say this?
397. What important bill did Jackson veto during his first term ? What did he do in 1833 in regard to the public money in the United States Bank ?
398. What can be said of speculation at this time ?
399. What Indian troubles occurred during Jackson's administration ?
400. What demands were made of the French government ?
401. What were the leading principles of the Democratic party in the election of Martin Van Buren ? Who was the Whig candidate ?

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION—1837-1841.

402. What were some of the memorable events during Van Buren's administration ?
403. What were some of the causes of the Financial Crisis ?
404. Mention some of the results of this crisis.
405. What was the "Patriot War"?
406. What occurred during the Patriot war ?
407. What disturbance occurred between Maine and New Brunswick ? How was it settled ?
408. At the close of Van Buren's administration, what was the political feeling ?
409. What party was now successful ?

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION—1841-1845.

410. How long did Harrison remain in office ?
411. Did Tyler carry out the principles of the party which elected him ?
412. What bill was vetoed by Tyler, to the great disgust of the men who elected him ?
413. What was the cause of the Dorr Rebellion ?
414. What were the Anti-Rent difficulties ?
415. What occurred in relation to the Mormons ?
416. When was Texas admitted into the Union ? Why was their petition at first rejected ?
417. Where was the first telegraph, and what was the first message sent by it ?
418. When and by whom was the cotton-gin invented?
419. What were the political sentiments during the campaign for President ? Who were nominated ?

JAMES K. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION—1845-1849.

420. What were the causes which led to the war with Mexico ?
421. Who had command of the American army ?
422. What prominent battles were won by Taylor? What by Scott?
423. Who was John C. Fremont, and what part did he take in the Mexican war?
424. What was the treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico ?
425. What was the "Wilmot Proviso" ?
426. When was gold discovered in California ?
427. What political parties were now in the field, and who were nominated by them ?

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION—1849-1853.

428. How long was Taylor in office ?
429. What important question arose at the commencement of Taylor's administration ?
430. What was the "Omnibus Bill" ?
431. Who was the "Great Pacificator"?
432. What was the Fugitive Slave Law?
433. What can be said of the Invasion of Cuba?
434. What two great men died in 1852?
435. Who were the candidates in the next presidential election? What principles did they advocate?

PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION—1853-1857.

436. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill? Who presented it?
437. How did this bill affect the inhabitants of Kansas?
438. What was the Gadsden purchase?
439. What treaty was made with Japan?
440. What was the political situation? Who were nominated?

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION—1857-1861.

441. What was the Dred Scott Decision?
442. What did John Brown attempt to do?
443. In the fall elections, who were the candidates for the Presidency?
444. What did each of the parties advocate?
445. What were the causes which led to the Civil war?
446. Which State first passed ordinance of secession?
447. What other States followed this example?
448. What government was formed by these States? When and where was it organized?
449. Who was elected President, and when inaugurated?

LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION—1861.

450. What event signalized the commencement of the war?
451. What was the result of this bombardment?
452. What did Lincoln do in regard to troops?
453. Where was the first blood shed in this war?
454. What valuable stores were seized by the Confederates?
455. How did Col. Elmer E. Ellsworth meet his death?
456. When was fought the battle of Bull Run, and with what result?
457. What effect had this defeat on the Northern people?
458. Give an account of the battle of Ball's Bluff.
459. What colonel was killed in this battle?
460. What was the condition of Missouri?
461. When and where was Gen. Lyon killed?
462. What proclamation was issued by Davis? In reply, what did Lincoln declare?
463. At the commencement of the year, how many vessels were in the United States Navy? How many at the close of the year?
464. What did England and France do by way of encouraging the rebellion?
465. Who were James M. Mason and John Slidell?
466. What occurred of much interest in relation to the commissioners?
467. When did Gen. Scott retire from active service? Who succeeded him?
468. Give a general review of the first year of the war?
469. What was the plan for the campaign of 1862?
470. What was the size of each army? What successes had the Union forces early in this year?
471. When and to whom did Forts Henry and Donelson surrender?
472. What was now the plan of operations?
473. When was fought the battle of Shiloh, and who commanded?
474. Describe the battle of Shiloh. What was the strength of each army?
475. Where is Island No. 10? When and by whom was it captured?
476. When was fought the battle of Perryville, and who were the commanders?
477. When was fought the battle of Murfreesboro? Which army was victorious?
478. What effect had this battle?
479. What was the plan of the first expedition against Vicksburg, and how did it terminate?
480. What fighting occurred in Missouri?

WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST.

481. Describe the capture of New Orleans.
482. After the capture of New Orleans, what course did Commodore Farragut pursue?
483. What was gained by the capture of Roanoke Island ?
484. What vessels were sunk by the Merrimac ?
485. Describe the encounter between the Merrimac and Monitor.
486. What would undoubtedly have been the final result if the Merrimac had been successful ?
487. After this engagement, how was the United States Navy looked upon by European powers ?
488. What became of the boats Merrimac and Monitor ?
489. Who was John Morgan ? Quantrell ?

WAR IN THE EAST.

490. In the war in the East, what was the objective point ?
491. Who commanded in the Peninsular Campaign ?
492. Describe the siege of Yorktown.
493. When was fought the battle of Williamsburg ?
494. What were McClellan's plans ? How foiled?
495. What were the movements of Stonewall Jackson ?
496. What was the effect of this movement ?
497. While these events were transpiring in the Shenandoah Valley, what were the movements of McClellan ?
498. After the battle of Fair Oaks, what course did McClellan pursue, and what desperate fighting occurred ?
499. What is the distance from Fair Oaks to the James River ?
500. What was the effect of this campaign?
501. What orders did McClellan now receive?
502. Describe Lee's campaign against Pope.
503. What was the effect of this campaign?
504. What did Lee do ?
505. Who assumed command of the Army of the Potomac after Pope's defeat ?
506. What battles were fought soon after he took command?
507. After these battles, what course did Lee pursue?
508. What was the effect of Lee's defeat ?
509. Why was McClellan again superseded ? Who took command?
510. When was fought the battle of Fredericksburg, and with what result ?
511. What were the Confederate victories during this year ?
512. What were the Union victories ?
513. What terrible Indian massacre occurred ?

1863.

514. What was the plan of the war of 1863 ? What was the force ?
515. When was issued the Emancipation Proclamation ?
516. Describe the second expedition against Vicksburg.
517. When did the garrison of Vicksburg surrender?
518. What effect had this campaign ?
519. After the battle of Murfreesboro what were the movements in Tennessee ?
520. What was now the feeling in the North in regard to the Army of the Cumberland?
521. By what means was the army of the Tennessee relieved ?
522. Where was Hooker, and how did he so suddenly appear before the Confederate army at Chattanooga ?
523. Describe the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Who commanded?
524. What effect had these successes ?
525. After the battle of Fredericksburg, who took command of the Army of the Potomac?
526. When was fought the battle of Chancellorville ?
527. In this battle, what valuable Confederate officer was killed?
528. Who succeeded Hooker after the battle of Chancellorville ?
529. What were the movements of Lee ?
530. How was his progress arrested ?
531. At the battle of Gettysburg, what was the loss ?
532. The loss of Vicksburg and the battle of Gettysburg had what effect on the Confederacy ?
533. How did Admiral Dupont attempt to take Charleston?
534. What were the Confederate successes for the year 1863 ?
535. The Union successes ?
536. What was the Draft Riot ?

1864.

537. Describe the raid made by Gen. Kilpatrick at the beginning of 1864.
538. What was accomplished by this expedition ?
539. What befell Col. Dahlgren and his command?
540. When was Gen. Grant appointed Lieutenant General of all the Union forces?
541. Where was the main strength of the Confederacy?
542. What plan was now adopted?
543. Describe Sherman's advance to Atlanta.
544. When did Atlanta surrender?
545. What had been the loss during this campaign of four months' fighting?
546. What movement was made by Hood, and why?
547. What became of Hood's army?
548. Describe Sherman's "March to the Sea," after burning Atlanta.
549. What effect had this march on Georgia?
550. At the time of Grant's move towards Richmond, what battles were fought?
551. Describe the battle of the Wilderness.
552. What did Grant do, and what battle followed?
553. Where was the next engagement?
554. What was the result of the attack on Petersburg?
555. What was the loss in this campaign?
556. What memorable words were written by Gen. Grant to the President on the 11th of May, 1864?
557. During the siege of Richmond, what two important events occurred?
558. What was the result of the mine explosion?
559. What raids were made by Gen. Early?
560. What was secured by these expeditions?
561. What did Gen. Sheridan do?
562. What was the effect of Sheridan's successes?
563. Describe the Red River expedition.
564. When was the massacre of Fort Pillow, Ky.?
565. What brilliant naval victory did Admiral Farragut achieve?
566. Describe the expedition against Fort Fisher.
567. What occurred at St. Albans, Vermont, on the 19th of October, 1864?
568. Describe the attempt of Confederate emissaries to burn New York.
569. What was the Alabama? What damage did she do?
570. When, where, and with what result was the encounter between the Kearsarge and the Alabama?
571. What other interesting naval operation occurred during this year?
572. At the close of 1864, what was the political condition of the North ?
573. What was gold worth in greenback currency ?
574. What were the Confederate victories during this year ?
575. What were the Union victories ?

1865.

576. What was the plan of the campaign for 1865 ?
577. What were the movements of Gen. Sherman?
578. Describe the siege of Richmond.
579. Describe the battle of Five Forks.
580. What effect had this brilliant victory ?
581. Describe the capture of Petersburg and Richmond.
582. When and to whom did Lee and Johnston surrender ?
583. When was Jefferson Davis captured, and how? What was done with him ?
584. How long did the war last ?
585. When and by whom was Abraham Lincoln assassinated ?
586. What became of Booth ?
587. Give an account of the attack on Secretary Seward.
588. Who were the accomplices of Booth, and what became of them ?
589. What was the total number of troops called for? The total number obtained ?
590. How many men were lost in the war ?
591. What was the cost of the war ?
592. How was slavery abolished in the United States ?
593. After the death of President Lincoln, who then became President? When was he inaugurated?
594. What caused trouble between Johnson and Congress?
595. What were the most important bills passed over the President's veto ?
596. What is the nature of these bills ?
597. For what was Johnson impeached ?
598. What is the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution ? When adopted ?
599. What demand was made by the United States government of France ?
600. What States were added to the Union during the war ?
601. What was the Reconstruction Policy of Johnson?
602. When was Universal Amnesty declared?
603. What was the Reconstruction Policy of Congress?
604. What was the "iron-clad oath"? Who were called "carpet-baggers"?
605. How long was the government in establishing its reconstruction policy?
606. What proclamation was issued by Johnson in regard to the Fenians?
607. How was Alaska obtained?
608. What treaty was made with China? What demand was made of the French government?
609. When was the Atlantic cable completed?
610. What was the political situation?

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION—1869-1877.

611. When was the U. P. R. R. completed? How far is it from New York to San Francisco?
612. When was the fifteenth amendment formally announced?
613. What is the nature of this amendment?
614. Describe the important conflagrations of 1871-2.
615. What was the difficulty with England? How settled?
616. How was the dispute regarding the northwestern boundary between the United States and British America settled?
617. What was the proposed annexation of San Domingo?
618. At the close of Grant's first term, what was the political condition?
619. Give a short history of Horace Greeley.
620. Describe the difficulties with the Modoc Indians.
621. Describe the Railroad Panic of 1873.
622. What Centennial Anniversaries were observed with great enthusiasm?
623. Describe the main features of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876.
624. What was the war with the Sioux Indians? What terrible defeat occurred?
625. In 1876, who were nominated by their respective parties for President?
626. What was the result of the general election?
627. How was Rutherford B. Hayes elected President?
628. What was the feeling among the people in regard to the settlement of this question?
629. When Samuel J. Tilden was asked if his party should stand by his election, what reply did he make?

HAYES' ADMINISTRATION—1877-1881.

630. What promise was made by Hayes in regard to "rotation in office"?
631. What was President Hayes' Southern Policy?
632. What railroad strike occurred in 1877?
633. What is the Bland Silver Bill?
634. Describe the yellow fever of 1878.
635. When was the resumption of specie payments?
636. What Indian difficulties in 1879?
637. In 1880, what was the population of the United States?
638. What were the Fishery Awards?
639. What was the treaty with China in 1880?
640. Was President Hayes' administration favorable to his party?
641. Who were nominated for President to succeed President Hayes?
642. What were the principal issues between the Republican and Democratic parties?
643. What were the principles advocated by the Green-back-Labor party?

GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION.

644. When was Garfield inaugurated President?
645. What gigantic scheme of fraud was detected in the Post-office Department? Were these frauds punished?
646. When was President Garfield assassinated?
647. What was the feeling of the country in regard to this assassination? What became of Charles J. Guiteau?
648. What testimony of deep respect was shown by the Queen of England to Mrs. Garfield?
649. When did Chester A. Arthur become President of the United States?
650. What was the extent of the disastrous flood in the Mississippi Valley in 1882?
651. Describe the Brooklyn bridge.
652. What is the Civil Service Bill? When passed?
653. When was letter postage reduced from three cents to two cents?
654. How was Alaska organized into a territory ?
655. What important event occurred at New Orleans ?
656. How was Chinese immigration regulated ?
657. Who were nominated for President ?
658. What were the chief issues discussed in this campaign ?
659. What State held the deciding vote in this election ? What majority was given to decide this election ?
660. What was the feeling of the people in regard to change of administration ?
661. What were the principles advocated by the Prohibition party?

CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION—1885-1889.

662. Who were chosen for President Cleveland's Cabinet?
663. What political charges were made against Cleveland's appointments?
664. When did Gen. Grant die? What success did the sale of his book meet ?
665. When did Vice President Hendricks die ? How many times has this office been made vacant by death ?
666. What other noted men died shortly after?
667. How many post-offices were there in the United States in 1887 ? What is the extent of the post routes ?
668. What is the extent of the cotton produced in the States ?
669. What is the value of the woolen manufactures of this country?
670. What is the length of our railroads ? Estimated valuation of cost and equipment ?
671. What is the capacity of the model printing press of the present time ?
672. What are some of the most noted inventions of which our country can boast ?
673. How many patents have been issued in a single year ?
674. Of what can we boast in regard to the cause of education ?
675. How many acres of land have been given by the general government to the States for educational purposes ?
676. How many colleges are there in the United States ?
677. What is the cost of supporting our system of free schools? How many children attend?
678. Who was the first author to secure general recognition at home and abroad?
679. How many newspapers and periodicals are published?
680. Name some of the most noted American historians, poets, writers of romance and miscellaneous matter. Orators.
681. What notable events have occurred in 1886?
682. What noted man died Dec. 26th, 1886?
683. Name the Presidents in their order. How long in office? Who died in office?
684. Which three ex-Presidents died on the 4th of July?
685. What father and son were Presidents?
686. Name the rebellions which have occurred in our history?
687. When, where, and by whom were each of the States settled, and when admitted as a State?
688. What are the acquisitions of territory to the United States?
689. When did Gen. W. B. Hazen die? What position did he occupy?
690. What important commercial bill was passed by Congress in January of this year?
691. What bill originated in the Senate in regard to the Canadian fishery question?
692. Which Cabinet officer resigned?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON HISTORY

1. A recital of what has happened respecting nations and countries.
2. By Ancient and Modern, and these are divided into Civil, Sacred and Profane.
3. An account of all the events that have taken place from the creation of the world to the birth of Christ. Accounts from the birth of Christ to the present time. It pertains to the rise and fall of the civil government of man, his empires, kingdoms and States. That which is contained in the Sacred Scriptures. The history of imaginary gods and heroes of antiquity. It is sometimes applied to any history not Sacred.
4. The rise and fall of the four great empires: Assyria, Persia, Greece and Rome.
5. By the great inventions which now govern our people, such as of gunpowder, the control of steam and electricity, the printing press and the thousands of devices which lead to the civilization and progress of mankind.
6. Of course it is but a matter of conjecture who first settled America, but in all probability these settlers came from Asia by the way of Behring Straits in search of new adventures, or the coasting vessels of China may have been driven by storms and shipwrecked on the shores of the new continent, but nothing among the relics of antiquity shows from what source these people came.
7. In Mexico and Central America there are ruins of ancient cities, which must have been erected during a high state of civilization, and the Indians have no traditions as to their origin. Thousands of curiously constructed earth
mounds, which are scattered through the Mississippi River Valley, and from the gulf to the lakes, are evidences of a different race of men which inhabited the continent previous to the Indians.
8. The Mound Builders, although the mound relics would indicate that these builders were not of the same order of civilization as is represented in the Mexican and Peruvian ruins.
9. The natural instincts of the Indians are opposed to the improvements of the arts and sciences. They detest work, glory in battle, and are content to live in their rude structures where fish and game abound. From these characteristics, which for two hundred years we know have remained the same, it would be but natural for us to look beyond this race of beings for those who have shown a marked degree of industry and civilization.
10. The historical records of Iceland show that America was discovered by the Northmen in 1002.
11. The inhabitants of Norway and Sweden.
12. Their records, or traditions, describe the entire Atlantic coast, and the old tower at Newport, R. I., the inscriptions on the rocks at Dighton, Mass., and minor other relics are evidences of their claims. But admitting these claims no benefits arose from them as the voyages were discontinued and the country forgotten.
13. Six: First, from the discovery of the continent to the first settlement. Second, from the first settlement to the breaking out of the Revolutionary war. Third, from the commencement of this war to the adoption of the Constitution. Fourth, from the adoption of the Constitution to the commencement of the civil war. Fifth, from the beginning of this war to the surrender of Lee's army. Sixth, from the close of the rebellion to some future period of more than ordinary importance.
14. That the earth was round, and upon this belief Columbus attempted to find a near route to India.
15. The island of Guanahani or San Salvador, on Friday, Oct. 12th, 1492.
16. Columbus being too poor to fit out an expedition himself, first applied to his own countrymen for aid, and then to the king of Portugal. He next turned to Spain, and in the meantime sent his brother to England, but these people had no time to listen to a poor sailor at whom everybody laughed, and the children mocked him as he passed in the streets. Success came at last. Eighteen
years had now passed since he conceived his great design, seven of which were spent in waiting for the answer of Ferdinand. Saddened by his continued failures, he was leaving Spain, begging a little food at convent doors and resolving to apply to the king of France. At a lonely mountain pass he was overtaken by a messenger from the queen, Isabella, asking him to return to the capital. Urged by a desire to spread the Catholic faith throughout the world, and to see Spain the mistress of lands in Asia, the queen had changed her mind. To the cold objections of Ferdinand she nobly answered. "I undertake the enterprise for my crown of Castile, and will pledge my jewels to raise the necessary funds."
17. Three small vessels, the Pinta, Santa Maria and Nina, sailed from Palos, Spain, August 3d, 1492.
18. At the mouth of the Oronoco River, in 1498. Four.
19. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, who discovered the coast of Labrador in 1497.
20. A German, who published a description of the new world, suggested that it should be called America in honor of Americus Vespucius, who made great claims to the first discoveries.
21. Others were jealous of his successes; treachery was planned; false statements were made; and he died without reward, almost broken-hearted.
He was buried at Valladolid, Spain, where he remained until 1513; he was then transported to Seville; and again in 1536, his remains were removed to the city of Saint Domingo, Hayti, and there interred; but in 1796, they were taken to their final resting place, in the cathedral at Havana, with imposing ceremonies.
22. The Spaniards, English, French and Dutch.
23. The West Indies and southern part of the United States.
They claimed the northern part of the United States and Canada, having explored the great lakes, the Mississippi River, from the falls of St. Anthony to the gulf, the Illinois, Wisconsin, Wabash, Maumee, Fox, and many other rivers.
Having discovered and explored the Atlantic coast at various points, they claimed this vast territory, naming it Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen.
In New York, which they called the New Netherlands. These claims were based upon the explorations of Hudson.
24. Columbus, Vespucci, De Leon, Balboa, Grijalva,
De Ayllon, De Narvaez, Magellan, De Soto and Melendez.
25. He was a Spanish explorer, who, being a disgraced soldier, sought the glory of conquest to restore his tarnished reputation. He also went in search of a fountain, the elements of which were supposed to restore youth to all who drank of its waters. He discovered Florida in 1512.
26. He crossed the isthmus of Panama, and from the summit of the Andes discovered the Pacific Ocean, Sept. 26th, 1513.
27. Receiving a grant of Florida in 1528, he with 300 men attempted its conquest, allured by the prospect of gold. The exploration proved a failure. Many perished while wandering in the swamps. After arriving at the Gulf of Mexico, they hurriedly constructed boats and put to sea; they were shipwrecked and De Narvaez was lost. Six years afterward, the only survivors (four) reached the Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast.
28. A Spanish nobleman, who invaded Florida in 1539, with the prospect of gold and conquests. He discovered the Mississippi River, and was shortly after buried in its waters.
29. By Grijalva in 1518.
30. He was sent out by Philip II in 1565, to colonize Florida, but more particularly to destroy a colony of French Protestants, called Huguenots, who the year before had made a settlement near the mouth of the St. John's River. On being attacked the Huguenots put to sea in their vessels, but a furious storm destroyed their fleet and they were washed ashore, where Melendez brutally butchered all who came near him—only a few escaped.
In 1520 Vasquez de Ayllon, a wealthy Spaniard, undertook an expedition to America, and, landing on the present coast of South Carolina, decoyed a number of natives on board his fleet and sailed for home, intending to sell them in Europe as slaves, but three of his vessels were wrecked and most of the Indians were drowned. On reaching home he was honorably received by his government and sent on another kidnapping expedition, but being unsuccessful, De Ayllon was financially ruined, and thus ended the first attempt to enslave the Indians, who, by this treachery, lost all confidence in Spanish honor.
Magellan was the first European to sail upon the Pacific and the first to sail around the world. This voyage took nearly three years, 1519 to 1521. The Pacific was named by Magellan on account of its calm and peaceful appearance when first traversed.
31. At Darien, by the Spaniards in 1510.
32. At St. Augustine, in 1565, by Melendez, a Spaniard. The second was also founded by the Spaniards, at Santa Fe, in 1582.
33. Central America, Mexico, Peru, Florida, the Mississippi valley, New Mexico and the coast of California.
34. Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Their labors were unsuccessful.
35. At Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.
36. The London Company, composed of noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants of London.
37. All of the country between the southern limit of Maryland and Cape Fear.
38. Three: the first charter contained no idea of self-government. The people chose none of their officers; the king was to appoint two councils; one to reside in London, and have control of all the colonies, and the other to reside in each colony, and have control of its local affairs. The second charter vested the authority in a governor instead of a local council; this change gave the colonists no additional rights, neither were they consulted with regard to the change. The third charter gave the stockholders power to regulate the affairs of the company themselves.
39. Verrazani and Cartier. Verrazani was sent out by the French king in 1524. He first touched the coast at North Carolina and explored as far north as Newfoundland, having entered the harbors of New York and Newport. In 1534, James Cartier discovered and explored the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence.
40. The Cabots, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, Bartholomew Gasnold, Martin Pring, and George Waymouth.
41. It was composed of persons from Plymouth, in the west of England. The grant was that tract of country lying between the forty-first and forty-fifth degrees of latitude. This was called North Virginia.
42. Columbus was the first Spanish, John Verrazani the first French, John Cabot the first English, and Hudson the first Dutch discoverer.
43. At New York in 1613. At Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1605.
44. At the temporary settlement on the island of Roanoke, in 1587. Virginia Dare.
45. The tract lying between the present cities of Philadelphia and Montreal. The name has since been confined to New Brunswick and the adjacent islands.
46. He was an English sea captain who explored the coast of California and Oregon in 1579, and returned home by the way of Cape of Good Hope, having made the second voyage around the world.
47. Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, who was called the Virgin Queen.
48. A famous pioneer, who in 1609 discovered Lakes Champlain and Huron. He afterwards led a party of Canadian Indians against the Iroquois, in northern New York, which region he was the first white man to enter.
49. They were French Priests, who sought to convert the Indians to the Catholic faith; they were the explorers of the Mississippi valley. In 1668, they founded the mission of St. Mary, the oldest European settlement in Michigan.
50. Joliet and Marquette.
51. They were Jesuit Missionaries, and early explorers of the northern lakes and rivers.
52. Henry Hudson, in 1609, who sailed up the river 116 miles, to where the city of Hudson now stands.
53. To find a northeast passage to the East Indies.
54. In 1610, after discovering the strait and bay which bears his name, he was placed in an open boat by his companions and abandoned.
55. The New Netherlands.
56. The English and Dutch. The English based their claims upon the discoveries of the Cabots, and the Dutch upon the discoveries of Hudson.
57. By force of arms. The English maintained possession.
58. The Spanish settlements of St. Augustine and Santa Fe.
59. Port Royal, N. S., in 1605, by the French. Jamestown, in 1607, by the English. Quebec, in 1608, by the French. New York, in 1613, by the Dutch. Plymouth, in 1620, by the English Puritans.
60. They were a religious denomination not in sympathy with the Church of England, and in order to worship in accordance with their creed they went to Holland, but believing in the future prosperity of the New World, decided to face all hardships and danger and found a colony where they would be free from all restraint and unmolested in their religious devotions. They landed at
Plymouth, December 21st, 1620, which was the first settlement founded in Massachusetts.
61. One hundred and two. They came in a vessel called the May Flower.
62. John Carver.
63. Nearly one-half of the number died during the first four months, and all would have perished but for the aid of fishermen off the coast. Their sufferings continued four years, after which they were prosperous.
64. A Puritan, who for liberal religious opinions was banished from Massachusetts. He afterward formed the first settlement in Rhode Island. This was in 1636.
65. The Quakers were banished from the colony, many were imprisoned, and four put to death.
66. During the year in which Roger Williams was banished, this woman declared that she had special revelations from God, and with great fluency of speech expounded them to crowded congregations of women, causing much disturbance among the clergy and people. They finally banished her from the settlement.
67. In 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven and Connecticut, were formed into a general league, or one government.
68. To protect themselves against the Indians and the encroachments of the French and Dutch.
69. When Roger Williams escaped from the hands of the Puritans he fled to Rhode Island and took refuge among the Indians. Canonicus, the Narragansett Chief, gave him land to found a settlement, which he gratefully named Providence.
70. By the Dutch, in 1620.
71. One of the founders of Jamestown who succeeded Ratcliffe, and governed the affairs of the colony with great energy and success.
72. The daughter of the Indian chief, Powhatan. She saved the life of Capt. John Smith, who had been sentenced to death by her father.
73. She married a young English planter, John Rolfe. Three years after she visited London, was taken sick and died. She left an infant son, whose posterity are many of the leading families of Virginia.
74. In 1608, to Jamestown.
75. Indian corn, potatoes and tobacco.
76. In 1609, but the massacre was prevented by Pocahontas, who revealed the plot to the people of Jamestown.
77. In 1622, when in one hour 347 men, women and children were massacred. The second was in 1644, when 300 were killed; this plot was originated by Opechancan-ough, and was intended to exterminate the English settlers.
78. A patriotic young lawyer, who rallied a company and defended the settlements against the Indians; he was denounced by Governor Berkley as a traitor for acting with-out orders. During the contest which followed, Berkley was driven out of Jamestown, and the village burned. In the midst of this struggle Bacon died.
79. At Jamestown, June 28, 1619. It consisted of the governor, council and deputies or "burgesses," chosen from the various plantations.
80. Massachusetts, Plymouth, Rhode Island and Con-necticut.
81. The war commenced in 1675, continuing about one year. King Phillip was an Indian chief, the son of Mas-sasoit; he became jealous of the intrusion of the whites, and planned a confederation of the Indian tribes against their intruders. He was shot by an Indian, an ally of the English, in 1676.
82. In 1660, the British Parliament ordered that the commerce of the colony should be carried on in English vessels, and their tobacco and all other products shipped to England. In fact, American manufactures were pro-hibited, and nothing allowed to be done that would enter into competition with the people of England.
83. These laws bore very heavily on the people causing great discontent, and were one of the causes which led to the revolution.
84. It was not, and an officer was sent to enforce the act, but without success. Charles II. seized upon the ex-cuse thus offered, and made Massachusetts a royal province. The King died before his plan was completed, but James II, in 1686, declared the charters of all the New England colonies forfeited.
85. The first royal governor of New England. He was sent by James II. The colonies endured his oppressions for three years, when learning that his royal master was dethroned, they rose against him, and he was put in jail.
86. When James II. declared that the charters of all the New England colonies were forfeited, Connecticut re-fused to surrender hers. Governor Andros demanded the charter of the assembly then in session at Hartford, and during the debate which ensued, the lights were suddenly
extinguished, the charter was seized by William Wadsworth and hidden in the hollow of an old oak, which, since that time has been called the "Charter Oak."
87. The second royal governor of Massachusetts, or a province embracing Massachusetts, Maine and Nova Scotia.
88. A superstition prevailed that persons were subject to the control of invisible evil spirits, and it is the received opinion that 200 persons were accused, 150 imprisoned, 28 condemned, 19 hanged, and one pressed to death.
89. The Indians had become troublesome and dangerous to the early settlers of Connecticut, who resolved to make war upon the Pequots. The battle took place at Mystic River, where the tribe was annihilated; those who were not killed were captured and made slaves, or escaped and joined other tribes.
90. New Amsterdam.
91. It was purchased of the Manhattan Indians for about $24.
92. After the discovery of the Hudson River, the West India Company obtained of the Dutch government a grant of New Netherlands, and settlements were made at New Amsterdam and Fort Orange (Albany). For twenty years New York was subject to Indian butcheries, varied by difficulties with the Swedes on the Delaware, and the English on the Connecticut. In September, 1664, an English fleet came to anchor in the harbor of New Amsterdam, and demanded the surrender of the town. Peter Stuyvesant, the last and the ablest of the four Dutch governors, plead with the council to fight, but in vain. They wished for English rule. The surrender was signed, and the colony was named New York. The English governors did not satisfy the people, so that when, after nine years of English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, the people went back quietly under their old rulers. The next year peace was declared between England and Holland, and New Amsterdam became New York again. Andros now became governor, and New York was a royal province until the revolution.
93. In 1636, by a company of persons from Massachusetts, with their minister, Mr. Hooker. Their settlements were at Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield.
94. By the Rev. Mr. Wheelright, and a few followers, who were also banished from Massachusetts on account of their religion.
95. It was made by Ferdinand Georges in 1636.
96. From the hostilities of the Indians.
97. Because of the treachery of the early discoverers and explorers. Several attempts were made by the whites to kidnap them and take them to Europe as slaves. By various means of deceit and dishonesty the Indians sought revenge in their annoying hostilities.
98. It was founded in 1683, by William Penn, who purchased the land of the Swedes; the name signifies brotherly love.
99. A Quaker, who with a band of followers settled in Pennsylvania in 1682, buying the lands of the Indians.
100. To secure for the friends of this church a Catholic refuge from the persecutions which they were then suffering in England.
101. The Virginia colonies claimed that Lord Baltimore's grant covered territory belonging to them. Clayborne, a member of the Jamestown council, having established two trading-posts in Maryland, prepared to defend by force of arms. On the eve of the battle he fled to Virginia, and his party was defeated. Clayborne was tried for treason, but acquitted. Ten years afterward he came back, raised a rebellion, and drove Calvert (Lord Baltimore) then governor of Maryland, out of the colony; Calvert returned with a large force, and Clayborne fled.
102. The Protestants having obtained a majority in the assembly, excluded Catholics from their rights; assailed their religion; and even declared them outside the protection of the law. Civil war ensued. At one time two governments were sustained, one Protestant and the other Catholic. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived of his rights as proprietor, and Maryland became a royal province. In 1715, the fourth Lord Baltimore recovered the government, and religious toleration was again restored.
103. To the Roman Catholics of Maryland.
104. By the Swedes and Finns, in 1630, near the entrance of Delaware Bay, where they laid the foundation of Lewiston, the oldest town in the State. After a few years, Stuyvesant, the governor of New Netherlands, conquered their colony.
105. King William's war in 1689, Queen Anne's in 1702, and King George's in 1744.
106. In 1689 war broke out in Europe between England and France. The contest extended to the American colonies, and lasted seven years.
107. The war lasted eleven years; the New England frontier was again desolated; remote settlements were abandoned; the people betook themselves to palisaded houses, and worked their farms with their guns always at hand.
108. They were not. The only event of importance was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. Peace being established, England gave back Louisburg to the French.
109. They assisted the French against the English.
110. Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York.
111. Pennsylvania.
112. William Penn's treaty with the Indians.
113. Virginia, New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maryland, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
114. Harvard was founded at Cambridge, Mass., in 1638; Yale at New Haven, Conn., in 1701.
115. It was the Boston News Letter, and was established in 1704, by Bartholomew Green. John Campbell was the first American editor.
116. The supposed negro plot, the plan being to burn New York and make one of their number governor. Many innocent persons suffered death.
117. A minister who labored among the Indians, and for his devotion was called the Indian Apostle; he also translated the Bible into the Indian language.
118. He was a man sent out by England to suppress piracy in 1696, but turned pirate himself; he was captured in Boston in 1699, sent to England, condemned and executed.
119. By a colony from Virginia in 1650, near Albemarle Sound.
120. In 1689, at Charleston.
121. Cotton and rice.
122. By Mr. Oglethorpe, in 1732, who commenced a settlement where Savannah now stands.
123. In honor of George II., the king of England.
124. From England, though there were considerable numbers of the Dutch, French, Scotch Irish, Swedes and Germans.
125. The Dutch were most numerous in New York; the French, in New York and South Carolina; the Scotch
and Irish, in East Jersey, the Carolinas and Georgia; the Swedes, on the Delaware; the Germans, in Pennsylvania and North Carolina.
126. In New England they were engaged in farming, lumbering, manufacturing, ship-building, and fisheries. The Middle States chiefly farming. In Virginia and Maryland farming, tobacco being the staple. In Georgia and Carolina, rice near the coast and farming on the high lands. Cotton was cultivated on a very small scale.
127. The colony of Massachusetts. Boston.
128. Boston and New York had about 18,000 each. Philadelphia about 25,000.
129. The water communication, through Chesapeake Bay and many large rivers, brought ships almost directly in communication with the plantations, which facilitated the exchange of one product for another, and the colonists did not collect in large towns.
130. Mainly by exchange or barter.
131. In Virginia, for a long time, tobacco was used as money; in New England wampum, made of shells; in New York, beaver-skins.
132. English—pounds, shillings and pence.
133. By the demand for money in the Revolution.
134. It was exceedingly simple. The people did their own weaving and made their own clothing, and all were required by law to dress within their means. Their food was simple but abundant, and their houses were mostly log cabins. Everything had the appearance of simplicity, industry and thrift.
135. The population professed Christianity, though differing greatly in beliefs. In Maryland, Catholics were numerous; in Virginia and South Carolina, the Church of England (Episcopal); in New England the people were Calvinistic in doctrine and Congregational in practice; while in New York the Dutch Reform was supreme. The Quakers predominated in Pennsylvania, Delaware, Rhode Island and New Jersey. Roger Williams established at Providence the first Baptist Church in America. The French Protestants, or Huguenots, were found in considerable numbers in New York and Carolina.
136. A war of sects was waged in several of the colonies. The people forgot their ideas of tolerance and religious equality when power came to them. " New England Protestants appealed to Liberty; then they closed the doors against her." It was a sad, strange picture of life.
The Puritans imprisoned Baptists and executed Quakers. The Churchmen in Virginia banished Puritans and imprisoned Baptists. The Protestants of Maryland disfranchised the Catholics. But as years passed away, a more kind, tolerant spirit prevailed, and long before the end of the colonial period, the illiberal sentiment of persecution had passed away.
137. They were all under the dominion of the Crown of England.
138. Where the rule and the province was under some proprietor, the same being a grant to the individual or association by the king. Pennsylvania under William Penn, and Maryland under Lord Baltimore, are examples.
139. Royal government was directly under the dominion of the Crown, through the appointment of some royal governor.
Charter government was where the colony was governed by some code of laws passed expressly for them and called a charter. This written instrument, given by the king, granted certain political rights and privileges.
Voluntary association was where the people organized themselves into a government without authority or privilege of the Crown.
140. The Salem Witchcraft and the Negro Plot of New York.
141. Increase Mather, one of the early presidents of Harvard College, and his son Cotton Mather.
Cotton Mather's "Magnalia," a religious history of New England, was the first important book written by a native of this country.
142. It had great influence over the people, as many of the ministers were men of superior scholarship. They did not deal wholly in religious dogmas; they led and inspired the people; they kept patriotism aflame; they watched the encroachments of British despotism, and moulded national character.
143. In the year 1693 Parliament voted to establish post-offices in the colonies, and Thomas Neale was authorized to transmit letters and packets " at such rates as the planters should agree to give."
Over 54,000.
144. Jonathan Edwards, the theologian; Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher and statesman; James Otis and Patrick Henry, the great orators.
After the passage of the Stamp Act by Parliament,
James Otis said: "To my dying day I will oppose, with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instru-ments of slavery on the one hand and villainy on the other." "Then and there," said John Adams, "the trumpet of the Revolution was sounded."
145. At Kaskaskie, in Illinois, about 1690.
146. The cause was disputed territory, and the parties were the French and Indians against the English.
147. West of the Alleghany Mountains, along the Ohio River and the northern lakes.
148. George Washington.
149. After some successes Washington marched to a place called Great Meadows, where he built Fort Necessity. Early in July, 1755, the fort was attacked by the whole French and Indian force, but was defended with such resistance that the French commander, Count de Villiers, sent in a flag of truce. Washington gave up the fort, but was permitted to march away with all the honors of war.
150. A vote of thanks was passed, and each soldier was to receive a pistole.
151. Gen. Braddock with a select force of 1,200 men.
152. When within a mile of Fort du Quesne he was surprised by a body of French and Indians in ambush. Braddock was mortally wounded, and nearly all his offi-cers and one-half of his troops were killed. Braddock was buried during the retreat, and Washington ordered the wagons to pass over his grave that his body might not fall into the hands of the Indians.
153. Washington, although four bullets pierced his coat and two horses were shot under him.
154. It was Gen. Forbes who led this expedition. Washington commanded the Virginia troops. After the capture of the fort it received the name of Pittsburg, in honor of William Pitt.
155. At Louisburg, Quebec, Crown Point and Niagara.
156. The French forts at the head of Fundy Bay were quickly taken, and the region east of the Penobscot fell into the hands of the English. Gen. Loudoun planned an attack on Louisburg, but learning that the French fleet contained one more ship than his own, gave it up. The next year Gens. Amherst and Wolf captured the city after a severe bombardment, and took possession of the entire island.
157. The English under Johnson met the French com-manded by Dieskau, near the head of Lake George, where
a battle was fought, the English being victorious. Johnson, after building a fort which he called William Henry, feared defeat if he attempted to take Crown Point, and returned to Albany.
158. On a calm Sunday morning, about four months before the fall of Fort du Quesne, Gen. Abercrombie, with a thousand boats full of soldiers, with waving flags and martial music, swept down Lake George to attack Ticonderoga. The result was a disastrous repulse. The next year, 1759, at the approach of Gen. Amherst with a large army, both Ticonderoga and Crown Point were evacuated.
159. When Gen. Shirley reached Oswego, and hearing of the disastrous defeat of Braddock he was discouraged, and after building a fort came home. Four years after Niagara surrendered to the English.
160. Gen. Wolf commanded the English, and Gen. Montcalm the French.
161. Gen. Wolf, while reconnoitering, observed a narrow path winding among the rocks to the top. At night he descended the river, his men landed, climbed the steep cliff, seized the guards, and at break of day he stood with his entire army drawn up in order of battle on the plains of Abraham; a desperate battle ensued; five days after the city surrendered.
162. Gens. Wolf and Montcalm. Wolf, when informed that the French were running, exclaimed: "Now God be praised; I die happy!" Montcalm, when told that he could not live more than twelve hours, replied: "So much the better; I shall not see the surrender of Quebec."
163. France gave up all the territory west of the Mississippi, except two small islands south of Newfoundland, retained as fishing stations. In this treaty Spain ceded Florida to England, and France ceded to Spain New Orleans, and all the territory she owned west of the Mississippi.
164. When the English took possession of the western forts great discontent arose, for the French had won the hearts of the Indians. Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas, formed a confederation of the tribes against the English. Eight forts were surprised and captured, thousands of persons fled from their homes to avoid the scalping-knife. By a disagreement among the Indians the confederation was broken and a treaty signed.
166. It cost the colonists $16,000,000, and England repaid only $5,000,000. They lost thirty thousand men; they suffered the untold horrors of Indian barbarity; taxes were sometimes equal to two-thirds of the income of the tax-payers; they learned to think and act independently of the mother country.
167. About 2,000,000 people. Boston and New York contained about 18,000 inhabitants each; Philadelphia, nearly 25,000.
168. The colonies were unjustly taxed, and not allowed the right of sending representatives to Parliament.
169. Warrants authorizing the king's officers to search for smuggled goods. This gave the custom-house officers power to enter a man's house or store at pleasure. The colonists resisted such power as a violation of their rights.
170. That all bonds, deeds, newspapers, pamphlets, etc., should be stamped. It was passed by Parliament in 1765.
171. A Virginian, who with boldness and eloquence distinguished himself by his opposition to the Stamp Act.
172. A duty was laid on all tea, glass, paper, and painters' colors, which should be imported.
173. In order to resist the Stamp Act, associations called the "Sons of Liberty" were organized and delegates from nine of the colonies met at New York and framed a Declaration of Rights, and a petition to the king and Parliament. The first of November was the date appointed for the law to go into effect, and on that day the people set aside all business, bells were tolled, flags at half-mast, and stirring speeches by the great orators of the times aroused the people over the whole land.
174. That the colonies should furnish the soldiers with quarters and necessary supplies. This act aroused the indignation of the Americans. To be taxed was bad enough, but to shelter and feed their oppressors was unendurable.
175. Vessels containing nearly 350 chests of tea were boarded by Americans disguised as Indians, and the tea was thrown into the harbor.
176. An act of Parliament forbidding the landing of goods in Boston.
177. A small guard of soldiers passing through the streets of Boston were so exasperated by the jeers and taunts of a crowd of men and boys, that they fired, killing three persons and wounding several others.
178. The first Continental Congress was held at Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774. They voted not to obey the recent acts of Parliament; they protested against standing armies being kept in the colonies without consent of the people; they sustained Massachusetts in her resistance, and agreed to hold no intercourse with Great Britain.
179. Because it was the rendezvous of the Revolutionary patriots. Great speeches were made in this hall for the cause of freedom, and it has ever been cherished as the "Cradle of Liberty." This hall is in Boston.
180. Public feeling was generally against the colonies. "Every man," wrote Dr. Franklin, "seems to consider himself as a piece of a sovereign over America; seems to jostle himself into the throne with the king, and talks of our subjects in the colonies."
181. They were not. Those who still believed in Royalty were termed Tories, and those against as Whigs.
182. A daring patriot, who at the outbreak of the Revolution performed valuable services in rousing the people in the country and villages.
183. Gen. Gage.
184. At Lexington, near Boston, April 19th, 1775.
185. Gen. Gage, learning that the people were gathering military stores at Concord, sent eight hundred men to destroy them; at Lexington a skirmish ensued, in which seven Americans were killed. After destroying the stores, they hastily retreated, followed by the militia, who were eager to avenge the death of their countrymen. In their retreat to Boston they lost nearly three hundred men.
186. The effect was like wild-fire; American blood had been shed; patriots came pouring in from all sides. Grey-headed men sent their boys to battle. The hearts of the wives and mothers were filled with the inspirations of liberty, and all were ready to join in the great declaration of Patrick Henry: "Give me liberty or give me death."
187. A farmer who, when notified of the battle of Lexington, immediately left his plow, mounted his horse, rode to Boston, a distance of 100 miles, without leaving his saddle. His great courage and patriotism was of vast assistance to the cause of freedom. He was familiarly known as "Old Put."
188. The story of his entering a wolf's den and shooting the animal by the glare of his eyes, is known to every schoolboy, but serves to shew his love of bold adventure. At Fort Edwards he alone, when all others had fled, saved a magazine containing three hundred barrels of gunpowder
from approaching flames; he was terribly burned. In one encounter he received fourteen bullet holes in his clothing. The British offered him money if he would desert the Americans, but nothing could buy his honor or his patriotism. Bold, fearless and patriotic, he stands in American history as one of the grand lights in American independence.
189. On Breed's Hill, June 17th, 1775. It was the intention of Gen. Ward, who had command of the patriots, to fortify Bunker Hill in the night, but by some mistake Breed's Hill was selected, and was so near Boston that the sentinel's "All's well!" was distinctly heard. At daylight the British were startled by seeing the redoubt which had been constructed, and the officers immediately decided to drive them from their position. Three thousand troops under Gen. Howe were formed into line and slowly ascended the hill. No move was made by the patriots until the British were within ten rods, when Prescott shouted "Fire!" A blaze of light shot from the redoubt, and whole ranks of the enemy fell. The survivors, unable to endure the terrible slaughter, broke and fled.
The second charge was but a repetition of the first, but on the third the ammunition of the patriots became exhausted and they were driven from the field.
190. Gen. Howe of the British army, and of the Americans it is uncertain who commanded, but it is thought by some to have been Prescott. The British force was 3,000, loss 1,000; the American force 1,500, loss 450.
191. Gen. Warren. This gallant soldier was among the last to leave the field of battle, and while trying to rally the troops a British officer who knew him, seized a musket and shot him dead.
192. The effect was that of a victory, as their untrained farmer-soldiers had met the well-trained troops of the British, had repulsed them twice with great slaughter, and but for the lack of ammunition would have been victorious.
193. Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
194. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold.
195. "I demand it in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress."
196. During a controversy between New Hampshire and New York, over lands claimed by each party, Col. Ethan Allen became conspicuous in the cause of New Hampshire, and the recruits under him were called the "Green Mountain Boys." It is now applied to soldiers of Vermont.
197. It assembled May 10th, 1775, when they voted to raise and equip 20,000 men, and give the command to Gen. Washington. It was again convened at Philadelphia in May, 1776.
198. June 15th, 1775. His force was 14,000 men.
199. They were unsuccessful, suffering a defeat at Quebec, where Gen. Montgomery, the American general, was killed.
200. By sending a force at night to fortify Dorchester Heights. These overlook Boston, and Howe, remembering the lesson of Bunker Hill, decided to leave. The next day, March 18th, Washington entered amid great rejoicing.
201. June 28th, a British fleet under Admiral Parker opened fire on Fort Moultrie. The response from Moultrie's guns was so fearful that the fleet was badly shattered and they withdrew and sailed for New York.
202. Early in the action the flagstaff was struck by a ball; Jasper leaped over the breastworks, caught up the flag, and springing back tied it to a sponge staff, and hoisted it in its place.
203. Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, June 7, 1776.
204. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston.
205. July 4th, 1776.
206. That the thirteen United States of America were free and independent.
207. August 2d, 1776, by all the members of Congress, numbering fifty-six.
208. That articles of government should be drawn.
209. Articles of Confederation, and were to take effect when ratified by all the States.
210. No; delays and objections arose, but they were established in March, 1781.
211. Rhode Island.
212. Because it gave no real power to congress, which body could only recommend what should be done. Congress could borrow money, but was not empowered to pay it; could declare war and determine how many troops should be raised, but could not levy taxes to defray expenses, nor compel the States to raise the troops.
213. August 27th, 1776, the Americans being compelled to withdraw, closely pursued by the British under Gen. Howe.
214. North by way of Harlem, White Plains and Chester, then southwest through New Jersey to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware River.
215. October 28th, 1776, neither side being victorious, although Washington retreated when the British received reinforcements.
216. They were discouraged and heartsick. In the three weeks' retreat of Washington the soldiers were poorly clad, barefooted, and often their blood-stained footprints were left on the frozen ground. It was a season of great adversity, and tried the patriotism of the new government. Many people of wealth and influence went over to the enemy.
217. He crossed the Delaware December 26th, proceeded to Trenton, captured one thousand Hessians and a large quantity of arms, with the loss of only four men, two killed and two frozen to death.
218. This was the great feat of the Revolution. The effect was electrical. It aroused the drooping spirits of the army and people. Recruits flocked to the standard of Liberty, and the troops whose term of enlistment had expired, agreed to remain. Such brilliant achievements of Washington astonished the British commander, and Cornwallis, who was about to return to England, under the impression that the rebels had been subdued, was ordered to return and prepare for a winter's campaign.
219. Knowing that the Germans regarded this day as one of great festivities, he believed they would not expect an attack, and in the midst of their carousals could be surprised and routed.
220. December 8th, 1776, by Sir Peter Parker.
221. There were three, one of 35,000 men, under Gen. Howe, whose headquarters were in New York; one of 7,000 in Canada, under Sir Guy Carleton, and one of 5,000 in Rhode Island, commanded by Gen. Prescott.
222. The battle of Princeton, Jan. 3d, 1777, which was one of the hottest fought battles during the whole war. The Americans were successful. That night Washington left his camp-fires burning to deceive the enemy, and by a circuitous route passed the British, fell upon the troops near Princeton, routed them, took three hundred prisoners, and by rapid marches reached Morristown Heights in safety.
223. He was urged by other officers to attack Washington that night, but believing it an impossibility for him to escape, he declined, saying he could "catch the fox in the morning." At daybreak the sound of cannon in the direction of Princeton aroused Gen. Erskine, who exclaimed,
"To arms, General! Washington has outgeneraled us; let us fly to the rescue at Princeton!"
224. He declared that the achievements of Washington and his little band, during the six weeks following Christmas, were the most brilliant recorded on the pages of military history.
225. But little of importance transpired. Howe waited for an attack, but finding Washington apparently on the defensive set out to force an engagement, which by the adroit movements of the Americans was prevented. Finding these attempts unsuccessful, Howe suddenly changed his plans and embarked eighteen thousand men on his brother's fleet and set sail for Chesapeake Bay.
226. It numbered only 11,000 men. But with this small army Washington resolved to hazard a battle for the defense of Philadelphia.
227. Marquis de La Fayette. This noble sympathizer of American independence desired to render assistance, though not yet twenty years of age; just married to a woman whom he tenderly loved; brilliant social prospects; objections of his family; protestations of the British minister; refusal of the king to grant permission. But still undaunted, he purchased a vessel with his own money, fitted it out and by evading the officers sent to detain him, crossed the ocean and hurried before Congress where he asked permission to serve as a volunteer without pay. This valor won for him a commission as Major-general before he was twenty-one.
228. September 11th, 1777, Washington was defeated, retreating to Philadelphia.
229. September 26th, 1777, without opposition.
230. At Germantown, October 4th, meeting with a defeat, losing 1,200 men.
231. The capture of the British General Prescott by Col. Barton, with forty select soldiers, who crossed from Warwick in the night to the island of Rhode, where the British army was encamped, proceeded to Gen. Prescott's lodgings, captured him and returned.
232. To have an officer of equal rank to Gen. Lee, that they might exchange. It was.
233. At Germantown. The winter was spent in such continued festivities that they were sadly demoralized. Because of this demoralization, Franklin said that "Howe
has not taken Philadelphia so much as Philadelphia has taken Howe."
234. A Quaker woman, who revealed to Washington a plot that the British had arranged to attack him at White Marsh.
235. The brilliant achievements of the Americans in the north.
236. Gen. Burgoyne with 10,000 British and Indian troops.
237. He captured Forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, Edward, and the supplies at Whitehall. These successes created general consternation among the people. Militia-men from the neighboring States were rapidly collected, and under the command of Lincoln, Arnold, and Morgan, were dispatched to check the advance of the British.
238. Gen. Gates commanded the Americans, and Gen. Burgoyne the British.
239. He sent a half-witted boy into the camp of the British, who spread the report that a large body of Americans was close at hand. When asked their number, he could only answer by pointing to the leaves of the trees. The Indians and the British were so frightened that they fled immediately.
240. As the British lines were forming for the attack, he exclaimed: "There are the red coats! We must beat them to-day, or Mollie Stark is a widow." They gained a victory, and took six hundred prisoners.
241. The battles of Stillwater (Saratoga), Sept. 19th, and Oct. 7th, 1777; the Americans were successful.
242. To Gen. Gates at Saratoga, Oct. 17th, 1777.
243. That the British should give up their arms and ammunition, return to England, and engage no more in the war.
244. Gen. Kosciusko, a Pole of noble birth. To perpetuate his memory a monument was raised at West Point.
245. "Has he proved a coward or a traitor?" "Worse than that," was the answer, "He has fallen, but while bravely fighting." "Ah!" said the father, "then I am satisfied."
246. A plot, originating in Congress, to put Washington out of command of the army. When the people heard of it they were so indignant that those who proposed it were glad to sink into silence.
247. They were adopted in November, 1777.
248. In Valley Forge. The men were encamped in cold, comfortless huts, with little or no clothing, many were barefooted, few had blankets, and straw could not be obtained; sickness followed, and for want of suitable food and medicines many died.
249. They sent commissioners with liberal proposals, but the day was past for any negotiation that did not recognize them free and independent.
250. "I am not worth purchasing; but such as I am, the King of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me!"
251. Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee.
252. At Paris, February 6th, 1778, and was ratified by Congress May 4th.
253. A French fleet under Count d'Estaing.
254. About nine months, withdrawing their forces June 18th, 1778.
255. At Lancaster and York, Pennsylvania.
256. June 28th, 1778, in the eastern part of New Jersey. Both parties claimed the victory, but the British withdrew their troops. The day was sultry and hot. During this battle an artilleryman was shot at his post. His wife, Mary Pitcher, saw him fall, and heard the commander order the piece to be removed from the field; she hastened to the cannon, seized the rammer, and with great skill and courage performed her husband's duty.
257. She was voted a sergeant's warrant with half-pay through life.
258. Gen. Lee, in conducting the attack, became alarmed and ordered a retreat, which threw the troops into confusion. Washington coming up ordered a halt, bitterly rebuked Lee, and by his personal influence rallied the men and sent them back against the enemy. Lee being thus rebuked, wrote indignant letters to Washington, who gave them to Congress, which body dismissed him from the army. Lee retired to his estate in Virginia and mourned over his conduct.
259. A combined attack on Newport was agreed upon by Gen. Sullivan and Count d'Estaing with the French fleet. Soon after the arrival of d'Estaing in Narragansett Bay, Howe appeared off the harbor with the English fleet. An engagement was about to commence, when a terrible storm came up and both fleets were badly shattered, and each retreated for repairs. Sullivan being thus deserted, was obliged to retreat to prevent an encounter with Gen. Clinton, who came from New York with reinforcements.
260. July 3d, 1778, under the direction of John Butler, at the head of 1,600 Tories and Indians.
261. After the capture of the fort the Indians commenced the most barbarous massacre which their savage cruelty could devise. The entire valley was ablaze with burning buildings, and nothing that could be destroyed was allowed to remain. Butler tried to restrain this terrible butchery, but in vain. His savage allies knew no restraint until nothing remained for them to destroy.
262. Gen. Lincoln. Gen. Provost of the British.
263. In the Northern States.
264. Stony Point and Paulus Hook.
265. Gen. Wayne, in the night of July 15th, with unloaded guns and fixed bayonets, attacked Stony Point, carrying the works. Paulus Hook was surprised and taken by Major Lee, July 19th.
266. A great loss to the American and French forces.
267. The Polish nobleman, Count Pulaski.
268. They had captured over five hundred ships; they even cruised among the British Isles, and entering harbors seized and burned ships lying at the English wharves.
269. A very successful naval commander of the naval forces. His most memorable exploit occurred off the coast of Scotland, where the Bon Homme captured the Serapis. As the enemy carried heavier guns, he lashed the two vessels together, and for two hours they fought hand to hand with musket, pike and cutlass. As the Bon Homme Richard was about to sink, the captain of the Serapis struck his colors, and Jones transferred his men to the captured frigate and sailed off with his prize.
270. He was ordered by Washington to attack the Indians on the frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania. The savages were everywhere defeated and forty of their villages burned.
271. There was a very despondent feeling. The Americans had gained no important victory, while the British had gained control of much important territory. The finances of the government were in a very sad condition; the paper money was so greatly depreciated in value that it was almost useless in purchasing the necessaries of life.
272. The paper currency issued by Congress. This issue amounted to $200,000,000, and became so depreciated that $40 in bills were worth only $1 in specie.
273. In South Carolina.
274. Gen. Lincoln was forced to surrender his troops, 2,000 in number, May 12th, 1780.
275. Gen. Gates succeeded Lincoln, and Lord Cornwallis had command of the British.
276. Near Camden, South Carolina, Aug. 16th, 1780. The armies were commanded by Gates and Cornwallis, the Americans being defeated with a loss of 2,000 men.
277. Gen. Greene.
278. The massacre of Waxhaw Creek, where a body of 400 Americans was surprised, and after surrendering were massacred.
279. As the States had been overrun by the British, there was no organized resistance to them.
280. A French fleet, under De Ternay and Count De Rochambeau, with 6,000 troops.
281. An American traitor, who secretly agreed to betray West Point into the hands of the British.
282. A British officer, who was sent by Clinton to negotiate with Arnold.
283. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. They received a pension of $200 each for life, and a silver medal bearing on one side the motto "Fidelity," and on the other, "The love of country conquers."
284. "Whom can we trust now."
285. Arnold escaped to the British and was given a command in the army. Andre was hanged as a spy, Oct. 2d, 1780.
286. He received about $30,000, a colonelcy in the English army, and the contempt of everybody.
287. Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee.
288. They were brave; patriotic in the defense of liberty, gallantly fighting without pay, food or clothing. So strong was their determination to protect their country, that all the hardships and privations of warfare were received without a murmur or thought of retreat. A British officer who was sent to negotiate with Marion for the exchange of prisoners was asked to dine with him, and finding the fare so meagre, consisting only of roasted potatoes and salt, and that his host had neither bed nor blanket, he was so affected by this devotion to liberty, that he resigned his commission, declaring that he would never fight against a cause with such defenders.
289. They had two large armies, well equipped, one under Sir Henry Clinton, whose headquarters were at New York, and the other in the south, under Lord Cornwallis.
290. By the donation of three million rations to the soldiers. He loaned large sums of money and even pledged his entire property as credit for the government. He also organized soldiers' relief associations, where private subscriptions were received, clothing made, and encouragement given for continued enlistment of soldiers whose time had expired. It is said that this patriot, so often the resource of Washington, lost his fortune in his old age and was confined in prison for debt.
291. In South Carolina, Jan. 17th, 1781. The Americans under Gen. Morgan were successful, with a loss of only 80 men. The enemy's loss was 800.
292. He attacked the British at Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8th, and the forces of the enemy were so crippled that they retired towards Charleston.
293. He did not; but his defeats had all the effects of success, and Congress voted the highest honors to him for his prudence, wisdom, and valor.
294. With great brutality. Arnold, who had command, burned much of private as well as public property, and Cornwallis, after arriving and taking command, destroyed $10,000,000 worth of property.
295. The surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.
296. To Gen. Washington, Oct. 19th, 1781.
297. At Paris, Sept. 3d, 1783. The American commissioners were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Lawrence, John Fay. The British commissioners were Messrs. Fitzherbert and Oswald.
298. April 19th, 1783, just eight years after the battle of Lexington.
299. Before Congress, which was assembled at Annapolis, Dec. 23d, 1783. He then returned to his home in Virginia.
300. The Articles of Confederation could not meet the wants of the people. Bitter jealousy existed between the several States with regard to each other and the general government. Continental money was much depreciated, and bankruptcy seemed almost inevitable.
301. The Marquis de LaFayette, Count de Grasse, Count de Rochambeau, Count d'Estaing, Count Pulaski, and De Ternay.
302. In New England they refused to pay their taxes, and openly threatened to overturn the government. It was put down by militia under Gen. Lincoln.
303. In 1777, by Congress. It is composed of thirteen
stripes, alternate red and white, with a field of blue in the upper flag-staff corner, on which there is a star for every State. The breadth is two-thirds its length.
304. In 1788.
305. At New York, in April, 1789.
306. The treasury was empty, and the United States had no credit; the Indians were hostile; pirates from the Barbary States preyed upon our commerce; Spain refused the navigation of the Mississippi; England had not sent a minister to our government, nor had she made a treaty of commerce with us.
307. At New York, April 30th, 1789.
308. At Philadelphia, where the seat of government was to remain until 1800.
309. In the year 1800.
310. Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox and Randolph. Jefferson was appointed Secretary of State; Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Knox, Secretary of War; and Randolph, Attorney-General.
311. By the advice of Alexander Hamilton, taxes were levied on imported goods, and distillation of spirits; also a mint and national bank were established at Philadelphia.
312. "He smote the rock of the national resources and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet."
313. Citizen Genet, in 1793. The war which broke out between France and England induced Genet to try and rouse the American people to espouse the cause of France, and he even went so far as to fit out privateers in the ports of the United States to prey upon British commerce. Washington had great trouble in preserving neutrality. He saw that the true American policy was to keep free from European alliances, and therefore demanded the recall of Genet.
314. The yellow fever broke out in Philadelphia, and raged with such virulence that in three months, out of a population of 60,000, no less than 4,000 perished.
315. The inhabitants in Western Pennsylvania were determined that no tax should be paid on whisky, and they were so well organized that fifteen thousand troops were ordered out to subdue them
316. The early settlers of Ohio were much annoyed by their depredations, and Gens. Warner and St. Clair were sent against them, but were defeated with great slaughter. Gen. Wayne was now put in command, who, in 1794,
gained a complete victory, laying waste their whole country.

317. Difficulties were arising with England in regard to the collection of debts in America, and the impressment of our seamen. A treaty was made with Spain securing to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi and fixing the boundary of Florida, still held by that nation.

318. Chief Justice Jay was sent as envoy-extraordinary to England, where he negotiated a treaty which was ratified by the Senate in 1795, after a violent opposition. This treaty recognized the right to collect debts in the United States, but did not forbid the impressment of American seamen, so bitterly complained of.

319. The Republican party under the leadership of Jefferson, Madison and Randolph, and the Federalist by Hamilton and Adams.

320. The Federalists favored the granting of power to the general government, which they thought should be strong, while the Republicans, fearing the strength of the government would lead to a monarchy, advocated States' rights as a safeguard against the usurpation of power. They also opposed the United States Bank, the English treaty and the assumption of the States' debts. In the election of Adams, the Federalists were accused of being the friends of Great Britain and the Republicans the friends of France. The Republicans declared themselves the only true friends of the people, and stigmatized all others as aristocrats and monarchists.

321. By a majority of two electoral votes over Jefferson, the Republican nominee, who became Vice-President.

322. March 4th, 1797.

323. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws, and difficulties with France.

324. Under the Alien Law, the President could expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the United States. Under the Sedition Law, any one libeling Congress, the President, or the government, could be fined or imprisoned.

325. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the French government. Hostilities were commenced on the seas, but when Napoleon became First Consul of France the difficulty ceased. Peace was declared in 1800.

326. Having rendered assistance many of her people
believed that the United States should return favors, and becoming desperate in her home difficulties, sought revenge by insults, and piracy upon our commerce. The recall of Genet they considered an insult to them.
327. The death of George Washington. He died Dec. 14th, 1799, at Mount Vernon, at the age of sixty-eight years.
328. In the year 1800.
329. Strong party feeling prevailed during the entire administration. The unpopularity of the Alien and Sedition Laws resulted in a victory at the Presidential election of the Republican nominees.
330. The Federalists nominated Adams and Pinckney. The Republicans Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.
331. That of Jefferson and Burr.
332. He was elected by Congress on the thirty-sixth ballot, there being no election by the people, he and Aaron Burr receiving an equal number of votes.
333. The purchase of Louisiana from Napoleon for $15,000,000. This secured over one million square miles of land, and the full possession of the Mississippi. This tract had just been ceded by Spain to France.
334. American commerce suffered greatly from the inhabitants of the Barbary States, who were known as pirates. They also held the crews of captured vessels until ransomed. The war occurred in 1805.
335. The frigate Philadelphia had unfortunately grounded while in the harbor of Tripoli, and fell into the hands of the Bashaw. Decatur entered the harbor with a small vessel, apparently in distress, he having concealed his men below, boarded the Philadelphia, swept the crew into the sea, set the ship on fire, and amid a tremendous cannonade from the batteries, escaped without the loss of a man.
336. England claimed the right of stopping American vessels on the high seas, searching for seamen of English birth and pressing them into the British navy. Accordingly the British frigate Leopold fired into the American frigate Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia, and her commander going aboard, seized four of the crew, three of which were Americans by birth. These were taken on the pretense of being deserters.
337. That when naturalized they were American citizens and entitled to the same protection as any citizen. The English doctrine, "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman."
338. That all British war vessels should quit the waters of the United States.
339. An Act of Congress forbidding American vessels to leave port. As this was so injurious to our commerce the Act was removed, but all intercourse with England and France was forbidden.
340. An Act by Napoleon that confiscated all vessels that submitted to a search by an English ship, or had paid tribute.
341. A duel in which Hamilton was killed. This occurred July, 1804, and was greatly lamented by the American people.
342. In 1806 Aaron Burr was arrested for a supposed attempt to form an independent government west of the Alleghanies. He was tried for treason, but acquitted. Undoubtedly his ambition was to be president of an independent republic, to conquer Mexico and establish a strong government.
343. For inventing the steamboat. The first voyage was made from New York to Albany in 1807.
344. The bitterness existing between the United States and England was fast leading to a declaration of war. The Republicans, under the leadership of James Madison, advocated the enforcement of American rights, while the Federalists were opposed to a war policy.
345. March 4th, 1809.
346. The British emissaries had aroused the Indians to war, and Tecumseh formed a confederacy of the Northwestern tribes. Gen. Harrison was sent against them, who, at the battle of Tippecanoe, routed them with great slaughter.
347. They continued to impress our seamen, capture our ships, and even went so far as to send war vessels into our waters and seize our ships as prizes. The British government refusing to relinquish its offensive course, all hope of peace was abandoned and the people prepared for war.
348. June 19th, 1812, and lasted two years and a half.
349. The government proposed to invade Canada. Accordingly Gen. Hull crossed over from Detroit, but learning that the British and Indians were gathering to attack him, retreated, pursued by a force of British under Gen. Brock, and Indians under Tecumseh.
350. As Gen. Brock marched to attack the fort, Hull seemed to lose all presence of mind, and dare not risk a battle. He raised the white flag, surrendered Detroit with
its garrisons and stores, and the whole of Michigan, without even stipulating for the honors of war.

351. In October of the same year Gen. Van Rensselaer sent a small body of men across the Niagara River to attack the British at Queenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and Gen. Brock killed. Gen. Van Rensselaer now returned to bring over the rest of his army, but the militia had lost their courage, and refused to go. The troops on the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, were compelled to surrender.

352. The capture of the Guerriere by the Constitution, Aug. 19th; of the Frolic by the Wasp, Oct. 18th; of the Macedonia by the United States, Oct. 25th; of the Java by the Constitution, Dec. 29th.

353. Over three hundred.

354. It aroused great enthusiasm and inspired confidence. Enlistments were rapid, and the course of the government generally approved. In the midst of these successes Madison was re-elected with but little opposition.

355. Three armies were raised with the intention of invading Canada. The division under Harrison was sent to the west shore of Lake Erie; the division under Dearborn between Erie and Ontario; and Hampden's division on the shore of Lake Champlain.

356. They accomplished but little.

357. The American fleet consisted of nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns, and the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns. Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence, engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, and fought until but eight of his men were left. Leaving the Lawrence he passed to the Niagara, and within fifteen minutes after mounting the deck won the victory.

358. It was while passing from the Lawrence to the Niagara. The enemy's guns were directed upon him, and although he passed within pistol-shot of the British, he escaped without injury.

359. "We have met the enemy, and they are ours."

360. Harrison was at Sandusky Bay, preparing to invade Canada, and at the news of this victory crossed the lake, landed at Malden, where, on the approach of Harrison the British retreated, but were overtaken on the Thames River and compelled to surrender. Proctor escaped by the fleetness of his horse. In this engagement Tecumseh was killed.

361. The capture of the Peacock by the Hornet, Feb. 24th; of the Boxer by the Enterprise, Sept. 5th; of Barkley's fleet by Perry's fleet, Sept. 10th.

362. The capture of the Chesapeake by the Shannon, and the Argus by the Pelican.

363. It was the last command of Capt. Lawrence as he was carried below during the engagement between the Chesapeake and Shannon.

364. A rising of the Alabama Indians. They fell upon Fort Mims and massacred the garrison. Gen. Jackson took command, drove them from place to place, and at Horseshoe Bend, where they had fortified themselves, the soldiers with fixed bayonets scaled their breastworks, and a desperate battle ensued. Six hundred Creeks were killed. Those who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms.

365. Early in the spring Cockburn commenced devastating the southern coast. In Virginia and Carolina he burned bridges, farmhouses, and villages, robbed the inhabitants, plundered churches, and murdered the sick in their beds.

366. They attacked the British at Chippewa, July 5th, and gained a brilliant victory. A second engagement was at Lundy's Lane, July 25th.

367. It was one of the bloodiest battles of the war. Gen. Scott commanded the American forces of one thousand men, and maintained the unequal contest until dark. A battery located on a height was the key to the British position. Scott asked Col. Miller if he could take it. "I'll try, sir," was the reply. The battery was taken. Three times the British rallied for its recapture, but were unsuccessful. This victory, though glorious to the American army, was barren of direct results.

368. In this contest the British fleet on Lake Champlain attacked the American squadron under Com. McDonough and was nearly annihilated. Prevost, with twelve thousand men, advanced against Plattsburg, but when he found that his ships were lost, he fled, leaving his sick and wounded, and large quantities of military stores.

369. Gen. Ross marched to Washington, burned the capitol and other public buildings, libraries, records, and several private dwellings.

370. A convention of delegates from the New England States met at Hartford, December 15th, 1814, and bitterly opposed the administration because of its mode of conducting the war. The meeting was branded with odium
by the friends of the administration, and the name was long used as a term of reproach.

371. At Ghent, December 24th, 1814.

372. The battle of New Orleans, January 8th. Gen. Jackson commanded the American forces, numbering 6,000, and Gen. Pakenham commanded the British, numbering 12,000. The American loss was seven killed and seven wounded. The British loss was 2,500.

373. $127,000,000.

374. The Federalist party was almost entirely broken up by its opposition to the war, and James Monroe, the Republican candidate for President, was almost unanimously elected. He was generally beloved, and all parties united in his support.

375. March 4th, 1817.

376. A bill defining the limits of slavery; all States north of latitude 36° 30', and all territories west of the Mississippi should be free. It was proposed by Henry Clay.

377. La Fayette.

378. Any attempt by a European nation to gain domination in America would be considered by the United States as an unfriendly act.

379. By a treaty with Spain, in 1819.

380. The Whig party, which was formed in Jackson's time, was fast coming to the front as an opposition to the Republican party. The opposition being so strong, the name Republican was dropped, and thenceforth the party was known as the Democratic party. The Whigs were in favor of a protective tariff and a general system of internal improvements. The Democrats opposed these measures. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were the champions of the Whigs, and Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun of the Democrats.

381. It was a name applied to the Democratic party in 1835, and originated because of a contention in a Democratic meeting, where the lights were all put out and relighted by loco-foco matches which some of the members carried in their pockets.

382. A duty on imported goods for the purpose of encouraging home manufactures.

383. There being four candidates, no majority of votes was obtained. He was chosen by the House of Representatives.

384. The first railroad was completed, and the Erie Canal was opened.
385. The first railroad in the United States was built in 1833, from Albany to Schenectady.
386. The Erie Canal is about 363 miles in length.
387. Protection for the East meant a shutting off of foreign manufactures from a direct competition with their products, while in the South, agricultural pursuits being the chief employment of the people, they desired goods brought to them as cheaply as possible.
388. Because of the principle of a protective tariff which was advocated by his party, Andrew Jackson, the hero of New Orleans and the Democratic nominee, was elected.
389. He was called "the old man eloquent."
390. It was laid by Gen. LaFayette, on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, June 17th, 1825.
391. It was noted for his inflexible honesty, sturdiness of purpose and excellent judgment. He surrounded himself at once by his political friends, thus establishing the principle of "rotation in office." During his first year in office there were nearly seven hundred removals from office, not including subordinate clerks, while in the forty years preceding there had been but seventy-four.
392. It declared the tariff laws "null and void," and that the State (South Carolina) would secede from the Union if force should be employed to collect any revenue.
393. John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne.
394. He issued a proclamation announcing his determination to execute the laws, and ordered troops under Gen. Scott to Charleston.
395. In order to prevent an open rupture between South Carolina and the government, he advocated a general reduction of the tariff. This compromise was accepted by both sides and quiet restored.
396. It was an expression of Henry Clay when his friends insisted that to advocate the compromise would lessen his chances for the presidency. This step of Henry Clay demanded great moral courage, as it required a partial surrender of his cherished principles of protection and the breaking away from political friends, but the patriotic sentiment of peace overcame these inducements of party favors and triumphs, and he advocated what his noble nature pointed out was for the best interests of his country.
397. He vetoed the bill renewing the charter of the United States Bank. In 1833 he withdrew the public money from this bank and deposited it in the local banks.
By withdrawing this money the bank contracted its loans, money became scarce and commercial distress ensued. The measure excited violent clamor, but he was sustained by the Democratic majority in the House of Representatives. When the money was deposited in local banks it became easy to borrow, and speculation extended to every branch of trade.

398. The land speculation was the great craze of the times. New cities were laid out in the wilderness, fabulous prices were charged for building lots, and fortunes seemed to be in the reach of everyone. These hot-house schemes, which existed only on paper, at last came to an end and a disastrous relapse ensued.

399. The Black Hawk War broke out in the Northwest Territory. After some skirmishing they were driven off and their leader, Black Hawk, was captured. The Florida War with the Seminoles grew out of an attempt to move them, in accordance with a treaty, to lands west of the Mississippi.

400. They had promised to pay $5,000,000 for damages to our commerce during Napoleon's war. Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals on French ships. By the mediation of England, the debt was paid and war prevented.

401. No United States Bank; no Protective Tariff. Gen. Harrison was the Whig candidate.

402. The Financial Crisis of 1837, and the Patriot War.

403. (1) The specie circular, which was issued by Jackson, directing that payments for public lands should be made in gold and silver.
(2) The surplus public money, amounting to about $28,000,000, which was ordered by Congress to be withdrawn from the local banks and distributed among the States. The banks could not meet this demand.
(3) Heavy importations of European goods, which had to be paid for in gold and silver.
(4) A terrible fire in New York City on the night of Dec. 16th, 1835, which burned six hundred valuable stores, and property to the amount of $18,000,000.

404. Business men could not pay their debts and failures were everyday occurrences. In New York City alone during March and April, failures amounted to over $100,000,000. Property of all kinds declined in value. Eight of the States failed, wholly or in part, and even the United States government could not pay its debts. Consternation
seized upon all classes, confidence was destroyed and trade stood still.

405. The Canadian Rebellion against England.

406. The Canadian Rebellion stirred the sympathies of the American people. Meetings were held, volunteers offered and arms contributed. The President issued a proclamation, and Gen. Scott was sent to the frontier to preserve the peace. A body of American sympathizers took possession of Navy Island, in the Niagara River, but was dislodged by British troops. The steamer Caroline was taken by a body of British troops and sent, with her crew, over the Falls.

407. The people of each section threatened to take up arms to support their respective claims as to the boundary lines. For some time there was great peril of a war with England, but the matter was settled during Tyler's administration by what is called the Ashburton treaty of 1842, Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster acting as commissioners.

408. The financial difficulties weakened the faith of the people in the Democratic party and Van Buren failed of a re-election.

409. The Whig party elected William Henry Harrison by an immense majority.

410. One month.

411. He did not.

412. A bill for establishing a United States Bank.

413. The people of Rhode Island organized by force a new constitution and elected Dorr Governor. Dorr was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced for life. He was afterwards pardoned.

414. The tenants on some of the old patroon estates in New York refused to pay the rent. Some assumed the disguise of Indians, tarred and feathered those who paid their rents, and even killed officials who served warrants upon them.

415. They were settled at Nauvoo, Ill., but having incurred the enmity of the people about them, were compelled to leave. Joseph Smith, their leader, was killed by a mob.

416. December 27th, 1845. She applied for admission in 1836. The objections were of two reasons: 1st, the boundary line was in dispute and if annexed there would most likely be a war with Mexico; 2d, Texas held slaves and if admitted would add another slave State.
417. From Baltimore to Washington. The message was the announcement of Polk's nomination for President of the United States.
418. It was invented in 1792 by Eli Whitney, but did not come into great prominence until the raising of cotton had become an important feature in the agriculture of the Southern States.
419. The question of the annexation of Texas went before the people for their decision. The Whigs, who opposed the annexation, nominated Henry Clay, and the Democrats who favored its admission, nominated James K. Polk. After a close contest Polk was elected.
420. The annexation of Texas by the United States, and a certain tract of land claimed by Mexico.
421. Gen. Taylor in 1846, and Gen. Winfield Scott in 1847. Scott was successful in many engagements, entering Mexico Sept. 14th, 1847.
422. Taylor won the battles of Palo Alto May 8th, Monterey Sept. 24th and Buena Vista Feb. 23d, 1847. Gen. Scott won the battles of Vera Cruz March 29th, Cerro Gordo April 18th, and the capture of the entire forces of the City of Mexico.
423. He was sent out by the United States government with a small exploring party, to seek a new route to Oregon. While in California, in 1844, he received instructions from the government to protect the interests of the United States in that territory. Troops were quickly raised and the Mexicans compelled to retire southward. By the advice of Fremont the American settlers in California declared their independence of Mexico, July 5th, 1846.
424. A withdrawal of United States troops; that Mexico should cede to the United States the territories of New Mexico and Upper California for the sum of $15,000,000, and pay $3,500,000 to American citizens due them by Mexico.
425. David Wilmot offered in Congress, August, 1846, a bill forbidding slavery in any territory which should be acquired. This was to prohibit slavery in the territory of Texas. It excited violent debate, but did not become a law.
426. February, 1848, by a workman in digging in a mill-race in the Sacramento Valley.
427. Three parties were in the field. The Whigs nominated General Taylor; the Democrats, Lewis Cass; and the Free-soilers, who were opposed to the extension of
slavery, and believed that, as Taylor was a slave-holder, the principle of slavery would be fostered by him, formed a new party and nominated Martin Van Buren. Taylor was elected.
428. He was inaugurated President, March 4th, 1849, and died July 9th, 1850, after an illness of only five days.
429. California applied for admission to the Union as a free State. This brought the question of slavery into an intense agitation and for a time it seemed as though a terrible crisis was at hand.
430. The compromise of 1850 presented by Henry Clay and proposed (1) that California should come in as a free State; (2) that the territories of Utah and New Mexico should be formed without any provision concerning slavery; (3) that Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up its claim on the territory of New Mexico; (4) that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District of Columbia; and (5) that a Fugitive Slave Law should be enacted.
431. Henry Clay, as he was ever ready to surrender a portion of his political convictions in order to establish peace.
432. It provided for the return of slaves to their owners, who had escaped to a free State.
433. About five hundred adventurers undertook the annexation of Cuba to the United States, but were defeated and Lopez, the leader, was executed at Havana in 1851.
434. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster.
435. The Democrats and Whigs declared that they stood by the provisions of the Omnibus Bill, but the Free-soilers were outspoken against it. Franklin Pierce, the Democratic nominee, was elected by a large majority over Gen. Scott, the Whig candidate.
436. Its nature was a repeal of the Missouri compromise bill, allowing the people of the territories to decide whether it should be bond or free. It was proposed by Stephen A. Douglas, and had relation to the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. It became a law, May, 1854.
437. A bitter contest arose between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery men. Each party sent bodies of armed emigrants to the territory. Disturbances arose, mobs were formed, houses were attacked and pillaged, men were murdered in cold blood, and for several years Kansas was a scene of lawless violence.
438. A dispute arose between the United States and Mexico, with regard to the boundary line. Gen. Gadsden
negotiated a settlement, whereby $10,000,000 were paid to Mexico for additional territory.

439. Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan, in 1854, resulted in a treaty by which that country opened two ports to the merchants of the United States.

440. The compromise of 1820 and 1850 being now abolished, the slave question became the turning point of the election. New party lines were drawn to meet this issue. The Whig party now ceased to exist, and the Republican party, absorbing all who opposed the extension of slavery, nominated John C. Fremont, who carried eleven States. The Democratic party nominated James Buchanan, who was elected. The Know-Nothing, or American party, was organized to resist the influence of foreigners. It carried Maryland, but its existence was of short duration. Its motto was " America for Americans."

441. The Supreme Court of the United States declared that slave-owners might take their slaves into any State in the Union without forfeiting authority over them. Dred Scott was a slave, and claimed freedom on the ground that he had been taken into a free territory.

442. Being an ardent lover of negro freedom, he conceived the wild scheme of taking the law into his own hands and liberating the slaves. He seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry in 1859, and proclaimed freedom to all the slaves in the vicinity. He was taken by the United States and hung as a traitor.
443. Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge, and John Bell.

444. The Lincoln party held, that while slavery must be protected where it was, it ought not to be carried into any free territory.
The Douglas party favored squatter's sovereignty, the right of each State to decide whether it shall exclude or accept slavery.
The Breckinridge party claimed that any citizen has a right to migrate to any territory, taking with him anything that is property (including slaves), and Congress is bound to protect the rights of slave-holders in all the territories.
The Bell party had for their platform : " The Constitution of the country, the union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws."

445. The agitation of the slavery question. The Southern States, believing they had a right to secede from the
Union, seceded, but the Federal government, denying that right, raised armies and enforced its authority.
446. South Carolina, Dec. 20th, 1860.
447. Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee.
448. The Confederate States of America, and the form of government was similar to the government of the United States.
On the 4th of February, 1861, a convention of the seceded States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and there organized the Confederacy.
449. Jefferson Davis, and was inaugurated Feb. 4th, 1861.
450. The bombardment of Fort Sumter.
451. Fort Sumter fell into the hands of the Confederates under Beauregard, April 14th, 1861. Maj. Anderson, the commander of Sumter, was permitted to go north with his men. The effect of this event was electrical. It unified the North and also the South. Party lines vanished. The Union men at the South were borne into secession, while the Republicans and Democrats at the North combined to support the government. The war spirit swept over the country like wild-fire.
452. He issued a requisition for 75,000 troops, and soon after for 300,000 volunteers.
453. In Baltimore, April 19th, 1861, where Southern sympathizers attacked a Massachusetts regiment on its way to Washington.
454. They seized the United States armory at Harper's Ferry, and the navy yard at Norfolk. At Norfolk there were twelve ships of war, two thousand cannon, two hundred and fifty thousand pounds of gunpowder, and great quantities of shot and shell.
455. After the seizure of Alexandria, Ellsworth, seeing the Confederate flag still flying from the roof of a hotel, went up and tore it down. As he descended he was shot at the foot of the stairs by the landlord, Jackson, who, in turn, fell at the hands of private Brownell.
456. July 21st, 1861, in Northern Virginia. Gen. McDowell made the attack, and was defeated, after a severe engagement.
457. At first they were much disappointed and discouraged; then came a renewed determination. Congress voted $500,000,000 and five hundred thousand men, and Gen. McClellan was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac.
458. A party of 2,000 Federals crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff. They were attacked and forced down the slippery, clayey bluff, fifty to one hundred and fifty feet high, to the river below, where, in trying to escape, many were drowned, some were shot, and scarcely half their number reached the other bank.
459. Col. Baker, United States Senator from Oregon.
460. The State refused to pass an ordinance of secession, yet an effort was made to preserve an armed neutrality. Capt. Lyon foiled this attempt. Gen. Sigel was defeated in an engagement at Carthage. Gen. Lyon now took command, and was compelled to fight superior forces or abandon that part of the State. He chose the former.
461. At Wilson's Creek, Aug. 10th, while gallantly leading a bayonet charge.
462. He issued a proclamation offering to commission privateers. Lincoln declared a blockade of the Southern ports.
463. One on the Northern coast, and forty-two in the United States Navy. At the close of the year there were two hundred and sixty-four.
464. They acknowledged them as belligerents, thus placing them on the same footing with the United States.
465. Southern commissioners sent to England and France to plead the cause of the Confederacy.
466. They were taken from the British steamer Trent by Capt. Wilkes, and brought back to the United States. This produced much excitement in England. The United States Government, however, promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners.
467. On the 1st of November, 1861, on account of age and physical infirmities. He was succeeded by Major-General McClellan. The office was Lieutenant-General of the Armies of the United States.
468. The large vessels and stores at Harper's Ferry and Norfolk were captured by the Confederates. They were successful in the two great battles of the year, Bull Run and Wilson's Creek; also in the minor engagements at Big Bethel, Carthage, Lexington, Belmont and Ball's Bluff. The Federals had saved Fort Pickens and Fortress Monroe. The forts at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal were captured. They had gained the victories at Philippi, Rich Mountain, Boonsville, Carrick's Ford, Cheat Mountain and Dranesville. West Virginia, Maryland and Missouri were saved to the Union.
469. On the part of the North there were three main objects: the opening of the Mississippi; the blockade of the Southern ports; and the capture of Richmond.
470. The Union forces numbered about 500,000; the Confederates about 350,000. Gen. Thomas won an engagement at Mill Springs, and Commodore Foote and Gen. Grant captured Forts Henry and Donelson, in Northern Tennessee.
471. Fort Henry was evacuated Feb. 6, after a bombardment of one hour by Commodore Foote. Gen. Grant with his army intended to cut off the retreat, but the garrison escaped to Fort Donelson. The fleet now went back to the Ohio river and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant crossed to co-operate in an attack on Fort Donelson, which was captured with fifteen thousand men, after three days' hard fighting.
472. The Confederates fell back to Corinth, the great railroad center of Mississippi and Tennessee, where their forces were gradually collected under the command of Gens. Johnston and Beauregard, while Gen. Buell at once occupied Nashville. The Union army ascended the Tennessee to Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command and Buell ordered to reinforce him. The Confederates determined to rout Grant's army before the arrival of Buell.
473. On the 6th and 7th of April. Gen. Grant commanded the Union forces, and Gen. Beauregard the Confederates.
474. Sunday morning Johnston surprised the Union forces by a desperate assault. The Federals, having no time to form into order of battle, fought where they happened to stand, slowly yielding, and for twelve hours they obstinately disputed every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink of the river (Cumberland), Grant massed his artillery, and gathered around it the fragments for the final stand. By the aid of the gunboats below, and Buell's reinforcements, the tide of battle was stayed, and the Confederates fell back. They possessed, however, the Union camps, three thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and immense stores; but they had lost their commander, Gen. Johnston. The next morning the Confederates were driven from the field.
475. In the Mississippi River, between Kentucky and Missouri. It was taken by Commodore Foote and Gen. Pope, April 7th.
476. October 8th, 1862. Gen. Bragg commanded the Confederates, Gen. Buell, the Federals.
477. Dec. 31st. Gen. Bragg, with 60,000 troops, attacked the Union forces under Gen. Rosecrans, and was repulsed. Jan. 2d, the battle was renewed, but Bragg, being unsuccessful, retreated. This was one of the bloodiest contests of the war. The loss was one-fourth of the number engaged.
478. The Confederates gave up the attempt to recover Kentucky.
479. Grant was to move along the Mississippi Central Railroad, while Sherman was to descend the river from Memphis, with the gunboats under Porter. The plan was spoiled by Van Dorn's cavalry dash, which destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Springs. Sherman, ignorant of what had happened, pushed on and made an attack at Chickasaw Bayou, north of Vicksburg. After suffering a bloody repulse, and hearing of Grant's misfortune, he fell back.
480. Gen. Curtis having command, attacked Gen. Price and drove him out of the State into Arkansas. Van Dorn now taking command, a desperate battle was fought at Pea Ridge March 7th and 8th, in which Van Dorn was totally defeated.
481. The attempt was made with a fleet of forty-four vessels under Commodore Farragut, and 8,000 troops under Gen. Butler. Mortar-boats for six days stormed the outer defenses, but with little effect. Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet past the defenses to New Orleans. At three o'clock in the morning, April 24th, they advanced, running a fearful gauntlet of shot and shell, and flames of fire rafts. They now encountered the Confederate fleet of thirty armed steamers. Twelve of the Confederate flotilla were destroyed. New Orleans now became an easy prey, and soon surrendered.
482. He ascended the river, took possession of Baton Rouge and Natchez, and, running the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above.
483. It gave control to the outer defenses of Norfolk; it opened two sounds, eight rivers, four canals and two railroads. It was an excellent rendezvous for ships, and exposed a large country to attack.
484. The Cumberland and Congress, March 8th.
485. The morning after the ravages of the Merrimac, the Monitor made her appearance and commenced the attack. The Merrimac, confident of success, poured in a broadside, but the balls glanced harmlessly off the Monitor's turret, or broke and fell to pieces on the deck. The
battle now opened; they fought side by side, iron rasping on iron. Five times the Merrimac strove to crush her antagonist by running her huge iron beak against the Monitor's side. At each dash her prow would rise above the water, and at the same instant heavy volleys from the Monitor would crash against the exposed parts. In this manner the Merrimac received severe injuries, gave up the contest and steamed back to Norfolk.
486. She could have entered any port of the United States, destroyed cities, opened the blockade, and, undoubtedly, would have secured the acknowledgment of the Confederacy by European nations. On this battle hinged the fate of the war.
487. It was regarded as the most formidable naval power in the world.
488. Just before the capture of Norfolk she was sunk by the Confederacy. The Monitor sunk, in a storm, off Cape Hatteras.
489. He was a noted leader of a band of guerrillas and raiders in Tennessee. He repeatedly rode through Kentucky, spreading terror in his path, burning towns, levying tribute, destroying telegraphs and railroads, and carrying off prisoners. In one raid alone, he boasted of having taken seventeen towns and cities, with a very large amount of army stores. Quantrell was another famous guerrilla, although his raids were not so extensive as those of Morgan.
490. Richmond.
491. Gen. McClellan.
492. Gen. Magruder, with only about 5,000 men, held such strong defenses along a line of thirteen miles, that Gen. McClellan was brought to a stop. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, but as the siege began Magruder quietly withdrew, having delayed the Union army a month.
493. May 5th. Gen. Hooker with his division maintained the contest for nine hours, then being reinforced, he carried the works, and the pursuit was continued to within seven miles of Richmond.
494. McDowell, with 30,000 men, was to meet him near Hanover Court House, and then commence the siege of Richmond; but Gen. Johnston, suspecting this movement, ordered Gen. Jackson to move up the Shenandoah Valley and threaten Washington.
495. After being reinforced by Gen. Ewell's division of 10,000 men, he hurried down the valley and drove Banks
across the Potomac. The excitement in Washington was intense. The President took military possession of all the railroads; called upon the Governors of Northern States to send militia to the defense of the capital; ordered Fremont at Franklin, Banks at Harper's Ferry, and McDowell at Fredericksburg, to capture Jackson. He now commenced his retreat, burning bridges as he passed, and escaped.

496. With 15,000 men, Jackson had occupied the attention of three Major Generals and 60,000 men, prevented McDowell's junction with McClellan, and saved Richmond.

497. He had pushed his left wing across the Chickahominy, and before he could unite his army, a terrible storm flooded the swamps, and the Chickahominy Creek became a broad river. Johnston, seeing the exposed wing, commenced the attack. Johnston was severely wounded. The next day the Confederates were repulsed in great disorder.

498. Jackson making his appearance near Hanover Court House, McClellan resolved to "change his base" of supplies to the James River. A series of battles, lasting seven days, now occurred. The most important were those of Mechanicsville, Gaines' Mill, Savage's Station, Frazier's Farm, and Malvern Hill. In this famous retreat the army fought by day to give time for the baggage trains, and fell back at night to a new position. At Malvern Hill Lee received so bloody a check that he pressed no farther.

499. Seventeen miles.

500. The North was as much discouraged as the South was elated. Lincoln called for 300,000 troops.

501. To transfer his army to Acquia Creek, and put it under the command of Gen. Pope.

502. After some maneuvering, Pope was compelled to fight the entire Confederate army on the old battle-field of Bull Run. The shattered remains of the Army of the Potomac retreated and took refuge within the fortifications at Washington.

503. The Union army lost 30,000 men and vast supplies. The capital was in great danger; a victorious army without and only broken battalions within.

504. He crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland.

505. McClellan.

506. South Mountain and the terrible battle of Antietam, September 17th.

507. He retreated across the Potomac.
508. It was a Union victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Washington from any danger of attack.
509. For the slowness of his movements in pursuing the retreating army. Gen. Burnside took command.
510. Dec. 13th. The Union forces were defeated, with a loss of 12,000 men.
511. They had gained the victories of Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley ; of Lee, in the Peninsular campaign ; those against Pope ; Bragg's great raid in Kentucky ; the battles of Cedar Mountain, Chickasaw Bluff, and Fredericksburg.
512. They had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10. They had opened the Mississippi to Vicksburg ; taken New Orleans, Roanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Memphis. They had also won the battles of Pea Ridge, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, Iuka, Corinth, and Murfreesboro, and silenced the Merrimac.
513. In Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota. Over seven hundred whites were slain, and many thousands driven from their homes. Col. Sibley routed them and took five hundred prisoners. Thirty-nine were hung on one scaffold, at Mankato, Minnesota, Dec. 26th.
514. It was about the same as the preceding year. The Union force was about 700,000; the Confederate, about 350,000.
515. January 1st, 1863.
516. After several weeks of fruitless efforts upon the north, Grant marched down the west side of the river, and crossed below the city. From May 1st to the 18th, he defeated the Confederates at Fort Gibson, Jackson, Champion Hills, and Big Black River, and within seventeen days after he landed, Pemberton's army was shut up within the intrenchments of Vicksburg. After three desperate assaults, the Union troops threw up intrenchments and commenced undermining the city. The siege lasted forty-seven days.
517. On the 4th of July.
518. The Confederates lost the cities of Vicksburg and Jackson ; 37,000 prisoners ; 10,000 killed and wounded, and immense stores. On the fall of Vicksburg, Port Hudson surrendered to Banks. The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, and one great object of the North accomplished.
519. But little occurred until June, when Rosecrans, with 60,000 men, marched against Bragg and compelled
him to evacuate Chattanooga. Sept. 8th, Sept. 19th and 20th, was fought the battle of Chickamauga. The Union army was defeated and withdrew to Chattanooga, while Bragg occupied the heights commanding the city, and threatened them with starvation.

520. The feeling was one of great interest and anxiety. The Army of the Cumberland had been defeated, and it seemed but a matter of time when a surrender must be the result of the Confederate victories.

521. Grant was now appointed to succeed Rosecrans, and the relief was obtained by Hooker coming with two corps from the Army of the Potomac, and Sherman, who hastened by forced marches from Iuka, 200 miles away.

522. He was in Virginia. They came by rail, 23,000 strong, in seven days, a distance of 1,200 miles.

523. The first movement was made by Gen. Thomas, who captured Orchard Knob, Nov. 23. The following day Hooker charged the fortifications of Lookout Mountain. With desperate determination the Union forces carried the heights and swept over the crest, driving the enemy before them. The next morning Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. Sherman, during the whole time, was engaged on the northern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, saw the effect of Sherman's assaults. The Confederate line in front of him was being weakened, and with a bold movement launched Thomas' corps on its center. The orders were to take the rifle-pits at the foot of Missionary Ridge, then halt and re-form; but in the excitement of successes, officers and men pushed forward and swept up the ascent. Grant caught the inspiration and the entire forces were ordered in one grand charge to engage in the conflict. Up they went, over rocks and chasms, all lines broken in the eagerness to reach the summit. Without firing a shot, and heedless of the tempest hurled upon them, they gained the crest, captured the guns and turned them on the retreating foe. That night the Union camp-fires, glistening along the heights about Chattanooga, proclaimed the success of this, the most brilliant of Grant's achievements, and the most picturesque of the battles of the war. This battle has become famed as the "battle above the clouds."

524. The Union forces possessed Chattanooga, Bragg's army was routed and that general resigned. It gave control of East Tennessee, and became the doorway by which
the Union army gained easy access to Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama.

525. Gen. Hooker, Jan. 26th.

526. May 2d and 3d. The Union army was defeated with great loss.

527. "Stonewall" Jackson. While returning from a reconnoissance at the front, he was fired upon by his own men, who mistook his escort for Federal cavalry.

528. Gen. Meade.

529. With the flower of the Confederate army he crossed the Potomac, passed through Maryland, entered Pennsylvania, and proceeded within four miles of Harrisburg.

530. By the battle of Gettysburg, which was fought the 1st, 2d and 3d of July. Gen. Meade commanded the Union forces, Gen. Lee retreating to Virginia.

531. The Union loss was 23,000; the Confederate, 36,000.

532. These losses and defeats having occurred at the same time, caused the turning-point of the war, and the Confederacy began to wane.

533. Having confidence in the ability of the iron-clads to resist cannon balls, he attempted to run the fortifications and force his way up to the city. The attempt was a disastrous failure.

534. They had gained the great battles of Chickamauga and Chancellorville. The Union cause in Texas was depressed. Galveston was seized, and they successfully resisted every attack on Charleston.

535. They had taken Vicksburg and Port Hudson, and won the battles of Chattanooga and Gettysburg. Arkansas, East Tennessee, large portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, and some portions of Texas were held by Union troops.

536. Congress in 1863 passed the Conscription Act, and under this act the President ordered a draft for 300,000 men. This led to a riot in New York City, July 13th, by which 150 lives were lost, and a very large amount of property was destroyed.

537. On the 28th of February he made a bold and successful raid upon the exterior defenses of Richmond. Railroad tracks were torn up, telegraph wires cut, six large grist mills destroyed, and heavy damage done. At a point three miles from Richmond he found the enemy's works too strong to be assailed by a force of cavalry, and Kilpatrick withdrew, camping that night within six miles of the Confederate capital.
538. Many miles of railroads were cut, several hundred prisoners captured, and $7,000,000 worth of property destroyed.
539. While attempting to return, after destroying the grist mills on the James River Canal, he fell into an ambush of the enemy and was killed. His remains were treated by the Confederates with indignity.
540. March 3d, 1864.
541. It lay in the armies of Lee in Virginia, and Joseph E. Johnston in Georgia.
542. Grant was to march against Lee, and Sherman to attack Johnston and sweep through to the coast.
543. He started with a force of 100,000 men. For one hundred miles there was continuous skirmishing. Sherman would drive Johnston into a stronghold, and then with consummate skill would outflank him, when Johnston with equal skill would retreat to a new post and prepare to meet his opponent again. Several bloody battles were fought, and finally Johnston retired, July 10th, to the intrenchments of Atlanta. Hood was now put in command.
544. September 2d, 1864.
545. There had been ten pitched battles, and scores of lesser engagements. It cost the Union army 30,000 men, and the Confederacy about 40,000.
546. He turned to invade Tennessee, with the expectation that Sherman would follow him, and Georgia be saved from invasion.
547. He marched against Gens. Thomas and Schofield, at Nashville. After severe fighting, Thomas withdrew from the fortifications and remained two weeks. He then suddenly burst forth and drove the Confederate forces out of their intrenchments into headlong flight. The army was completely demoralized, and, for further use, destroyed.
548. Hood having moved from his path, there was but little to impede his progress. With 60,000 troops, in five weeks he had marched three hundred miles, and captured Savannah.
549. A fertile region, sixty miles wide and three hundred miles long, was devastated, and three hundred miles of railroad were destroyed.
550. The battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania.
551. After crossing the Rapidan, the Union army plunged into the Wilderness, where they were attacked, May 5th, by the Confederate army. There was none of
the pomp or glory of war, only its horrid butchery. The ranks dashed into the woods, and in the gloomy shadows, dense with smoke, this strangest of battles, which no eye could follow, was fought. The third day, both armies, worn out by this desperate struggle, remained in their intrenchments. Grant lost 20,000 men; Lee, 10,000.

552. He pushed his army by the Confederate right flank towards Spottsylvania Court House, where for five days, May 8th to 12th, terrible fighting occurred. Ten thousand men fell on each side.

553. Grant now concluded to try the flank movement again, and pushed forward to Cold Harbor, a short distance from Richmond. Lee hastened by a shorter route, and arrived in time to prepare for the defense. Early on the morning of June 4th, the Union army made an assault on Cold Harbor. Twenty minutes after the first shot was fired, fully ten thousand Union men were stretched writhing on the sod, or still in death, while the enemy's loss was little over one thousand.

554. The Confederate works could not be carried, so Grant threw up intrenchments, and prepared for a siege of Richmond.

555. The Union army lost 70,000, and the Confederates 40,000.

556. "I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer."

557. The Mine Explosion and the capture of the Weldon Railroad.

558. A mine was dug beneath a strong Confederate fort in front of Petersburg, and was fired with a blast of 8,000 pounds of powder. The fort and garrison were destroyed. At the same time the Union artillery opened along the line, and an assaulting column rushed forward, but it stopped in the crater produced by the explosion. The Confederates, rallying, turned their artillery toward the seething mass within the demolished fort, and about 4,000 were lost before they could retreat to the Union lines.

559. He entered Maryland, threatened Washington and Baltimore, defeated Wallace, and then withdrew to Virginia. In the same month, July, he crossed into Pennsylvania, his troops setting fire to Chambersburg; after which he withdrew.

560. A vast amount of stores, five thousand horses, and a withdrawal of part of Grant's army from before Petersburg.
561. In September he defeated Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, and in a week destroyed half of his army and put the rest to flight. Early returned with reinforcements, and, under cover of a dense fog, surprised Sheridan's army at Cedar Creek, October 19th, and drove it in confusion. At this critical moment Sheridan arrived from Winchester, checked the retreating columns, turned and won the battle.

562. This was the most brilliant campaign of the war. In one month he had virtually destroyed Early's army. Sheridan's loss was 17,000.

563. Gen. Banks was sent up the Red River to destroy the Confederate authority in that region and Texas. This campaign was a Confederate triumph. Banks lost 5,000 men, 18 guns, and large supplies.

564. April 12th. The Confederates were maddened by the sight of negro troops opposing them, and a terrible massacre followed.

565. The capture of Mobile Harbor, Aug. 5th, and closing it against blockade runners. The city of Mobile was not captured until April 12th, 1865.

566. This fort defended the harbor of Wilmington, N. C. The expedition consisted of seventy vessels, under Commodore Porter, and a land force under Gen. Butler. After a fierce bombardment, Dec. 24th and 25th, Butler decided that the fort could not be taken by assault, and the army returned to Fortress Monroe. Commodore Porter asked for another trial. The same troops were sent back under Gen. Terry. By a series of trenches a column of troops worked themselves up within two hundred yards of the fortifications. At the word they rushed forward and burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand conflict within lasted for hours. Late at night the garrison surrendered, Jan. 15th, 1865.

567. A band of raiders from Canada assaulted the town, robbed the banks, and seized horses from the livery stables and returned to Canada before the inhabitants recovered from their surprise. The entire raid was accomplished in half an hour.

568. On the night of November 25th, 1864, an attempt was made to burn New York by saturating beds in the principal hotels with a mixture of phosphorus and oil. The attempt was providentially discovered, and a great disaster averted.

569. She was a British steamer, built in England, but officered and commissioned by the Confederate govern-
ment. Her object was to prey upon Union commerce. She captured over sixty vessels. Her commander was Capt. Semmes.
570. The engagement was off the coast of France, in the English Channel, June 15th, 1864. The Alabama was sunk. Capt. Winslow, commander of the Kearsarge, rescued a part of the sinking crew. The English yacht, Deerhound, picked up the remainder and steamed off to the British coast. Capt. Semmes was among the number.
571. The destruction of the Confederate iron-clad Albemarle, at Plymouth, North Carolina. This was accomplished by Lieut. Cushing, who fastened a torpedo to the Albemarle, which exploded and sunk her.
572. There was much dissatisfaction at the North with the conduct of the war; the debt was becoming enormous and paper money greatly depreciated. Grant had been repulsed at Cold Harbor and Early had made successful raids. In the midst of these calamities Abraham Lincoln was renominated by the Republicans and Geo. B. McClellan the nominee of the Democrats, who stood firmly for the prosecution of the war, but was not in full sympathy with the policy of the administration. Lincoln's majority was over four hundred thousand.
573. In July, 1864, it required two dollars and ninety cents to buy one dollar in gold.
574. They had gained the battles of Sabin Cross Roads, Wilderness, Bermuda Hundreds, Spottsylvania, New Market, and Cold Harbor. They had resisted the Red River and Florida expeditions; two attacks upon Petersburg, and one against Fort Fisher.
575. They had gained the battles of Atlanta and those preceding it—Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, and Lost and Kenesaw Mountain—Winchester, Fisher's Hill, Cedar Creek, and Nashville. They had captured Fort de Russy (this was taken by Banks in his Red River expedition); the forts in Mobile Harbor, and Fort McAllister; Sheridan had annihilated Early's army; Sherman had marched across Georgia and taken Savannah; Thomas had destroyed Hood's army, and the Confederacy was almost extinguished; only North and South Carolina were retained.
576. The end of the war was clearly at hand. Sherman was to move north from Savannah against Johnston, and then join Grant in the final attack upon Lee. Sheridan had swept down from the Shenandoah, cut the railroads north of Richmond, and formed in line before Petersburg.
Wilson was in Alabama and Georgia, while Stoneman held the passes of the Alleghanies and waited in North Carolina for the issue in Virginia.

577. Early in February he started north, meeting with untold difficulties; still, like a tornado, they swept on. Before them was terror; behind them were ashes. Columbia was captured Feb. 17th, and on the following day Charleston was evacuated. Johnston fiercely opposed them at Averysboro and Bentonville, but was defeated. On the banks of the Neuse he met Schofield and Terry, where with an army of 100,000 men they waited for the final charge against the Confederacy. The distance traveled was over 425 miles, one hundred of which was almost a complete swamp.

578. Lee was now shut up in Richmond, and his only hope of prolonging the struggle was to cut his way out. He decided to attack Grant's lines, cause a concentration of troops, and retreat by other routes before the plan was discovered. His plans were failures, as Grant returned the advance with renewed vigor, capturing the outer defenses and preventing a retreat.

579. Sheridan, with his cavalry and heavy columns of infantry, pushed out from Grant's left wing, and threw a heavy force behind the Confederate position at Five Forks. Assailed in every direction, the garrison was overwhelmed and five thousand men were taken prisoners.

580. Lee's position was fast becoming untenable. His right was turned and his rear threatened.

581. The next morning, April 3d, the Union army advanced in an overwhelming assault along the whole front. By noon the Confederate line of intrenchments, before which the Army of the Potomac had lain so long, was broken, and thousands of prisoners captured. That night Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next morning the Union troops took possession of the Confederate capital.

582. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant near Lynchburg, Va., April 9th, and Johnston to Sherman in North Carolina, April 26th.

583. He was taken in disguise by a party of Union troops, in Georgia, May 10th, 1865, and imprisoned in Fortress Monroe, but was afterwards bailed out.

584. Four years.

585. The 14th of April, 1865, by J. Wilkes Booth, at Ford's Theater.
586. After shooting the President he sprang upon the stage. His spur caught in the American flag, and, throwing him heavily, broke his leg. He escaped, mounted his horse and fled into Maryland, where he was overtaken in a barn and shot.
587. On the same night of the assassination of Lincoln an accomplice stabbed Mr. Seward while lying ill in bed.
588. Harold, Payne, Atzerodt, and Mrs. Surrat were hanged; Arnold, Mudd and O'Laughlin imprisoned for life, and Spangler was sentenced for six years.
589. 2,942,748. The number obtained was 2,690,401.
590. The Union armies probably lost in battle, or by its effects, 300,000 men, and 200,000 were crippled for life. The Confederate loss is not known, but, undoubtedly, as heavy.
591. The Union debt August 31st, 1865, was nearly $2,844,000,000. The daily expenses at one time reached the sum of $2,500,000.
592. By an act of Congress, ratified by two-thirds of the States. This act is the thirteenth amendment, which was duly ratified Dec. 18th, 1865.
593. Andrew Johnson. He was inaugurated the day of Lincoln's death, April 15th, 1865.
594. The exercise of the veto power.
595. The Freedmen's Bureau, the Civil Rights, and the Tenure of Office bills.
596. The first provides for the establishment of a department for the care and protection of the freedmen. The Civil Rights bill guarantees to the negroes the rights of citizenship. The Tenure of Office bill makes it necessary that the consent of the Senate shall be obtained for the removal, by the President, of any person from a civil office.
597. The charge was misdemeanors, contempt of the Senate for violation of the Tenure of Office bill by the attempt to remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War. He was acquitted, the two-thirds majority necessary for conviction lacking one vote.
598. It guarantees equal civil rights to all, and bases representation in each of the States on the number of voters. It was adopted July 28th, 1868.
599. The recall of the French from Mexico, under Maximilian.
600. West Virginia and Nevada.
601. He recognized the State governments that had
been formed during the war under the protection of the Union army in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louisiana. In the other States he appointed provisional governors and authorized the calling of conventions to form loyal governments. These conventions met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the Confederate debt, and ratified the thirteenth amendment. On these conditions Johnson claimed that the States, having never been legally out of the Union, should be restored to their rights in the Union. Pardon was proclaimed to those who had been engaged in secession, except to certain classes.

602. On Christmas day, 1868.

603. Congress decided that the President had no power to prescribe the conditions for the admission of the seceded States. His proclamations and orders were treated as of no value. Tennessee was admitted, but the other States were placed under military rule. After a bitter and protracted struggle, governments were finally established in Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina and South Carolina.

604. Congress made a requirement that every candidate for holding office should swear that he had not participated in the secession movement. As but few Southerners could take this oath it was called "iron-clad," and the offices were filled by men coming from the North soon after the war, and these men were termed "carpet-baggers."

605. It occupied three years. They were not represented from 1861 to 1868. Virginia, Mississippi and Texas were not allowed to vote for President until after Grant's first administration.

606. The Fenians were making preparations to cross the Canadian frontier at Buffalo and St. Albans, Vt. Johnson issued a proclamation declaring the movement a violation of our neutrality, and sent Gen. Meade to execute that law.

607. By a purchase from Russia, in October, 1867, for $7,200,000 in gold. It contains 500,000 square miles.

608. In 1868 an embassy from China, under the charge of Anson Burlingame, embassador to China, visited the United States. This was the first event of its kind in the history of that nation. A treaty was formed granting valuable commercial privileges.

During the war France attempted to establish an empire in Mexico, and Maximilian, archduke of Austria, was
chosen emperor. The United States protested, but were unable to enforce the "Monroe doctrine." After the close of the war the government again demanded of Napoleon the recall of French troops. Maximilian, deprived of foreign aid, was defeated by the Mexicans, and on June 19th, 1867, was shot.

609. June, 1866. The first cable was attempted in 1856, and laid from New York to St. Johns, Newfoundland. In 1857 a failure was made to cross the ocean. In 1858 another cable was laid and apparently worked successfully, but on September 1st it ceased to work. Mr. Field, the projector of this great enterprise, was not discouraged and a third time organized a company which in June, 1866, successfully accomplished the feat. There are now several cable companies, and undoubtedly messages will not be much more expensive than by wires on the land.

610. The Republican party nominated U. S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax; the Democrats, Horatio Seymour and Frank P. Blair. Virginia, Mississippi and Texas had not been "reconstructed" and were not allowed to vote.

611. In 1869. The distance from New York to San Francisco is about 3,300 miles.

612. March 30th, 1870.

613. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

614. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday night, Oct. 8th, 1871. It was the most terrible conflagration in modern times. Three thousand acres of almost solid blocks were devastated. Twenty-five thousand buildings were burned, $200,000,000 worth of property destroyed, and one hundred thousand persons were rendered homeless. Contributions to the amount of more than $7,500,000 were sent from nearly all parts of the world. During the same autumn wide-spread conflagrations raged in the forests of Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan. Entire villages were consumed. In Wisconsin alone nearly one thousand five hundred people perished.

On Nov. 9th, 1872, an extensive fire swept over sixty acres in the center of the wholesale trade of the city of Boston, and destroyed $70,000,000 worth of property.

615. The refusal of the English government to pay the damages to American commerce, caused by the cruise of
the Alabama. It was settled by arbitration, the English government paying $15,500,000.

616. It was submitted to the Emperor of Germany and was decided in favor of the United States.

617. This republic, comprising a large part of the island of Hayti, applied for admission to the United States, but was rejected. A commission appointed by the President to examine its condition, reported favorably, but the measure was rejected by Congress.

618. Grant was renominated by the Republicans, and the Democrats endorsed Horace Greeley, the Liberal-Republican nominee.

619. Horace Greeley was one of the great self-made men of our country. Born in poverty, he diligently worked from the lowest position in his profession to the most renowned editor of the age. At two years of age he manifested a natural tendency to study reading; at four years he could read anything, and at six could spell any word in the English language. At fifteen years of age he entered a printing office with wages at forty dollars a year. In 1841 he founded the New York Tribune, which was at one time the greatest political paper in the United States. When civil war seemed imminent, his keen foresight anticipated the terrible struggle, and to avoid this conflict he advocated that the sister States should go in peace, but when war was proclaimed he urged a vigorous prosecution. At the close of the war he pleaded for immediate conciliation, and was a signer of the bail-bond of Jefferson Davis. Just before the close of the presidential canvass his wife died, and this, together with the desertion of his friends and the excitement of the contest, unsettled his mind. He was carried to a private asylum, where he died in 1872.

620. Having refused to stay upon their reservation in Oregon, troops were sent against them, whereupon they retreated to their fastnesses in the Lava Beds. Peace commissioners, proposing to arrange the difficulty, held a conference with the chiefs. In the midst of this council, the Indians treacherously murdered Gen. Canby and Rev. Dr. Thomas and wounded Mr. Meacham. The Modocs were then bombarded and forced to surrender. Captain Jack and several of the leaders of the band were executed at Fort Klamath, October 3d, 1873.

621. In the autumn of 1873 Jay Cooke & Co., bankers of Philadelphia, engaged too heavily in railroad schemes,
especially the Northern Pacific, and failed. Their failure produced a financial crisis, and hundreds of prominent firms all over the Union were involved in ruin. The money market became stringent, and a stagnation of business followed. But for the timely aid of the government in throwing several million of dollars on the market of Wall Street, the distress would have been much greater. "Black Friday" was applied to the day when almost every man, firm and business seemed to totter and tumble into ruins.

622. The hundredth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, of Bunker Hill, and the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

623. Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, was the scene of this imposing display. Over two hundred buildings were scattered over the extensive ground, the largest, the main Exhibition Building, covering over twenty acres. Exhibits from every country and clime were represented, and to describe the grandeur of such a display would be impossible. The exhibition lasted six months, from May to November, and the total number of visitors was 9,910,966.

624. Troops were sent to force them to return to their reservation. On the 25th of June, 1876, Gen. Custer suddenly came upon the enemy and a desperate conflict ensued. Gen. Custer and his entire command were killed. The event was deeply lamented by the American people, as the General was beloved by all who knew him.

625. The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes and Wm. A. Wheeler; the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks; the Greenback party, Peter Cooper and Samuel F. Cary.

626. Both parties claimed the election, and at the counting of the electoral vote no decision was reached, as the Republicans contended that the States of South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana had been carried by fraud, and asked that the certificates of election be thrown out and the opposition accepted.

627. In order to come to a settlement of the contested election returns a Joint Electoral Commission was appointed, and composed of five United States senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. This body decided that 185 electoral votes had been cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks.

628. The Republicans were jubilant, as it sustained their charges of fraud and intimidation, while the Demo- crats were loud in their denunciations against such a decision, claiming that the office had been stolen, and that the commission had decided, not by evidence, but by party influence, as eight of them were Republicans and seven were Democrats; therefore Hayes was termed by his opponents as the eight by seven President.

629. With a look of horror upon his face he waved his hand to the delegation who sought his advice and urged that no act of theirs should imperil the country. Like Horace Greeley, he instinctively saw a terrible vision and with the feelings of a true patriot waved it from him.

630. To make "no dismissal except for cause, and no promotion except for merit."

631. It was one of conciliation. The troops which had hitherto sustained the Republican State governments in South Carolina and Louisiana were withdrawn and Democratic officials at once took control of the local affairs. He also appointed Key, a Southerner, as Postmaster General.

632. On nearly all of the principal railroads in the Northern States a strike of its workmen occurred, the cause being a general reduction of wages. At Pittsburgh, Pa., the strike became a terrible riot, destroying vast amounts of property, and was quelled only by an assault of the troops. In this riot over one hundred lives were lost, and the Pennsylvania Railroad suffered the loss of nearly $3,000,000 worth of property.

633. In 1873 Congress demonetized silver, and made gold the sole standard of our currency. Opposition arose to this act, and in 1878 a bill was passed making silver a legal tender in the payment of debts.

634. In the summer of 1878 it broke out in New Orleans and spread with alarming rapidity northward along the Mississippi into Missouri and Tennessee. Over 7,000 deaths were reported.

635. January 1st, 1879. On December 17th, 1878, gold, for the first time since January, 1862, sold in New York at par.

636. The Ute Indians, at the White River Agency, became dissatisfied on account of the encroachments of the miners and the non-payment of money promised by the government, took up arms and massacred the white men at the agency. They were suppressed by U. S. troops.

637. The census of 1880 showed a population of over 50,000,000. In 1887 it is estimated at nearly 60,000,000. The increase from 1870 to 1880 was 12,000,000. 638. Difficulties between Great Britain and the United States occurred because of the fisheries of the northeastern coast. The matter was left to a commission, which awarded Great Britain the sum of $5,500,000.
639. One in relation to commerce, and the other granting to our government the regulation of Chinese immigration.
640. A portion of the party were not satisfied with the question of conciliation with the South. They believed that, if the electoral vote had legally been cast for him as President, it must also have been cast for the Republican State officials, and that it was the duty of the President to protect those officials by the presence of United States troops.
641. The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. The Democrats nominated Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English. The Greenback-Labor party nominated James B. Weaver and Benjamin J. Chambers.
642. The principal issue was that Garfield was a Republican and Hancock a Democrat. The question of tariff and free-trade was discussed to some extent.
643. They were opposed to the issue of money by any individual or corporation. That it should be delegated solely to the government of the United States and made a full legal tender and not a promise to pay. They believed that the depreciation of our greenback money was due to false legislation, whereby exceptions were placed upon it—"except duties on imports and interest upon the public debt." They claimed that these exceptions were virtually a repudiation by the government, that they would pay them out in one channel and refuse to receive them in another, thus producing a demand for gold to fill these exceptions, and as a natural consequence place this metal as a commodity to be bought and sold according to the demand. As a proof that a full legal tender would not depreciate they cited the first issue of $60,000,000 of paper money, which passed through the war at par with gold and even commanded one quarter per cent. premium because of its convenience in handling. They also advocated that monopolies were fast controlling all kinds of business and were leading to the consolidation of wealth in the hands of the few; that labor was fast becoming a slave to avarice and greed; that railroads, telegraphs and express companies were extortionate in their charge for transportation; that legislation was enacted for the rich without due regard for the poor; that our factories were overburdensome to women and children; that postoffices should be filled by a selection of the people in each district; that politics had become but a system of spoils, and other abuses too numerous to mention.

644. March 4th, 1881.

645. The Star Route frauds, whereby contracts in the West for carrying the mails were so manipulated that great frauds were perpetrated. Within two months contracts to the amount of nearly $2,000,000 were annulled. The conspirators were tried, but judgment was never rendered against them.

646. On the morning of July 2d, 1881, by Charles J. Guiteau, at a railroad station, Washington, D. C.

647. The assassination produced a great sensation and a profound and universal sorrow was felt among the people. So intense was the national grief that the preparations for the celebration of the approaching holiday were generally abandoned. President Garfield died on the 19th of September following at Long Branch, N. J. He was buried at Cleveland, O. The assassin was tried, convicted and hanged.

648. By her direction a wreath of flowers was placed upon his coffin, in loving sympathy with the martyred President's wife.

649. Immediately on being legally informed of the President's death he took the oath of office.

650. Nearly 100,000 persons were rendered homeless.

651. It is a suspension bridge connecting New York and Brooklyn, and was opened to the use of the public in 1883. This remarkable structure was begun January 3d, 1870, and is 5,989 feet long. The height of towers is 278 feet and the length of the suspended span from tower to tower, is 1,596 feet. The height from the water, at the center, is 135 feet. The four great cables are 15¼ inches in diameter, and each cable contains 5,296 parallel (not twisted) galvanized steel, oil-coated wires, closely wrapped, and weighing, with its covering, 897½ tons.

652. It was passed in 1883, and aimed to regulate, by means of examinations, instead of political preferments, the system of appointments and promotions in the civil service of the United States.

653. October 1st, 1883.

654. In 1884 a bill was approved by which a governor, judge, marshal and other officers were to be appointed for
a term of four years, but no legislative assembly or congressional delegate was authorized. Sitka was made the temporary seat of government.

655. An Industrial and Cotton Exposition from December, 1884, to May, 1885. The Exposition was opened by President Arthur in the Executive Mansion at Washington by telegraph.

656. It was forbidden, in 1882, for ten years.

657. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks. The Republicans, James G. Blaine and John A. Logan. The Greenback-Labor party, B. F. Butler and A. M. West. The Prohibitionists, John P. St. John and William Daniel.

658. Between the Democrats and Republicans, the tariff, individual slander and personalities. The People's party discussed the same measures as were adopted before, while the Prohibitionists were earnest in their convictions of prohibition by the general government.

659. New York held the deciding vote, and its majority was about 1,045.

660. Intense excitement prevailed until the official count of New York was given, when there came a relaxation of this suspense. Republicans were gloomy, and many prophesied hard times, a depression of business and a general misfortune to the government, while the Democrats were wild with delight, bands of music were called out, processions formed and general feasting and rejoicing were the order of the day.

661. They held that the dramshop was the great curse of humanity; that license was but a co-operation of the government in crime; that murder, arson, wretchedness, poverty and woe were but the fruits of this traffic; that the protection of our political system, the protection of our sons and daughters, our husbands, our fathers, our brothers rested upon the downfall of this terrible demon which walked the halls of legislation—that grasped the throats of our legislators, that trampled beneath its feet the sacred truths of our Sabbath day, that boldly defied the law, that cruelly dragged its victims from the highest walks of life to the lowest depths of hell; that it spared neither young nor old, matron or maiden; that this liquid demon would burn the manhood of the most gifted; would wring from the crushed or starved wife the last morsel of sustenance; that it would pollute all channels, destroy all affection, degrade all aspirations; that it would breed dis- ease, transmit misery, degrade mankind and ruin the souls of men.

662. Secretary of State—Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware. Secretary of the Treasury—Daniel Manning, of New York. Secretary of War—William E. Endicott, of Massachusetts. Secretary of the Navy—William E. Whitney, of New York. Secretary of the Interior—L. Q. C. Lamar, of Mississippi. Postmaster-General—William F. Vilas, of Wisconsin. Attorney-General—A. H. Garland, of Arkansas.

663. The Republicans declared that he was not living up to his own pledges of civil service; that his removals were partisan, under the cloak of pretended reasons; that offensive partisans were wholly on one side, and that his reform measures were all sham. Many of the Democrats, on the other hand, were impatient over the slowness of a change of offices, and declared that Jackson's motto of "to the victors belong the spoils," should be applied by Cleveland.

664. He died at Mount McGregor, N. Y., July 23d, 1885. His book met an enormous sale. At one time the publishers sent Mrs. Grant a check for $250,000.

665. At his home in Indianapolis, Nov. 25th, 1885. Five times.

666. George B. McClellan, Winfield S. Hancock, Charles Francis Adams and Chester A. Arthur.

667. About 54,000. Nearly 400,000.

668. Nearly 7,000,000 bales a year. The United States now produces the cotton supply of the world.

669. Nearly $200,000,000 a year.

670. About 125,000 miles, and cost, with equipments, $7,000,000,000.

671. 40,000 copies of a single sheet, printed on both sides, in one hour.

672. The telegraph, the sewing-machine, the reaper, the mower, the horse-rake, the steam fire-engine, the telephone, the steamship, the palace car, the elevator, the threshing machine, the safe, the breech-loading gun, and a thousand common devices that add to the convenience, the comfort and the progress of mankind.

673. Over 22,000 are reported by the Patent Office.

674. It is the grand foundation of our prosperity and our progress. Our free school system is the open channel by which all can acquire, if they choose, a fair knowledge of the principles of business, labor or trade.

675. About 140,000,000 have been donated to the States for school purposes.
676. In 1884 there were four hundred and fifty. The number in 1887 is some greater.
677. Over $100,000,000 per annum. Probably about 12,000,000 children attend these schools.
678. Washington Irving.
679. Over 15,000.
680. Among the historians may be mentioned Prescott, Bancroft and Motley. Among the Poets—Bryant, Whittier, Simms, Holmes, Poe and Longfellow. Romance and Miscellaneous Writers—Cooper, Hawthorne, Irving, Channing, Bayard, and Légare. Orators—Clay, Calhoun, Webster, Benton, Everett, Seward, Phillips, Prentiss, Douglas, Choate and Stephens.
681. The Haymarket riot in Chicago, May 3d. The riot of Milwaukee, May 6th. The earthquake of Charleston, South Carolina. The conviction of the eight Anarchists of Chicago. The organization of the Knights of Labor. The gales off the coast of Texas. The wrecks on the lakes of Michigan, Superior and extending to Ontario. And the unveiling of "Liberty Enlightening the World."
682. John A. Logan, U. S. Senator from Illinois.
683. Presidents. Inaugurated. Years in Office.
George Washington................1789 8
John Adams.......................1797 4
Thomas Jefferson.................1801 8
James Madison....................1809 8
James Monroe.....................1817 8
John Quincy Adams................1825 4
Andrew Jackson...................1829 8
Martin Van Buren.................1837 4
*William H. Harrison...............1841 1/2
John Tyler.......................1841 3 1/2
James K. Polk....................1845 4
*Zachary Taylor..................1849 1 1/2
Millard Fillmore.................1850 2 1/2
Franklin Pierce..................1853 4
James Buchanan...................1857 4
*Abraham Lincoln.................1861 4 1/4
Andrew Johnson...................1865 3 1/4
Ulysses S. Grant.................1869 8
Rutherford B. Hayes..............1877 4
*James A. Garfield...............1881 1/4
Chester A. Arthur................1881 3 1/2
Grover B. Cleveland..............1885
* Died in office. 684. John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Monroe. Adams and Jefferson expired the same day—July 4th, 1826. Monroe died in 1831.
685. John Adams and John Quincy Adams.
686. Bacon's, Clayborne's, Shay's, Dorr's, Whisky Insurrection, and the Civil War.
687. States. Where Settled. When. By Whom. Admitted.
Florida....... St. Augustine. 1565 Spanish........... 1845
Virginia....... Jamestown.... 1607 English........... †
New York....... Albany....... 1614 Dutch............. †
Massachusetts.. Plymouth.... 1620 English........... †
New Jersey..... Bergen....... 1620 Dutch and Danes. †
New Hampshire. Dover........ 1623 English........... †
Maine.......... York......... 1630 English........... 1820
Connecticut.... Windsor...... 1633 English........... †
Maryland....... St. Mary's... 1634 English........... †
Rhode Island... Providence... 1636 Roger Williams.. †
Delaware....... Wilmington... 1638 Swedes............ †
Pennsylvania... Philadelphia. 1643 Swedes............ †
North Carolina. Albermarle... 1650 English........... †
Wisconsin...... Green Bay.... 1669 French............ 1848
South Carolina. Port Royal... 1670 English........... †
Michigan....... Detroit...... 1670 French............ 1837
Illinois....... Kaskaskia.... 1688 French............ 1818
Arkansas....... Arkansas Post 1685 French............ 1836
Indiana........ Vincennes.... 1690 French............ 1816
Texas.......... Bexar........ 1693 Spanish........... 1845
Louisiana...... Iberville.... 1699 French............ 1812
Alabama........ Mobile....... 1702 French............ 1819
Mississippi.... Biloxi....... 1699 French............ 1817
Vermont........ Brattleboro.. 1724 English........... 1791
Georgia........ Savannah..... 1733 English........... †
Missouri....... St. Genevieve. 1775 French............ 1821
Tennessee...... Fort London.. 1757 English........... 1796
California..... San Diego.... 1769 Spanish........... 1850
Kentucky....... Boonsboro.... 1770 Daniel Boon..... 1792
Ohio........... Marietta..... 1788 English........... 1802
Oregon......... Astoria...... 1811 Americans......... 1859
Iowa........... Dubuque...... 1833 French............ 1846
Minnesota...... St. Paul..... 1838 Americans......... 1858
Nebraska....... Omaha........ .......... Americans......... 1867
Kansas......... ............. .......... Americans......... 1861
West Virginia.. ............. .......... ................. 1863
Nevada......... ............. .......... ................. 1864
Colorado....... ............. .......... ................. 1876.
† Original States.
688. At the close of the French and Indian war France
yielded up her claims to territories on the mainland in North America, excepting the city of New Orleans, ceding all east of the Mississippi to England, and all west to Spain. This gave England the entire country east of the Mississippi, excepting Florida, which was a Spanish possession.

In the treaty of peace which followed the Revolutionary war, the boundaries of the United States included all of the English claims east of the Mississippi and north to the Great Lakes.

In 1800, Spain, by a secret treaty, restored to France the territory of Louisiana, comprising her possessions east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from Mexico to the British claims. The northern boundary of the Louisiana territory was never drawn.

In 1803 the United States purchased the Louisiana territory of France for $15,000,000.

In 1804, President Jefferson sent an exploration party under Lewis and Clark, to the headwaters of the Missouri, and thence across to the Pacific. Up to this time the North Pacific country did not belong to any nation, but, as the United States became interested, England became jealous and claimed the same. The United States, however, continued to assert her rights, and a great deal of correspondence between the two governments resulted. At last, in 1818, the United States and England agreed to a joint occupancy of the whole territory for ten years.

In 1828 the treaty of joint occupancy was renewed, to terminate on either party's giving a year's notice. No division was made until 1846. It was then agreed by a treaty that the American possessions should extend as far north as latitude 49°. From this acquisition was formed the State of Oregon, and the Territories of Washington, Idaho and Montana.

In 1819 Florida was purchased from Spain for $5,000,000.

In 1845 Texas became a part of the United States by annexation.

At the close of the Mexican war, in the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2d, 1848, the Mexican government ceded to the United States California, Nevada, Utah, a part of Arizona, and New Mexico, for which the United States paid $15,000,000 and assumed the debts of Mexico to American citizens, amounting to $3,500,000 more.

In 1854 the "Gadsden Purchase" gave to the United States the southwestern corner of New Mexico and that part of Arizona south of the Gila River, for which was paid $10,000,000.
In 1867 Alaska was purchased of Russia for $7,200,000 in gold.
689. He died January 16th, 1887. He was Chief Signal officer of the United States.
690. The Inter-State Commerce Bill. It was signed by the President Feb. 4th, 1887.
691. It is known as the Retaliation Bill, and places in the hands of the President the power to prohibit the importation of the products of the Canadian fisheries, or if necessary to deny all commerce with Canada until the differences between the United States and Canada are settled.
692. Daniel Manning, Secretary of the Treasury.

QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY.

1. From what did the term geography derive its name ?
2. How many kinds of geography ?
3. Define mathematical geography.
4. Define physical geography.
5. Define political geography.
6. What is the shape of the earth ?
7. Give proof of its rotundity.
8. What is supposed to be the reason why the earth is flattened at the poles ?
9. How much greater is the diameter at the equator than the diameter at the poles ?
10. What is the area of the earth's surface ?
11. What is its solid contents in miles ?
12. What is its weight?
13. What is its specific gravity ?
14. What is the horizon?
15. What is the axis of the earth ? What are its poles ?
16. How many revolutions has the earth? Define each.
17. Give proofs of the earth's rotation.
18. Explain how falling bodies prove it.
19. How do we know that the earth rotates from west to east ?
20. What is the exact time of its rotation ?
21. What is the velocity of this rotation ?
22. Where is the velocity least ?
23. What causes day and night ?
24. What is called the Circle of Illumination ?
25. On what does the relative length of the day and night depend ?
26. What causes the seasons?
27. What is the earth's orbit? Its estimated length?
28. What is the earth's motion around the sun called ?
29. What is the exact time of a complete revolution ?
30. Define a siderial year.
31. Define a tropical year.
32. Which value is taken for the civil year ?
33. How great is the earth's annual motion ?
34. What position does the earth occupy in the universe?
35. What bodies compose the Solar System ?
36. What position does the earth occupy in this system?
37. What is the distance of the earth from the sun ?
38. Has the sun any other motion than its movement through space ?
39. To what theory has the uniformity of direction of the movements of the planets and sun given rise ?
40. What governs the velocity of the different planets ?
41. What causes the continual revolution of the earth and other planets ?
42. What gives the earth's orbit its elliptical shape ?
43. Why is it cold in winter and warm in summer?
44. What are zones? How many? Their width? Where situated ?
45. What is the Ecliptic ?
46. Why is the Ecliptic so called ?
47. What is the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit ?
48. Why are the zones given their respective widths ?
49. What would be the climate, supposing the earth's axis to be horizontal to the plane of its orbit ?
50. Why would the inclination of the earth affect the climate?
51. Supposing the earth's inclination to be 30°, or any other degree, how would we ascertain the width of the several zones ?
52. At what season is the earth nearest the sun ?
53. Explain why it is nearer at one time than at another.
54. When is the earth in its perihelion ?
55. When at its aphelion ?
56. What are Equinoxes ? How many and what are they called ?
57. On what days of the year do they occur?
58. What are the Equinoctial Points?
59. What are the solstices?
60. How many, and what are they called?
61. On what days of the year do they occur?
62. What are the Solstitial Points?
63. What is a compass? Its cardinal points?
64. What are the semi-cardinal points?
65. Into how many circles is the earth divided? What are they?
66. How may the circles of the earth be divided?
67. Define Great and Small Circles.
68. Define circles of Position, or Measurement.
69. Define Climatic Circles.
70. Name the Circles of Position.
71. Name the Climatic Circles.
72. Define quadrant.
73. How is every circle divided?
74. What is a map?
75. What are the lines, or circles, on a map?
76. What is the equator?
77. Through what countries does the equator pass?
78. What is a meridian circle? A meridian?
79. What is longitude?
80. On what is longitude measured?
81. From what meridian do we reckon longitude?
82. How many degrees west of Greenwich is Washington?
83. What is the greatest longitude a place can have?
84. Can a place have no longitude?
85. Reckoning from the meridian at Washington, what is the latitude and longitude of Quito?
86. What is the length of a degree of longitude?
87. Why does the length of a degree of longitude decrease after leaving the equator?
88. What are prime meridians?
89. Where are these usually located?
90. Through what States does the meridian at Washington pass?
91. What countries in Asia are crossed by the same meridian circle?
92. Explain how we reckon time when the difference of longitude of two places is given, or vice versa.
93. What large city in Asia is nearly opposite Philadelphia? 94. What is latitude? How many kinds?
95. On what is latitude measured?
96. What is the highest degree of latitude?
97. What is the length of a degree of latitude?
98. What is the basis of a geographical mile?
99. Through what countries and bodies of water does the Tropic of Cancer pass?
100. The Tropic of Capricorn?
101. The Arctic Circle?
102. The Antarctic Circle?
103. Why is it colder at the Antarctic Circle than at the Arctic?
104. What part of North America is in the same latitude as England and Ireland?
105. Why does the climate of Labrador differ so materially from that of England?
106. Why are the winters more mild at Puget Sound than in the region of Lake Superior?
107. Describe the Gulf Stream.
108. Where and what is the Sargasso Sea?
109. What is the meaning of sargasso?
110. What are the natural divisions of land? Describe each.
111. What are the natural divisions of water? Describe each.
112. How are straits divided?
113. What is the size of the Eastern Continent compared with the Western?
114. What is the area of the entire surface of the globe?
115. Which of the grand divisions is the largest? Smallest? Most populous? Richest in fertility?
116. What are the political divisions of North America?
117. Of what races does the population of the United States consist?
118. What is the number of the population of the United States?
119. What are the leading forms of industry of the people?
120. What are exports and imports?
121. What are the leading exports and imports?
122. With what countries does the United States have the greatest commerce?
123. What country contains the greatest number of inhabitants in proportion to its area?
124. How does England compare in size to the United States?
125. Which is larger, Europe or the United States?
126. How does Europe compare in size and population to Asia?
127. What is a frith, or estuary?
128. What is an archipelago?
129. What is a delta?
130. Why is this tract of land called a *delta*?
131. What is a road, or roadstead?
132. What is an oasis?
133. What is a valley, or basin of a river?
134. What river of the world has the greatest basin? What is the extent of this basin?
135. What is the extent of the basin of the Mississippi?
136. What is the extent of the basin of the La Plata? Nile? Obi? Yenisei? Yang-tse-Kiang? Niger? Volga? Ganges? Mackenzie? St. Lawrence? Saskatchawan? Orinoco? Columbia?
137. How wide is the mouth of the Amazon?
138. Into how many classes is mankind divided, in regard to social condition?
139. What nations are Enlightened? Civilized? Half-civilized?
140. Who are Barbarians? Savages?
141. What class of men are called Nomads? What is the meaning of nomad?
142. What are the principal forms of government?
143. What is a republic? A monarchy?
144. Name the republics of the world.
145. What is an unlimited monarchy? A limited?
146. What is the government of Russia? England? Germany? Turkey? Spain? China? Brazil?
147. What is a constitution?
148. What is the sovereign of an empire called?
149. What are the political divisions of the earth?
150. What is an empire, kingdom, republic, state, county?
151. What is the capital of a country? Metropolis?
152. How many distinct races of men?
153. What is the estimated number of inhabitants upon the earth? How divided?
154. How many prevailing systems of religion?
155. What is the estimated number belonging to each system? 156. How many classes of Christians?
157. What is the Mohammedan religion? What is the Koran?
158. What are the principal points of worship of the Buddhists? The Brahmins? The Religion of Confucius? The Shinto Religion?
159. What is the principal difference between the Christian and Jewish religions?
160. Who are termed Pagans?
161. Name and give the length of the longest four rivers in the world?
162. Name and give the length of the longest four rivers of North America?
163. What would be the length of the St. Lawrence through the chain of lakes to the head of the St. Louis River?
164. Name and give the length of the longest four rivers of South America?
165. Of Europe?
166. Of Asia?
167. Of Africa?
168. What is noticeable of the Amazon River?
169. Of the Mississippi?
170. Of the Missouri?
171. Of the Nile?
172. Describe the Rio de la Plata?
173. Describe Egypt?
174. By what two great commercial routes can we travel around the world, starting from New York?
175. What country in the world has the longest and most numerous lines of railroads?
176. Between what parallels does the United States lie?
177. What is the longitude of San Francisco, and about how far is it from New York City?
178. What State is the geographical center of the United States?
179. What country produces the most cotton? Sugar? Coffee? Rice? Tea?
180. What countries produce largely of the same products?
181. What country produces the most spices?
182. What are cloves?
183. What are nutmegs? Mace?
184. What is a mountain system?
185. Name the mountain systems of America?
186. What is the length of the longest day at the equator? At the Tropic of Cancer? Arctic Circle? North Pole?
187. Why does so little rain fall on that part of South America west of the Andes Mountain range?
188. What large city in Europe is noted for the manufacture of cotton cloth? For silks? Linen? Cutlery? Laces?
189. What are the leading pursuits of the people of the New England States?
190. What are the products of the New England States?
191. Where are the manufactures carried on to the greatest extent in these States? Name some of the most famous cities for the manufacture of cotton.
192. What is remarkable about the Merrimac River?
193. What is said of the climate? Soil? Agricultural products? Commerce?
194. How do the New England States compare in size with California?
195. What noted colleges are located at Cambridge and New Haven?
196. What important industries are carried on at Lynn? New Bedford? Springfield? Worcester? Portland?
197. Where is Mount Washington? Its height?
198. Where is marble obtained?
199. What is granite, and where found?
200. What State is called the "Granite State"? The "Pine-tree State"? The "Green Mountain State"? The "Bay State"?
201. For what are Lexington and Concord famous?
(a) Where are the following mountains: White, Blue, Hoosick, Mt. Katahdin, Mt. Holyoke, Bunker Hill.
(b) What are Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and to what State do they belong?
(c) Where are Rhode and Mt. Desert Islands, and to what States do they belong?
(d) Describe Lakes Memphremagog, Moosehead, Chesuncook, Grand, Winnipiseogee, Sebago, and Umbagog.
(e) Describe the bay of Passamaquodda, Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Penobscot, Casco, Narragansett, and Long Island Sound.
202. How many square miles in the area of Rhode Island, and how many States of the same size could be formed out of the State of Texas?
203. How does Maine compare in size to the other five New England States? 204. What is particularly noticeable about the northern boundary of Connecticut?
(a) Locate Burlington, Belfast, Dover, Salem, Bath, Bennington, Bangor, Eastport, and Lowell.
(b) Describe the following: Housatonic, Kennebec, Merrimac, Pawtucket, Connecticut, Thames, St. Croix, Taunton, Onion, White, and Androscoggin.
205. What is the size of California ?
206. What is the surface of this State ?
207. What is the name of this valley, and from what did it derive its name ?
208. What is the Golden Gate ?
209. What is the climate of the Pacific Coast ?
210. What natural curiosities do we find in California?
211. What are the productions of this section ?
212. What can be said of the fisheries of the Columbia River?
213. What can be said of the valley of Puget Sound ? Its climate ? Its latitude ?
214. Describe Alaska.
215. What is its form of government?
216. Is this possession valuable to the United States ?
217. How are the seal fisheries conducted ?
218. Which is the principal settlement, and where situated ?
219. When was gold discovered in California ?
220. What is the climate?
(a) Locate Vallejo, San Jose, Los Angeles, Stockton, Oakland, Marysville, Ft. Yuma, Benicia, and San Francisco.
(b) Locate Portland, Astoria, Walla Walla, St. Paul (Alaska).
(c) Locate Mt. Shasta, Mt. Hood, Mt. Baker, Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Pitt, Mt. Whitney, Mt. St. Elias, Mt. Fairweather.
(d) Describe the following rivers: San Joaquin, Sacramento, Columbia, Snake, Clarks, Bitter Root, Willamette, Kalmath, Yukon.
221. What is the difference in latitude between San Francisco and Richmond ?
222. How far north of Richmond is New York City ?
223. What part of South America is in the same latitude south of the equator, that Central United States is north of it ?
224. How does Brazil compare in size with the United States (not including Alaska)?
225. What city in the West Indies is in the same latitude north of the equator that Rio Janeiro is south of it?
226. Describe South America.
227. What are the llanos?
228. What are the selvas?
229. What are the pampas?
230. What are the wastes of Patagonia?
231. What is a plateau, or table-land?
232. How may the plateaus of South America be divided?
233. Describe the plateau of the Andes.
234. Describe Quito.
235. What are Chimborazo and Cotopaxi?
236. What is the Peruvian Balsa?
237. Describe the Cassiquiare River.
238. How far north does South America extend?
239. Into what divisions can the countries of South America be divided?
240. What does Portuguese South America comprise?
241. What does the Guianas comprise?
242. What does Spanish South America comprise?
243. Why are these republics called the Spanish division?
244. Describe Venezuela. The United States of Columbia. Ecuador. Peru. Bolivia. Chili.
245. What is the Argentine Confederation? Describe Uruguay. Paraguay.
246. What are the inhabitants of South America? How divided in regard to numbers?
247. What is the state of commerce? Civilization?
248. What are the natural resources? The industries?
249. Which is the most important country for the commerce of the United States?
250. Which is the most progressive of the republics?
251. Describe the railroads of South America.
252. What part of South America is in the same latitude as Cape Colony?
253. What city in Australia is in nearly the same latitude as Buenos Ayres?
254. What large city in the United States is in nearly the same longitude as Quito?
255. What part of the western coast of Africa is in the same latitude as Cape Gallinas?
(a) Describe the following islands: Joanes, Desolation, Chiloe, Falkland, Staten, Wellington, Juan Fernandez, Trinidad, St. Felix, Hermit Margarita.
(b) Locate the following places : Conception, Truxillo, Arequipa, Santiago, Villa Bella, Pernambuco, Popayan, Aspinwall, Villa Rica, Valparaiso, Cobija, Callao, Chagres, Guayaquil, Para, Bahia, Barcelona, Angostura, Potosi, Panama.
(c) Name and locate the capital cities of South America.
256. Where is Cape Horn ?
257. What is Terra del Fuego?
258. Why was Patagonia so named ?
259. What cape in South America is the most northern, eastern, southern, western?
(a) Locate the following capes : North, Frio, St. Antonio, Blanco.
(b) Where are the peninsulas of St. Joseph's and Tres Montes ?
(c) Locate the Gulf of Darien, St. Matthias, All Saints, Choco, Blanco, Guayaquil, St. George's, Paranagua, Panama.
(d) Where are Lakes Titicaca and Uros ? What river connects them?
260. Where is Lake Reyes, and what river is its outlet ?
261. What is the general character of the lakes of South America ?
(a) Locate Lakes Xarayes, Yber, and Maracaibo.
262. Describe Lakes Titicaca and Maracaibo.
(a) Where is the Desert of Atacama ?
(b) In how many zones is South America ?
(c) Between what two mountain chains is the basin of the Orinoco ?
(d) Of the countries of South America, which border on the Caribbean Sea? Which on the Atlantic Ocean? On the Pacific Ocean ?
263. Where are the Lobos and Chincha Islands ? For what are they valuable ?
264. Which is the smallest division of South America, and what State is about the same size ?
265. How does Brazil compare in size to the whole of South America ? Describe this country.
266. What important enterprise is being pushed on the Isthmus of Panama ?
267. What political interest does the United States hold in this enterprise ?
268. What political relations exist between this government and United States of Colombia?
269. Who is Count de Lesseps, and what notable works has he accomplished ?
(a) What are the following : San Francisco, Geral. Magellan, Port Stanley, De los Patos, Madeira, Pichincha, Essequibo, Despoblado, Maranham, Tobago, Margarita?
(b) Describe the following rivers : Orinoco, Magda- lena, Rio Negro, Para, Tocantins, Araguay, Tapajos, Xingu, Mamore, Purus, Pilcomayo, Salado, Rio Colorado.
270. Describe the Andes Mountains.
271. What does British America comprise? What are its chief divisions ?
272. What are the divisions of the Dominion of Canada ?
273. Describe the climate of the Dominion. The sur- face. The trade.
274. How does the Dominion compare in size to the United States ? What is its population ?
275. What island forms a part of the province of Nova Scotia?
276. Describe Newfoundland. For what is it noted ?
277. Describe Nova Scotia. Prince Edward Island. New Brunswick. Quebec. Ontario.
278. Describe Manitoba. British Columbia.
279. Describe the Northeast and Northwest Territories, or Districts.
280. What is the government of the provinces of the Dominion ?
281. For what is the great Saskatchewan Valley noted? What is the extent of this valley ?
282. What is the Bras d'Or?
283. What are the French possessions near these provinces ?
284. What are the banks of Newfoundland ?
285. Where is Anticosta Island ? Is it valuable ?
286. Which of the United States is about the size of New Brunswick ? Prince Edward Island ?
287. How is Montreal situated ?
288. For what is the basin of the St. Lawrence remark- able?
289. For what is the Bay of Fundy noted?
290. What are tides? Neap tides? Spring tides?
291. What are the chief causes of tides ?
292. What are the three distinct movements of the ocean?
293. What are waves ?
294. What are ocean currents, and how are they caused ? 295. How are ocean currents divided ?
296. What is a counter current?
297. Why are the tides of Fundy Bay so much greater than at other ports ?
298. What are the chief productions of the Canadian provinces?
299. Name and locate the capital cities of these provinces.
(a) Locate the following cities : Prescott, Kingston, St. John, Liverpool, Toronto, Quebec, Pictou, Hamilton, Bathurst, Three Rivers, Yarmouth, Harbor Grace, Sydney, Louisburg, Chatham, Windsor, Truro, Victoria, Winnipeg, Regina, Battleford.
(b) Describe the capes : Sable, Canso, North, Race, Bauld, Ray, St. Lewis, Rozier.
(c) Describe the following gulfs and bays : James, Hudson, St. Lawrence, Chaleurs, Georgian, Fundy, Notre Dame, Placentia, Fortune, Bonavista, Trinity and St. George's.
(d) Locate the Straits Belle Isle, Northumberland and Canso.
(e) Describe some of the principal lakes : Abbitibbe, Mistissinnie, St. John, Grand, Nipissing, Sinco, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Gulf of Georgia.
(f) Describe the following rivers : Albany, Moose, Ottawa, East Main, St. Maurice, Saguenay, Rupert's, Severn, Grand, Richelieu, St. Francis, St. John, Fraser.
300. To what province does Labrador belong ?
301. What are the obstructions to navigation from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake Superior?
302. How are these obstructions avoided ?
303. How is Nova Scotia joined to New Brunswick ?
304. What islands are in the Niagara River ?
305. What difficulties of a political nature have lately arisen between Canada and the United States ?
306. What are the commercial routes of the Dominion ?
307. How is Oceanica divided ?
308. What does Malasia comprise ?
309. Which are the principal Sunda Isles ?
310. What are the productions of these islands ?
311. What is said of the animals of Malasia ?
312. What are the inhabitants ?
313. What nations have possessions here?
314. Which are the most important cities of this archipelago? Where are they situated ?
(a) Locate Acheen, Macassar, Bencoolen.
(b) What strait separates Sumatra from Java?
(c) What strait separates Sumatra from Asia? Borneo from Celebes?
(d) Where is Mt. Ophir?
315. How large is Borneo? Sumatra? Java? Celebes? Philippine Isles?
316. What State is about the size of Celebes?
317. In which zone are these islands situated?
318. What is the surface of these islands?
319. Are these islands thickly inhabited?
320. How is Australasia divided?
321. What race is called Papuans? Where are they found and what is noticeable of them?
322. To what country does Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania belong?
323. What possessions has France in these divisions?
324. How is Australia divided?
325. How large is Australia?
326. What is the surface of this island?
327. What are the inhabitants?
328. What are the chief pursuits of the people? The chief exports?
329. What is the government of Australia?
330. What is the climate? Vegetation?
331. How is Australia connected, by means of the telegraph, with the countries of Europe?
332. What is said of the native animals of Australia?
333. Which are the principal cities? Locate them.
334. Is this country thickly settled?
335. Describe Tasmania.
336. Where is New Zealand?
(a) Locate Auckland, Hobarton, Cook Strait.
(b) Where is Bass Strait, Torres, Molucca Passage?
337. What is said of Papua and the other islands?
338. What does Polynesia include?
339. Name the principal groups.
340. What is the surface of the islands of Polynesia?
341. What are the inhabitants?
342. What is said of the animals?
343. Which is the only important town in Polynesia?
(a) Locate Timor, Sumbawa, Kangaroo, Hawaii.
(b) To what divisions of Oceanica do the following islands belong: Luzon, Feejee, Lombock, Chatham, Mindanao, North and South Sooloo, Banca? (c) Describe the Gulf of Carpentaria, Spencer, Shark, Plenty, Botany and Great Bay.
(d) What seas are scattered among these islands ?
344. Name the Middle States. How do they compare in size to the New England States ?
345. Which is the larger, New York or Pennsylvania ?
346. What is the surface of these States ?
347. What can be said of New York?
348. For what are Rochester, Syracuse, West Point, and Saratoga noted ? Locate them.
349. What is noticeable of Pennsylvania?
350. What is said of its minerals ?
351. For what are Pittsburg and Philadelphia noted?
352. Where is Fairmount Park? What great event was celebrated there ?
353. What is the estimated population of the City of New York during the day ? What is the population within a radius of thirty miles ?
354. Describe the Brooklyn Bridge.
355. What great gift of the French people is located in the New York harbor ? Describe it.
356. What are the pursuits of the people of New Jersey ?
357. What fashionable resorts for sea-bathing in this State? Locate them.
358. How large is Delaware ? What are the chief pursuits of the people ?
(a) Where are Capes May and Henlopen, Charles and Henry?
(b) Name and locate the capitals of the Middle States.
(c) Locate Sing Sing, Poughkeepsie, Hudson, Troy, Buffalo, Gettysburg, Erie, Newark, Paterson.
(d) Which one of the States is called the " Empire State"? Which one the " Keystone State "?
(e) Describe the Hudson, Mohawk, Susquehanna, Delaware, Genesee, Tioga, Juniata, and the rivers which form the Ohio.
(f) Locate Pottsville, Rome, Utica, Wilmington, Camden, Jersey City, Reading, Alleghany, Scranton, Oswego, Lockport, Ithaca, Ticonderoga.
(g) Locate the following : Lake George, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Delaware Bay, Egg Harbor, Manhattan Island.
(h) Where is Sandy Hook, Blackwell's Island, East River ?
(i) Locate New Castle, Titusville, Oil City, Ogdensburg, Flushing, Whitehall, Albion, Lebanon, Schoharie, Auburn.
359. Describe the District of Columbia.
360. How great a fall has the cataract of Niagara ?
361. How are the West India Islands divided?
362. What islands belong to the Greater Antilles ?
363. What do the Lesser Antilles include ?
364. What and where are the Bahama Islands ?
365. To what country do these islands belong ?
366. What are the inhabitants of these islands ?
367. What is the surface of the Antilles ?
368. What are the productions ?
369. What is rum ?
370. How is Hayti divided ?
371. What is the history of this republic?
372. Where are the Bermuda Islands? To whom do they belong ?
373. How large are Cuba and Hayti ?
(a) Name and locate the capital cities of the West Indies.
(b) Locate Mantanzas, Kingston, Falmouth, Ponce, Manzanillo, Nuevitas, Samana, Gonaives.
(c) Describe the following capes : Maysi, Morant, St. Antonio, Negril, De Cruz, Engano.
(d) Describe the Straits Mona Passage, Windward Passage Channel of Yucatan, and Florida Strait.
(e) To what divisions do the following islands belong : Barbadoes, Dominica, Guanahani, Antigua, Tobago. Trinidad, Tortuga, St. Thomas, Guadaloupe, Grenada, Isle of Pines, Orchilla ?
374. What are keys?
375. What is a reef?
376. Describe the southern coast of Florida.
377. Where is Key West? What are its exports?
378. How is salt made in Key West ?
379. What is sponge ?
380. What is the general surface of Florida ?
381. What are the productions of this State?
382. What is Lake Okeechobee, and where is it ?
383. What scheme is proposed by civil engineers in regard to this great central swamp of Florida ?
384. Why has this State so few good harbors ?
(a) Locate the following cities : Pensacola, Apalachicola, Tallahassee, St. Augustine, St. Marks.
(b) How is the Apalachicola River formed ? Describe these rivers. 385. Which State is separated by the Mississippi River?
386. On which side of the river is New Orleans? Describe it.
387. What is the soil of Louisiana?
388. How many territories in the United States? Name them.
389. What does Danish America include?
390. Has Greenland been fully explored?
391. Why was Greenland so named?
392. Describe Iceland.
393. What natural curiosities here?
394. What is supposed to be the cause of this phenomenon?
395. What gave the name of Iceland?
396. Which are the principal towns of Danish America?
397. How much larger is Asia than Africa?
398. What is the greatest length and breadth of Africa?
399. Give a short description of Africa.
400. What are the inhabitants?
401. What does Barbary include?
402. To what nation do these countries belong?
403. How large is the Desert of Sahara?
(a) Describe the following mountains: Atlas, Mountains of the Moon, Snow Mountains, Kong, Crystal and Mocambe.
404. Describe Soudan. What are the exports, and how is commerce carried on?
405. How is Southern Africa divided?
406. How are these countries governed?
407. Where and what is Liberia?
408. Where is the colony of Sierra Leone?
409. What are the principal exports of Africa?
(a) Locate Morocco, Monrovia, Free Town, Cairo, Cape Town, Mozambique, Cobbe, Tripoli, Sego, Condar, Sokoto, Algiers, Antananarivo, Petermaritzburg, Timbuctoo, Wara, Mesna, Coomassie, Kouka, Zanzibar, Graham Town, and Port Natal.
(b) What capes project from the four extremities of Africa?
(c) Describe the Mozambique Channel, Gulf of Aden, Guinea, Sidra, Niger River, Senegal, Orange, and Congo.
(d) Locate the following islands: Azores, Canary, Cape Verd, Ascension, Helena, Madeira, Peak of Teneriffe.
410. Describe Madagascar.
411. What city is the largest in Africa? The second in size?
412. Where are Port Said and Suez?
413. How long is the Suez Canal? To what nation does it belong?
414. Locate the capital cities of the territories of the United States.
415. For what are Idaho and Montana noted?
416. Where is the Yellow Stone Park? What is it?
417. Describe Dakota.
418. Describe the Union Pacific Railroad.
419. Locate the principal towns on this railroad.
420. How is Salt Lake City situated?
421. Describe Utah.
422. What people settled Utah?
423. For what are the southern territories and Texas especially adapted?
424. How is the western part of Texas occupied?
425. What are the productions of Texas?
426. What is the climate?
(a) Locate Austin, Houston, Matagorda, Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Colorado City, Greeley, Fillmore City, Portland, Ft. Benton, Ft. Union, Sioux City, Ft. Laramie, Silver City, Dallas, Preston, Pembina, Vermillion.
(b) Describe the following rivers: Columbia, Snake, Humboldt, Colorado, Gila, Rio Grande, Brazos, Trinity, Arkansas, Smoky Hill Fork, Platte.
(c) Locate Pike's Peak, Mt. Hood, Mt. Baker, Mt. Shasta, Diamond Peak, Long Peak, Spanish Peaks, Fremont's Peak, Mt. Fairweather, Mt. St. Elias.
427. Which of the States and Territories border on British America?
428. Which of the States are separated by the Mississippi River?
429. Which are separated by the Ohio River?
430. What is the general outline of Europe, and what advantages does it offer?
431. What is the surface?
432. What are the principal European parts of this great mountain system? Describe each part.
433. What part of Europe is included in the Great Plain?
434. What is the climate?
435. Name the political divisions. How are they classified?
436. Which divisions are called the "Five Great Powers"?
437. Name and locate the peninsulas of Europe.
438. Describe the Scandinavian peninsula.
439. What are the exports of this peninsula?
440. How much farther north can grain be raised in Norway than on the Atlantic shore of America?
441. What point on the American continent is in the same latitude as Christiania?
442. Where is Lapland?
443. Is this country inhabited?
444. What is the size of the Russian Empire?
445. What is the surface of this empire?
446. How are the inhabitants divided?
447. What is the government? Religion?
448. What are the inhabitants called? Their monarch?
449. What subject is strongly agitating the minds of the Russian people?
450. Who are the Nihilists? What do they seek to accomplish?
451. What political relations, of a strained character, exist between Russia and England?
452. In what does the principal wealth of Russia consist?
453. Where are the great wheat-growing regions of Europe?
454. What is the nature of the country around the Caspian Sea?
455. Describe the Caspian Sea.
456. What are steppes, and where found?
457. Where is Poland? Circassia?
458. Describe Moscow. When was it burned?
459. For what is Sebastopol famous?
460. What was the cause of this siege?
461. Who inhabit the steppes, or barren plains of Russia?
462. Where is Niznei Novgorod, and what takes place there every year?
463. Which are the principal ports for foreign commerce? Locate them.
464. What seas and gulfs wash the shores of Russia? Describe each.
465. What do the British Islands comprise?
466. What does Great Britain include?
467. What is the surface of the British Islands?
468. How is Scotland divided?
469. What is the nature of the sea coast?
470. What is the climate?
471. In what does the chief wealth of Great Britain consist?
472. How does she rank with other nations in the amount of her manufactures and commerce?
473. What is the extent of the merchant vessels of Great Britain? Her seamen? How is the English navy regarded, and how does it compare with other countries?
474. How do the armies of Europe compare with that of the United States? What is the natural result of such immense defenses?
475. What is the government of Great Britain? What is Parliament? Who is the Prime Minister?
476. What is the population of the several divisions?
477. Where is tin obtained?
478. What is the chief article of fuel in Ireland?
479. What is the extent of the British Empire?
480. Which are the principal possessions of Great Britain in Europe?
481. Which in Asia?
482. In Africa?
483. In Oceanica?
484. In America?
(a) Locate Malta, Gozo, Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong, Aden, Mauritius and Seychelle Islands.
(b) Where are the Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland, Anglesea, Man, Isle of Wight, Skye, Mull, Lewis, Uist, Islay, Arran?
(c) Describe St. George's Channel, North Channel, English Channel, Bristol Channel, Dover Strait, Menai, The Minch, Little Minch, Jura Sound.
(d) Describe the following capes: Land's End, Lizard Pt., Dunnet Head, Kinnaird Head, Malin Head, Mizzen Head, Flamborough Head, Butt of Lewis, and Cape Wrath.
485. For what are Liverpool, Leeds and Bradford, Birmingham, Limerick, and Merthyr Tydvil noted? Locate them.
486. How large an area is covered by the City of London?
487. What questions agitate the people of Ireland, and what measures have been proposed in Parliament to satisfy these demands? 488. Describe the Spanish Peninsula.
489. What are the productions of Spain?
490. What parallel crosses the central portion of Spain, and through which of the United States does the same parallel pass?
491. What other countries in Europe does the same parallel cross?
492. Were we to follow this parallel, what countries in Asia would we pass through?
493. Where is the Republic of Andorra?
494. What is noticeable of this republic?
495. What are the foreign possessions of Spain? Of Portugal?
496. How wide is the Strait of Gibraltar?
497. What is noticeable of the Fortress of Gibraltar?
498. How large is France?
499. How does she rank with other countries?
500. What is the surface?
501. What and where are the landes?
502. What are the principal exports?
503. What influence has Paris throughout the civilized world?
504. Name and locate the principal possessions of France.
(a) Where is Pondicherry?
(b) Locate Minorca, Majorca, Sardinia, and Ivica.
(c) Describe Bay of Biscay, Gulf of Lyons, Gulf of Genoa, and Strait of Bonifacio.
505. What are the pursuits of the people of Holland and Belgium? What is Holland now called?
506. What is the condition of much of the coast of this country?
507. How is internal communication promoted?
508. What is the Zuyder Zee?
509. What people are called Dutch?
510. What are the colonial possessions of Netherlands? How valuable are they regarded?
511. What are the occupations of the people? The commerce? Exports? Wealth?
512. What is the surface of Denmark?
513. How is Copenhagen situated?
514. What are the colonial possessions of Denmark?
515. What does the German Empire comprise?
516. Which are the free cities?
517. Where is the State of Alsace?
518. What are the capitals of the four divisions?
519. Describe the government of Germany.
520. What can be said of its military power?
521. What of its school system? Its manufactures?
522. Which are the chief ports of Germany?
523. What are the productions?
524. What are heaths?
525. What are the inhabitants of Austria?
526. What is the proper title of Austria?
527. How is this empire divided? What is the government?
528. What are the exports of Austria?
529. What can be said of the Danube River?
530. How is Vienna situated?
531. What was Poland formerly?
532. Which is the most mountainous country of Europe?
533. Of how many States is Switzerland composed? How large is it?
534. For what are the Swiss noted? What language do they speak?
535. For what is Geneva noted?
536. How is Italy governed?
537. In ancient times, for what was this country celebrated?
538. For what are the towns and cities noted?
539. Where is San Marino?
540. To what country do the Islands of Sardinia and Sicily belong?
541. What is the extent of the Ottoman Empire?
542. Describe the Turk.
543. How does Turkey compare with other European countries in regard to civilization, agriculture, and the arts and sciences?
544. What are Roumania, Servia and Montenegro?
545. How is Bulgaria governed?
546. What are the exports of Turkey?
547. What was Greece in ancient times?
548. What is the shape of Greece?
549. Name and locate the capital cities of Europe.
(a) Locate Matapan, Spartivento, De Gata, St. Vincent, Finisterre, Ortegal, St. Matthew, The Naze, North, Sviatoi.
(b) Describe the following straits: Otranto, Messina, Bosphorus, Dardanelles, Enikale, Vaigatch, Skager Rack, and Cattegat. (c) Name and describe the seas which wash the shores of Europe.
(d) Describe the following gulfs : Taranto, Salonica, Dantzig, Lübeck, Murray Frith, The Wash, Frith of Solway.
(e) Locate the principal seaports of Europe : London, Marseilles, Elsinore, Amsterdam, Venice, Aberdeen, Rotterdam, Palermo, Lisbon, Lübeck, Naples, Genoa, Hull, Oporto, Southampton, Brest, Constantinople, Bremen, Hamburg, Limerick, Dundee, Bordeaux, Galway, Dublin, Bristol, Port Mahone, Havre, Waterford, Belfast, Portsmouth, Cork, Liverpool, Stettin, Antwerp, Londonderry, Barcelona, Dantzig, Dover, Leith, Swansea, Kingston, St. Petersburg, Riga, Odessa, Archangel, Malaga, Navarino, Sebastopol, Trieste, Aalborg, Salonica, Calais, Cronstadt.
(f) Describe the mountains of Kiolen, Carpathian, Balkan, Apennines, Pyrenees, Cevennes, Cantabrian, Sierra Morena, Sierra Nevada, Jura, Alps, Ural, Valdai Hills, Cheviot Hills, Grampian Hills, Cambrian, Mt. Etna, Mt. Vesuvius, Ben Nevis, Ben Lomond, Mt. Snowdon.
550. With what country is England most extensively engaged in trade?
551. Which is the most northern town in Europe? Why is this port never frozen?
(a) Locate the principal inland cities, not capitals : Moscow, Warsaw, Dresden, Metz, Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, Nottingham, Nancy, Orleans, Grenada, Saragossa, Cologne, Hanover, Adrianople, Sophia, Florence, Turin, Milan, Geneva, Waterloo, Kilkenny, Killarney, Bradford, Norwich, Oxford, Pesth, Munich, Versailles, Rouen, Breslau.
552. Name the four most important rivers of Europe.
553. What countries are termed Spanish America?
554. What part of Spanish America is still in possession of Spain?
555. What is the surface of Mexico?
556. Are the tablelands accessible from the Gulf?
557. What is the climate?
558. What are the inhabitants?
559. How are the seasons divided?
560. What are the productions? Its commerce?
561. What are the principal minerals?
562. How is the City of Mexico situated?
563. What two volcanoes are visible from the city? What do their names signify?
564. What is cochineal? Pulque?
565. What is the history of Mexico?
566. What peninsulas belong to this republic?
567. What is the government of Mexico?
568. What political differences occurred between Mexico and the United States in 1886?
569. What does Central America comprise?
570. Locate the capital cities.
571. Where is Belize? To what country does it belong?
572. What are the exports of Belize?
(a) Locate the following cities: Vera Cruz, Matamoros, Monterey, Merida, Belize, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, Acapulco, Guatemala.
573. What three routes were projected from the Atlantic to the Pacific?
574. How does Mexico compare in size to the United States?
575. In what zones is Mexico?
576. Where are the greatest copper regions in the United States?
577. Where is lead found most abundantly?
(a) How many Western States? Name them.
(b) How many Southern States? Name them.
578. What are the great staple productions of the Southern States?
579. Which State produces the most cotton? Rice? Sugar? Tobacco? Potatoes? Corn? Wheat?
580. Which State has the greatest number of swine? Cattle? Horses? Mules? Sheep?
581. Which State produces the greatest quantity of gold? Silver? Iron? Copper? Lead? Coal? Pine lumber? Turpentine, resin and tar?
582. How is turpentine, resin and tar manufactured?
583. From what does North Carolina derive her chief wealth?
584. What is South Carolina often called?
585. What article can be raised extensively in all the States and Territories?
586. Into what sections is the United States divided?
587. What does the Atlantic Slope embrace?
588. What does the Pacific Slope embrace?
589. What division is included in the Central Plain?
590. Into what divisions may the United States be divided with reference to its drainage? 591. What is the surface of Asia ?
592. What divisions can we apply to this country ?
593. What portion is included in Arctic Asia? In Desert Asia? In Peninsular Asia? In Insular Asia?
594. What portion of the population of the human race are in Peninsular Asia?
595. What can be said of the productions of Asia ?
596. Where is the longest inland commercial route on the globe ?
597. How are the tablelands divided? What is said of them ?
598. What countries constitute the Great Northern Plain of Asia?
599. Describe the mountain system of Asia.
600. Where is the Great Desert of Gobi ?
601. How may the climate be described ?
602. What is the climate of Northern Asia ?
603. Describe Siberia.
604. What is the climate of Central and Southern Asia?
605. To what three races do the inhabitants of Asia belong ?
606. What people belong to the Mongolian race?
607. What nations, or tribes, living in Asia, belong to the Caucasian race ?
608. What countries are occupied by the Malay race ?
609. What is the estimated number of inhabitants of the several races ?
610. For what has Siberia long been used ?
611. To what country does Georgia belong? What is noticeable of the inhabitants ?
612. How is Turkestan divided? What is the government of each?
613. What is the Khan ?
(a) Locate the following cities : Tobolsk, Irkoutsk, Tashkend, Bokhara, Yarkand, Khokan, Khiva, Tiflis, Smyrna, Jerusalem, Damascus, Medina, Mecca, Mocha, Aden, Muscat.
614. What does the Chinese Empire include?
615. What is said of the population of China ?
616. What are the productions of China?
617. What is the government ?
618. What about the education of the Chinese ?
619. How are all government officers below the emperor selected ?
620. What can be said of these people in regard to their trades, arts and sciences ?
621. Describe the great wall of China. For what purpose was it built ?
622. Which are the most important seaports for foreign trade ? Locate them.
623. Name the principal islands of Japan.
624. What are the chief productions of these islands ?
625. What is the government of Japan ?
626. What is the emperor called ?
627. How do the Japanese compare in enlightenment with the Chinese ?
628. What two peninsulas comprise India ?
629. What does British India include ?
630. How is Indo-China divided ?
631. What peculiarity is found in the literature of the Hindoos ?
632. What is the government of British India ?
633. Where is Ceylon, and what is it ?
634. Where is the country of Cochin-China ?
635. Where do the French hold possessions ?
636. Name and locate the capitals of India.
637. What are the productions of India?
(a) Locate Singapore, Rangoon, Monchobo, Bombay, Madras, Benares, Mandalay, Cabul, Candahar, Herat, Kelat, and Lassa.
638. Describe Afghanistan.
639. What can be said of Beloochistan?
640. What is the government of Persia ?
641. What is the surface of Arabia ?
642. Who are the inhabitants ?
643. For what is Mecca noted ? Medina ?
644. What is the general appearance of the Persians ?
645. What is the ruler of Persia called ?
646. What can be said of the past history of Persia ?
647. Describe Arabia. Its government.
(a) Locate Teheran, Ispahan, Sana, Tokio, Hakodadi, Kauagawa, Pekin.
(b) Name and describe the seas which wash the shores of Asia: Kara, Behring, Ochotsk, Japan, Yellow, China, Arabian, Red, Mediterranean, Marmora, Black, and Caspian.
(c) Where are the Aral and Dead seas ?
(d) Describe Bay of Bengal, Persian, Siam, Tonquin, Fetchelee, Lena, Obe, Martaban, and Cambay. (e) Describe Lake Baikal, Tchany, Balkash, Tungting.
(f) Describe the following rivers: Lena, Obe, Yenesei, Irtish, Amoor, Hong Ho, Yang tse Kiang, Hong Kiang, Euphrates, Tigris, Amu, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, and Cambodia.
648. Name and locate the peninsulas of Asia.
649. Where is the Isthmus of Kraw?
650. Which is the most elevated lake in the world?
(a) Locate Formosa, Hainan, Socotra, Nova Zembla, Ceylon, Laccadive, Maldive, Hong Kong, Lew Chew, Saghalien, Kurile, Aleutian, New Siberia.
(b) Describe the following straits and capes: Babel-Mandeb, Ormus, Tartary, Corea, Formosa, Manaar, Malacca, Comorin, Ras-al-Gat, Cambodia, Lopatka, and Vostochnoi.
651. Where is Palestine? Jerusalem?
652. How wide is Bering Strait? Gibraltar? Dover?
653. How wide is the Isthmus of Panama? Suez? Tehuantepec?
654. Which are the largest five islands in the world?
655. What is the size of the oceans?
656. What is the highest point reached by Arctic explorers? By the Antarctic?
657. Name four of the largest cities in the world, in order of population.
658. Name the next four in order.
659. Name the five largest cities of the United States.
660. In the production of what minerals does Great Britain exceed every other country?
661. Name the largest seven rivers in the United States. Describe them.
662. What is the population of the Chinese Empire? Japan? Hindustan? United States?
663. How does China compare, in size and population, to the United States?
664. What are the principal uses of rivers?
665. What important places of the globe are situated on or near the 40th parallel north latitude?
666. What part of the United States is in the same latitude north of the equator, that the southern part of Africa is south of it?
667. What is the latitude of Cape Horn? Cape Good Hope?
668. What is the difference between the location of commercial and manufacturing cities?
669. Why is the water of Great Salt Lake not fresh?
670. Name five of the principal articles exported by the people of the United States.
671. Name five of the principal articles imported.
672. What are the great waterways for the internal commerce of the United States?
673. What obstructions are usually found in the Atlantic system to prevent large boats from traversing them?
674. Describe the Mississippi system.
675. What does the St. Lawrence comprise?
676. Where are the chief canals located?
677. What can be said of the railroads of the United States?
678. What are called Trunk Lines?
679. Into what systems may these roads be divided?
680. Name the principal roads of the Eastern Trunk Lines.
681. Which of these transacts the most business? Describe it.
682. Name the Central Trunk Lines.
683. How many compose the Southern System?
684. Mention the most important of the Western System.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY.

1. From the two words geo (earth) and graphy (description).
2. Three: Mathematical, Physical and Political.
3. It treats of the form, magnitude and motions of the earth, and of the various imaginary lines on the surface.
4. It treats of the solid and fluid parts of the earth's surface, the atmosphere, and all animal and vegetable life.
5. It treats of the various countries on the earth's surface, the people, customs, religion and government.
6. A sphere flattened at the ends.
7. By journeying around the earth. The approach of vessels shows their masts first, while the larger part, the hull, is still outside the line of vision. The shape of the earth's shadow, as cast on the moon during an eclipse, is always round. By the measurement of astronomers.
8. By the revolution of the earth while in a plastic condition.
9. About twenty-six miles, the diameter at the equator being 7,925 miles.
10. Nearly 200,000,000 (196,900,278) square miles.
11. 260,000,000,000 cubic miles.
12. 5,852,000,000,000,000 of tons. This weight is beyond our conception.
13. 5½ times heavier than water.
14. That part of the heavens which appears to meet the earth.
15. An imaginary line on which it performs its daily
revolutions; its poles are the points where its axis meets the surface.

16. Two: diurnal and annual. The diurnal is its motion from west to east; its annual is its revolution around the sun.

17. The motion of falling bodies is one of the most convincing proofs, while the sun and distant planets appear to revolve around the earth once in twenty-four hours is a reasonable proof of the phenomena of the earth's rotation.

18. If the earth had no motion then a ball dropped from a high tower would strike the base at a point exactly vertical from the place of starting, but as the earth has a motion, then the top of the tower must move faster than the bottom, and the ball will strike outside of a line with the base, the difference being about the proportion of the velocity of the top being greater than that of the base.

19. Because of the appearance of the sun rising in the east, and also the falling ball will strike outside of the base on the east side of the tower and on inside of the base on the west side.

20. The exact time is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds.
21. On the equator it is about 1.042 miles per hour.
22. The velocity diminishes from the equator to the poles, where it is nothing.
23. The revolution of the earth on its axis.
24. The great circle which separates the dark side of the earth from the light side, or in other words, it is the dividing line between night and day.

25. It depends upon the position of the earth to the sun in its annual revolution. The sun apparently moving north in the summer, produces in the northern hemisphere an increased circle of illumination, while in winter the same movement exists in the southern hemisphere, decreasing with us this circle of light, producing the increase and decrease of the lengths of days and nights.

26. The revolution of the earth around the sun.
27. The course it takes in its annual motion; its estimated length is about 600,000,000 miles.
28. Its revolution.
29. It is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds.
30. It is the exact time of a revolution.

31. The time from one March equinox to the next, and is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49.7 seconds.
32. The tropical year, or 365¼ days, nearly.
33. About 68,000 miles an hour.
34. The earth is one of a group of non-luminous bodies which revolve around the sun, accompany him through space, and reflect his light.
35. The sun, eight large bodies called planets, and as far as is now known, about one hundred and seventy-five smaller bodies called planetoids, or asteroids, besides numerous comets and meteors. Some of the planets have bodies called moons or satellites moving around them.
36. It belongs to the group nearest the sun, and is third from the sun in position.
37. About 92,000,000.
38. The sun, all the primary planets, and their satellites, rotate from west to east.
39. To a theory by LaPlace called the nebular hypothesis, which assumes that originally all material of which the solar system is composed was scattered throughout space in the form of very tenuous matter called nebula. It being granted that this matter began to accumulate around a center, and that a motion of rotation was acquired, it can be shown on strict mechanical principles that a system of our own might be evolved.
40. As the circumference of the orbits of the planets increases with their distance from the sun, their velocity at the same time diminishes, and the time of revolution, or length of year, increases correspondingly.
41. On the supposition that the earth was given a projectile force when separated from the nebulous sun it would have continued to move in one direction, but for the attraction of the sun it was retained in its orbit. There being no resistance to the projectile force, the motion of the earth remains constant and unchanged.
42. It is the unequal attraction of the neighboring planets and those of the sun. In its revolution the positions are such that at points the earth is drawn from the sun and thus produces an orbit longer one way than another, or as is termed elliptical in shape.
43. It is due to the direction of the sun's rays, and is on the same principle that morn and eve are cooler than midday.
44. Belts, or divisions of the earth, bounded by the Tropic and Polar Circles, of which there are five—two frigid, two temperate, and one torrid. The north frigid lies between the Pole and Arctic Circle, and is 23½° in width; the north temperate lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer, and is 43° in width; the torrid lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, and extends 23½° north and south of the equator; the south temperate is of the same size as the north, and lies between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle; the south frigid is all of the earth's surface south of the Antarctic Circle.

45. A great circle whose plane coincides with that of the earth's orbit.
46. Because solar and minor eclipses can only take place when the moon is very near its plane.
47. It is 66½°, or 23½° out of a perpendicular direction.

48. During the revolution of the earth around the sun a part of the earth's surface comes directly perpendicular to the sun's rays. This belt, 47° wide, is enclosed by the tropics, and termed torrid, meaning great heat. Geographers have decided that the limit of the temperate zones should be to that line where the length of the longest day is twenty-four hours, and as the inclination of the earth is 23½° that line should be 23½° from the poles, where the Polar Circles have been drawn.

49. What the exact influence upon the earth's climate would be, might be difficult to determine, but during the annual revolution of the earth the entire surface would come directly perpendicular to the sun's rays, and become torrid. When one pole would come perpendicular to the sun's rays, the other would necessarily be in darkness, and frigid. The length of the longest day at the equator would be twenty-four hours, and would occur every six months. This would give, at the equator, four zones in one year— two torrid and two temperate.

50. If the earth was perpendicular to the plane of its orbit there would be no change of seasons, but as it becomes inclined the position of the earth to the sun is changed in its annual revolution, consequently this change must produce a diversity of climate. It is by this inclination that the temperate zones have four seasons.

51. The inclination of the earth will vary that line where the length of the longest day is twenty-four hours, 1° for every degree of inclination. As it is now 23½°, the line must be 23½° from the poles, or the boundary of the frigid zones. If the inclination should be 20°, the frigid zones would extend 30°, and 30° each side of the equator would become perpendic-
ular to the sun's rays, making the torrid 60°, the temperate 30° and the frigid 30° ; and so on of any other degree of inclination. The frigid zone would be in width the number of degrees of the inclination of the earth ; the torrid would be the same each side of the equator, and the temperate what lies between.
52. About January 1st.
53. As the orbit is proved to be oblong, or an ellipse, then in its revolution around the sun the earth passes those points nearest together in its circuit, and consequently must be nearer the sun.
54. When it is nearest the sun.
55. When it is farthest from the sun.
56. They are the times of the year when the sun's vertical rays fall exactly on the equator. There are two, the vernal and the autumnal.
57. The vernal equinox takes place on the 20th of March and the autumnal on the 22d of September.
58. Where the ecliptic intersects the equator at two points diametrically opposite to each other.
59. They are the times when the sun's vertical rays of the sun reach their farthest northern or southern limit and fall vertically on one or the other of the tropics.
60. Two, the summer and winter solstice.
61. The summer solstice on the 21st of June, and the winter solstice on the 21st of December.
62. They are the points midway between the equinoxes.
63. A magnetic needle, resting upon a pivot, enclosed in a circular box. It always points nearly north. The cardinal points are north, south, east, and west.
64. North-east, North-west, South-east, South-west.
65. Into great and small circles. The great circles are the meridians and the equator ; the small circles are the tropic and polar circles, and the parallels of latitude.
66. Into great circles and small circles, and into circles of position and climatic circles.
67. All circles which divide the surface of the sphere into two equal parts are great circles ; all others are small circles.
68. They are the circles used to determine the geographical positions of places.
69. Those circles to mark important climatic boundaries, and are termed climatic parallels.
70. The equator, meridians and parallels. 71. The tropics and polar circles, and the ecliptic.
72. It is one quarter of a circle, or 90°.
73. Into 360 equal parts, called degrees.
74. A drawing representing a part or the whole of the earth's surface.
75. The equator, meridians, parallels, tropic and polar circles.
76. A great circle equally distant from the poles.
77. It crosses the mouth of the Amazon River, Brazil, United States of Columbia, Ecuador, Pacific Ocean, East Indies (Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra), Indian Ocean, Zanguebar, Ethiopia, Lower Guinea, Atlantic Ocean.
78. Any great circle passing through the poles. A meridian is half a meridian circle.
79. The distance either east or west from any given meridian.
80. On the parallels and the equator.
81. The one which passes through Washington, and the one near Greenwich.
82. About 77°.
83. 180° either east or west.
84. If situated on the meridian from which we reckon, it can have no longitude.
85. It has no latitude, and but 1° of longitude, west.
86. Sixty geographical miles at the equator, but they gradually grow less as they approach the poles; in latitude 30° it is about fifty-two geographical miles; in latitude 60° it is thirty, and at the poles it is nothing.
87. All meridian lines terminate at the poles, and as a degree of longitude is enclosed by meridian lines, the length must decrease as the lines approach the poles.
88. The meridian from which longitude is reckoned.
89. Each nation usually takes the meridian of its own capital.
90. New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina.
91. Siberia, and Chinese Empire.
92. As there are 360° of longitude it follows that in the earth's rotation one hour of time must pass through 1-24 of 360°, or 15°. This reduced makes 1° in four minutes. Then knowing the difference in longitude the time is easily found, or if the difference of time is known, an opposite solution must give the difference in longitude.
93. Pekin.
94. The distance north or south of the equator, called north and south latitude.
95. Upon the meridians.
96. 90°, which is at the poles.
97. Sixty geographical, or 69¼ statute miles.
98. One minute of longitude at the equator.
99. Bahama Islands, Florida Strait, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean, Sandwich Islands, near Canton (China), Burmah, Hindoostan, Arabian Sea, Muscat (Arabia), Egypt, Sahara Desert, and Atlantic Ocean.
100. Near Rio Janeiro, Paraguay, the northern part of the Argentine Republic, the southern part of Bolivia, Pacific Ocean, Central Australia, Isle of Madagascar, Southern Africa, and Atlantic Ocean.
101. Greenland, British America, Alaska, Behring Strait, Siberia, northern part of Russia, Lapland, Sweden, Norway, and Atlantic Ocean.
102. Discoveries of land have been made in this region, but the cold is so great that animal or vegetable life does not exist.
103. In the northern hemisphere there are vast tracts of land to receive the rays of heat and warm the atmosphere; but towards the south pole the rays of heat are lost on the great bodies of water, and the air is not warmed.
104. The southern part of British America.
105. Cold winds from the north and the Arctic current which flows near the coast of Labrador, cause the climate to be too cold for cultivation, while in the same latitude in England snow is seldom seen, which is due to the nearness of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, a branch of which flows into the Irish Sea, and the northeast current flows by the coast of Norway. The stream renders the climate of Western Europe mild and moist.
106. It is by the presence of the Japan current, which brings the warm waters of the torrid zone.
107. It issues from the Gulf of Mexico, spreads out a breadth of 150 miles, and sweeps along the shore of North America to Newfoundland. Here it meets the Arctic current and divides into two branches, one of which takes a southeasterly course towards the coast of Africa, while the other flows in a northeasterly direction towards the British Isles and Norway.
108. It is situated in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, consisting of seaweed, and occupies the eddy or whirl caused by the several ocean currents which surround it. 109. It is a Spanish name, meaning grassy.
110. Continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, capes, promontories, mountains, hills, plains, and valleys.
111. Oceans, seas, gulfs or bays, straits, lakes and rivers.
112. Straits, passages, sounds, and channels.
113. It is little more than twice as large. The Western Continent contains about 15,000,000 square miles.
114. About 200,000,000 square miles.
115. Asia. Europe. Europe. South America.
116. They may be divided into six divisions : The United States, British America, Danish America, The Republic of Mexico, The Republic of Central America and the West Indies.
117. The white race, negroes and mulattoes, Indians and Chinese.
118. About 62,000,000.
119. Agriculture, manufacturing and mining, commerce, both domestic and foreign, forms the chief basis of prosperity.
120. Exports are those commodities shipped out of the country, and imports those which come in.
121. The leading exports are cotton, breadstuffs, provisions, petroleum, tobacco, and thousands of varieties of manufactured goods. The imports are dry goods, sugar, coffee, tea, hides, iron, tin, and cutlery.
122. England, Germany, France, Canada, West Indies, Brazil, China, and Japan.
123. England ; 22,500,000.
124. It is about one-sixtieth as large, or about the size of Wisconsin.
125. Europe is about one-tenth larger.
126. Asia contains four times as many square miles and two and a half times as many inhabitants.
127. A narrow arm of the sea into which a river empties.
128. A sea interspersed with many islands.
129. When a river discharges its waters by several outlets, the tract of land embraced by these outlets is called a delta.
130. From its resemblance to the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, which is delta, and shape of a triangle.
131. A place some distance from the shore where vessels can anchor in safety.
132. A fertile spot in a desert.
133. The tract of country drained by that river and its tributaries.
134. The Amazon. It contains more than 2,275,000 square miles.
135. About 1,244,000 square miles.
136. 1,242,000; 1,425,000; 1,250,000; 1,040,000; 950,000; 800,000; 600,000; 416,000; 590,000; 480,000; 478,000; 340,000; 298,000.
137. One hundred and eighty miles.
138. Into four: enlightened, civilized, half-civilized, and savage.
139. Nearly all of the people of Europe, of the United States and Canada, and their numerous colonies. The civilized are nearly all of the people of South America, Mexico, China, and Japan. The half-civilized would embrace a large portion of the people of Hindostan, Indo-China, Turkey, and Egypt.
140. Many of the tribes of Central Asia, the Barbary States, and the wandering tribes of Arabs. The savages are the Indians of America, many of the Negro tribes of Africa, and the Papuans of Oceanica.
141. The Arabs. They are called Nomads because of their wandering nature, living in tents with no fixed location.
142. They are republican and monarchical.
143. A country governed by men who are chosen by the people. A monarchy is where one person succeeds to the chief power by inheritance, and holds it for life.
144. United States, France, Switzerland, Mexico, Venezuela, United States of Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentine Confederation, Uruguay, Paraguay, Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Hayti, San Domingo, Transvaal, Orange Free State, Liberia, Andorra, San Marino, and Montenegro.
145. Where the will of the monarch is the supreme law. A limited monarchy is one in which the will of the monarch is limited by a system of laws called a constitution.
146. Unlimited. England and Germany are limited; Turkey, unlimited; Spain, limited; China and Brazil, unlimited.
147. The written law of a nation, a society, or association.
148. An emperor, sultan, shah, czar, or mikado.
149. Empires, kingdoms, republics, states, counties, townships and cities.
150. An empire is a country governed by an emperor; a kingdom, one governed by a king; a republic, one gov-
erned by representatives chosen by the people; a State is a division of a republic, having laws of its own harmonizing with the general government; a county is a division of a State or kingdom.

151. It is the seat of government. The metropolis is the largest city.

152. Five : Caucasian, Mongolian, American or Indian, African, and Malay.

153. The estimated number is 1,380,000,000. The Caucasian and Mongol races number more than four-fifths, or about 554,000,000 each ; the Ethiopian about one-seventh, or 200,000,000 ; the Malay about one twenty-fifth, or 56,000,000; the Indian about one one-hundredth, or 13,000,000.

154. Seven : Christians, Buddhists, Brahmins, Religion of Confucius, Shinto, Mohammedanism, and Judaism.

155. Christians, 394,000,000; Buddhists, from 300,000,000 to 500,000,000, Brahmins, 145,000,000; Religion of Confucius, from 60,000,000 to 100,000,000; Shinto, 12,000,000 to 20,000,000; Mohammedanism, 199,000,000; Judaism, 7,000,000.

156. Three: Protestants, Roman Catholics, and adherents of the Greek Church.

157. The Mohammedans are followers of the false prophet Mohammed, who lived in Arabia about six hundred years after Christ. They believe in one God; they consider Moses and Christ as true prophets, but Mohammed as the greatest and last. The Koran is the Mohammedan bible.

158. The Buddhist religion was originated by Buddha in the sixth century, B. C., and was characterized by admirable humanity and morality, with the idea that death was the great sought-for principle of our existence. Later the religion became mixed with an idolatrous worship of its founder and other supposed kindred beings.

The Brahmin worshippers believe that Brahma was the creator of the world and that he was the first deity of the Hindoo triad. Their idols represent this union of three deities, and their worship is idolatrous.

The religion of Confucius is the political morality as taught by Confucius and his disciples, and forms the basis of the Chinese jurisprudence and education. It can hardly be called a religion, as it does not inculcate the worship of any God.

The Shinto Religion is one of the religions of Japan, and
its belief is in ancestral worship and sacrifice to departed heroes.
159. The Jews reject Christ and his Gospel, and expect a Messiah yet to come.
160. The greater part of the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, nearly all of the tribes of the islands of the Pacific, and the Indians of America.
161. Mississippi, with the Missouri, 4,200; Nile, 4,000; Amazon, 3,750; Yenisei, 3,400.
162. Mississippi proper, 2,800; Missouri, to the Mississippi, 2,900; Mackenzie, 2,300; Arkansas, 2,000; Saskatchawan, 1,900.
163. 2,000.
164. Amazon; La Plata, 2,300; Orinoco, 1,550; San Francisco, 1,550.
165. Volga, 2,000; Danube, 1,600; Don, 1,000; Dnieper, 1,000.
166. Yenisei; Yang-tse-Kiang, 3,320; Obi, 3,000; Lena, 2,700.
167. Nile; Niger, 3,000; Zambesi, 1,800; Senegal, 1,200.
168. It is a broad, deep river, and navigable for large vessels about 2,400 miles, and for steamboats to the foot of the Andes. The tide flows up 600 miles. Its waters teem with alligators, and its banks are lined with almost impenetrable forests, filled with huge serpents, ferocious beasts, troops of monkeys, swarms of insects, and flocks of gaudily-colored birds.
169. It rises in Lake Itasca, and is navigable to the Falls of St. Anthony, which are very heavy rapids. The upper part of the river, in many places, has very high and rugged banks, while in Louisiana levees, or banks, are built to prevent inundations. Its mouth is not favorable for the navigation of large vessels. Instead of being broad and clear it has many outlets, and sand-bars are continually forming.
170. This river is very rapid. It is much larger than the Mississippi above, and is navigable to the Great Falls above Ft. Benton, where there are some of the grandest cataracts in the world.
171. Its source, until recently, was not definitely known, but through the explorations of Livingston and Stanley it has been ascertained, together with the mysterious overflow through Egypt. At Khartoom, in Soudan, the river divides and these divisions are called the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Blue rises in Abyssinia.
and the White, the real source of the Nile, rises in Lake Victoria Nyanza. The overflow of the Lower Nile is from June to December, and is caused by the tropical rains in Abyssinia and those of the interior. The river gradually rises for three months and as slowly subsides, leaving a narrow river for the remainder of the year. By this overflow the lands from ten to twenty miles become one of the most fertile valleys in the world. Above its mouth for nearly 1,500 miles there are no rivers or creeks which flow into it.

172. It is a great estuary 200 miles long, and formed by the union of the Parana and Uruguay. For 1,000 miles on the Parana there is a continuous and safe navigation for vessels of three hundred tons burden.

173. This country is nearly as large as Texas; about three-fourths of its area consists of sandy deserts. The settled portions are principally in the valley of the Nile, which is from 10 to 20 miles in width. Egypt is noted for its wonderful ruins. The pyramids, temples, sphynxes, statues, and caves hewn in the rocks, are traces of its former civilization.

174. Cross the Atlantic, enter the Mediterranean Sea; pass through the Suez canal; down the Red Sea into the Indian Ocean; pass near the southern points of Asia to Canton; thence across the Pacific to San Francisco; then by rail across the continent to New York.
2d. Sail southwest on the California route until nearly opposite Rio Janeiro; cross the Atlantic; pass Cape of Good Hope; through the Indian Ocean to the East Indies; then up the China Sea to Canton; cross the Pacific to San Francisco; thence to Panama and across the Isthmus; thence north through the West Indies, to New York.

175. The United States.

176. Between the 26th and 49th. The distance from the southern point of Texas to the British possessions is about 1,600 miles.

177. It is about 45° west from Washington, and about 3,000 miles from New York.

178. Kansas.

179. Cotton—United States. Sugar—West Indies. Coffee—Brazil. Rice and Tea—China.

180. Cotton—South America and Egypt. Sugar—United States and South America. Coffee—Java Islands, West Indies, and United States. Rice—United States and Egypt.
181. The Spice Islands are celebrated for the production of cloves, nutmegs, and other spices. Java produces more pepper than all other countries combined.
182. The unexpanded flower dried. The clove tree grows to the height of from twenty to thirty feet.
183. The fruit of the nutmeg tree. This tree is about the size of the common pear.
184. Several ranges near each other and connected.
185. The Rocky, Californian, Alleghanian, Andean, Parime, and Brazilian.
186. At the equator the length of the days is equal, being twelve hours each; at the tropics the longest day is about thirteen and one-half hours; at the Polar Circles twenty-four hours; at the Poles six months.
187. Rains from the Pacific are of rare occurrence, and the height of the Andes range prevents the rain-clouds from the east.
188. Manchester. Lyons. Belfast. Sheffield. Brussels.
189. Agriculture, manufactures, lumbering, and commerce.
190. Grains, butter, cheese, wool, maple sugar, and live stock.
191. On the Merrimac and Pawtucket Rivers. Lowell, Lawrence, Fall River, Pawtucket and Woonsocket.
192. It is said to be more extensively used for manufacturing purposes than any other river in the world.
193. The winters are long and severe and the summers short but hot. The soil is generally stony and not very fertile, except in the valleys. The agricultural products are not sufficient to supply the wants of the population. The many excellent harbors, the comparative nearness to Europe, and the abundance of ship timber have contributed to establish an extensive foreign commerce.
194. They are about two-fifths that of California.
195. Harvard at Cambridge and Yale at New Haven.
196. Lynn is famous for its manufacture of boots and shoes. New Bedford for its whale fisheries. Springfield, the greatest arsenal in the United States. Worcester, a great railroad and manufacturing center. Portland, for the termination of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada.
197. It is the highest peak of the White Mountains in New Hampshire, and is 6,288 feet high.
198. From the extensive quarries in Vermont and Italy. It is also found in the States of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Tennessee.
199. It is very hard rock, and much used for millstones. It is found in the Eastern States.
200. New Hampshire, Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts.
201. For the opening engagements of the war of the Revolution, April 19th, 1775.
202. 1,300 square miles. 183.
203. It is nearly as large.
204. The boundary line varies by taking, as it appears to be, a township in one place and part of another from the State of Connecticut and giving it to Massachusetts.
205. About 189,000 square miles.
206. A large portion of it is traversed by mountain ranges. The great agricultural valley lies between the Sierra Nevada and coast range, and extends 500 miles.
207. It is the Sacramento and San Joaquin valley, and derives its name from the Sacramento River, which rises in the northern part of the State, and the San Joaquin, which rises in the southern part. These rivers flow towards each other and empty into a branch of San Francisco Bay.
208. A narrow strait about four miles long, which is the entrance from the Pacific Ocean to San Francisco Bay.
209. It is mild and equable in temperature, but has great extremes of moisture. The seasons are termed the wet and the dry. At Puget Sound there is a greater rainfall than any other part of the United States, except Alaska.
210. The Big Trees and the Yosemite Valley are two of the chief wonders of nature. The Big Trees are gigantic evergreens, some of which are more than 100 feet around, 400 feet high, and 3,000 years old. The Yosemite Valley is a remarkable chasm ten miles long and three in width, with perpendicular walls of granite from 3,000 to 5,000 feet high, over which the Merced River, in three leaps, falls more than 2,000 feet.
211. Wheat, wool, lumber, salmon fisheries, gold, wine, and a great variety of fruits.
212. They are an immense industry.
213. It is very fertile, its climate mild, which is due to the warm ocean current which flows by its shores. The same latitude on the Atlantic is almost a cold, barren waste.
214. It has an area of 577,000 square miles, or more than ten times that of Illinois. The climate is cold, and with the exception of the southern point, it is unfit for civilization. In the northern part the coast is low and
marshy, while in the south it is mountainous. The Yukon and Pelly Rivers are remarkable for their size and length.
215. It is organized into a territory, but has no representation in Congress.
216. It is already of considerable value, and may become of great interest, as the salmon fisheries are inexhaustible and mining is attracting much attention. The seal fisheries yield an annual revenue to the government of over $100,000.
217. A species of license is granted a company, who are allowed to kill so many seals each year and pay certain amounts to the government for this exclusive privilege.
218. Sitka, on the Island of Sitka. The rain-fall at this point is about seven and a half feet a year.
219. It was first announced at the close of the year 1848.
220. The climate is noted for its periodical changes. There are two seasons, the wet and the dry. In the latitude of San Francisco the wet season lasts from the middle of November to the middle of May.
221. Richmond is about twenty-five miles south.
222. About 230 miles.
223. The northern part of Patagonia.
224. It is a little larger than the United States, containing about 3,230,000 square miles.
225. Havana.
226. It is a vast peninsula, occupying the southern half of the Western Continent. Its length from north to south is about 4,000 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 3,000. Three great mountain systems diversify the surface, viz., the Andean, which stretches along the western coast; the Parime, which consists of several parallel ranges extending from east to west, between the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers; and the Brazilian system, which consists of two ranges running parallel to the coast of Brazil, with several diverging chains. Between these mountain systems extends a vast plain. This plain may be divided into four parts—the region of the llanos, the selvas, the pampas, and wastes of Patagonia.
227. They are level grazing tracts, which occupy most of the region of the basin of the Orinoco. During the dry season they are parched and desolate, but with the return of rain rich pastures are abundant.
228. They are the forest plains of the Amazon, occupying the lower part of the basin, extending as far as the periodical inundation.
144 THE QUESTION BOOK.
229. These tracts are in the Argentine Republic, and are covered with a heavy growth of grass, which affords sus-tenance to great herds of cattle and horses.
230. Sterile tracts covered with sand and gravel.
231. An extensive level tract considerably elevated above the level of the sea.
232. The Great Plateau of the Andes ; the elevated plains of Quito, Bogota, and Popayan ; and the tableland of Brazil.
233. It is an extensive tract of lofty tableland, stretch-ing along the tops of the Andes between parallels 3° and 15° south latitude, with an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet.
234. It is situated under the equator, on the side of a volcanic mountain, 9,500 feet above the sea. The climate is that of continued spring. Earthquakes are frequent. There are in sight eleven summits of the Andes covered with perpetual snow.
235. Volcanoes of Ecuador. Chimborazo is a peak of the Andes range, 21,440 feet high. Cotopaxi, 18,900 feet high, is the most tremendous volcano in the world. The flame sometimes rises 3,000 feet above the top.
236. A light raft, which is formed of inflated skins cov-ered with a light platform. These are used for unloading vessels through the breakers, which continually dash upon the shores and prevent the approach of any ordinary boat.
237. It is a connecting river between the Orinoco and Rio Negro Rivers. This tract of country is so level that a rise or fall of the Orinoco governs the course of that river, which flows during a portion of the year into the Amazon, and at other times in an opposite direction.
238. Twelve and a half degrees north of the equator.
239. Into three divisions : Portuguese South America, Spanish South America, and the Guianas.
240. The Empire of Brazil.
241. British, French and Dutch colonies.
242. Nine independent republics, viz.: Venezuela, Co-lumbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentine Confeder-ation, Uruguay and Paraguay.
243. They were once colonies of Spain.
244. Venezuela is the most northern country of South America, is tropical in climate, and exports coffee, cocoa and tropical fruits.
United States of Columbia occupies the northwest por-tion, embracing the Isthmus of Panama, and is the most im-
portant of the five northern republics. By treaty it is under the protection of the United States. Ecuador lies south of Columbia, and its exports are cocoa, coffee, Indian-rubber and Peruvian bark. Peru lies south of Ecuador, and has more miles of railroad than any other country of South America. Its chief exports are guano and saltpeter. Silver mining is an important industry.

Bolivia has but little commerce; its people are not so energetic and prosperous. The exports are Peruvian bark, saltpeter and silver ore. Chile occupies a narrow strip of sea-coast extending from Bolivia to Cape Horn. It is the most enterprising country of South America, and a large proportion of its inhabitants are Europeans. Its chief exports are copper-ore, silver and wheat. The climate is semi-tropical in the northern part and extends into the cold, barren regions on the south.

245. This Confederation stands next to Chile in enterprise. Its climate is semi-tropical, and its exports are hides, wool and flax. The country is almost an extensive plain with the finest grazing in the world. Large herds of cattle, horses and sheep are successfully handled here. Two-thirds of the hides are shipped to the United States. Education is rapidly advancing. The location of this country is to the southern hemisphere what the United States is to the northern. Uruguay and Paraguay formerly belonged to the Argentine Confederation, but are each now independent republics. Their exports and climate are similar to the Argentine Confederation. Paraguay is the weakest of the nine republics, and is the only country of South America having no sea-coast.

246. It contains about 27,000,000 inhabitants, of which one-third belong to the Caucasian race, one-third Indians, and the remainder consists of Negroes and persons of mixed blood called Mestizoes and Mulattoes.

247. As South America is largely in the torrid zone the climate does not inspire activity, and commerce naturally drags, but as civilization advances the general prosperity increases. The country is fast feeling the influence of the enlightenment of the United States and Europe.

248. There are no large gulfs or bays to indent the shores, and no great lakes for an inland commerce. The natural facilities for commerce and manufacturing are greatly inferior to those of North America. The great central plain supports millions of cattle, horses and sheep. The industries are mostly of the productions of tropical climates. Gold, silver, copper and diamonds are found and extensively mined.
249. Brazil.
250. Chili.
251. They are short. Chili has the best system and Brazil has about 2,000 miles.
252. Uruguay.
253. Sydney.
254. Buffalo.
255. Near Cape Verd.
256. It projects from Horn Island, which is southwest from Hermit Island. Cape Horn has usually been given as projecting from the Isle of Hermit.
257. The most southern part of the inhabited world, and is peopled by a race of miserable savages who live chiefly by fishing. These islands were discovered by Magellan, in 1520, and so named by him on account of the number of fires he saw along the coast, which he supposed to be eruptions of volcanoes. The meaning of Terra del Fuego is land of fire.
258. It was taken from the Spanish word Patagon—a man with large feet. Magellan gave the inhabitants of this country the name of Patagonians on account of the apparent large size of their feet, which, being wrapped in skins, seemed much larger than they really were.
259. Cape Gallinas, St. Roque, Horn, Parina.
260. It is in Peru, and the Ucayle River is its outlet. This lake is the source of the Amazon.
261. With the exception of Lake Titicaca and Lake Maracaibo, they are more like vast morasses than lakes.
262. Lake Titicaca is a saltish lake, about half as large as Lake Erie, and is situated on the Great Plateau nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the Pacific Ocean. Its waters are inland, having no outlet to the ocean. Lake Maracaibo is, more properly speaking, a bay, being connected by a strait with the Caribbean Sea.
263. They lie off the coast of Peru, and are of great value for the immense quantities of guano found upon them.
264. French Guiana, which contains about 3,500 square miles, or about the size of Maine.
265. It contains nearly one-half of the peninsula. It was once a colony of Portugal, and Portuguese is the language of the civilized inhabitants. An ocean telegraph
connects this country with Portugal and another with the United States by the way of the West Indies. Brazil furnishes the greater part of the coffee used in the world, more than one-half of which goes to the United States. Cotton, sugar, hides, dye-woods, Indian-rubber and diamonds are also produced in large quantities.

266. A ship canal.
267. That it shall not become a possession of any foreign government.
268. A treaty of protection. The United States guarantees that no other power shall take possession of her lands or government.
269. A great French engineer who conceived the idea of building the Suez Canal, and is now pushing to completion the canal on the Isthmus of Panama.

270. They form one of the grandest mountain ranges in the world. They commence in low hills on the Isthmus of Panama, and terminate in the Island of Cape Horn, which is a bleak and naked rock, rising 3,500 feet above the sea. In Patagonia they rise abruptly from the shore, but farther north they are from 60 to 100 miles from the coast. They consist generally of parallel ranges of lofty mountains, with high valleys and tablelands between. This system is from 30 to 400 miles wide.

271. It comprises about one-third of the continent of North America, together with many adjacent islands. Its chief divisions are the Dominion of Canada, the Province of Newfoundland, the Bermuda Islands, the Bahamas, Jamaica, and numerous colonies in the West Indies.

272. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, Manitoba, and the Northeast and Northwest Territories or Districts.

273. The climate is severe, except in the southern parts of British Columbia and Ontario. The surface as a whole is considered level. British Columbia and the provinces east of Manitoba are great forest regions. Between the Rocky Mountains and Manitoba are extensive prairies. The trade is principally with Great Britain and the United States.  The exports are fish, coal, grain, and lumber.

274. It is nearly the same size and its population is 4,375,000.  Its area is 3,500,000.

275. Cape Breton.

276. The surface is generally rocky and barren. The coast is indented by deep inlets, which form many excellent harbors.  It is noted for its fisheries.
277. Nova Scotia has many good harbors and valuable fisheries. It is favorably located for commerce and exports fish, sheep, coal and gypsum. Prince Edward Island has a fertile soil, and agriculture is the leading occupation. New Brunswick is noted for its timber forests, and exports great amounts of lumber and fish. Quebec has a severe climate, and is noted for its picturesque scenery. Montreal, the largest city of this province, has an extensive commerce and ships large amounts of grain. Ontario has a mild climate, compared with Quebec, and produces a great amount of grain and lumber.

278. Manitoba is in the basin of the great wheat growing region of the North and is rapidly increasing in population. The Red River of the North, flowing from the United States, and the Winnipeg Lake with the Saskatchawan River, form 2,000 miles of inland navigation. British Columbia abounds in salmon, timber, coal, gold and other metals. It is soon to be connected with the great Canadian Pacific Railroad.

279. They are divided into Provisional Districts: Athabasca, Alberta, Saskatchawan and Assiniboia. It will eventually be the greatest wheat producing country in the world.

280. The chief executive officer is the Governor-General, who is appointed by the sovereign of Great Britain. The Legislature consists of two branches. The members of the lower branch are elected by the people, but the members of the other branch are appointed by the Governor-General. Each province has a similar government under a Lieutenant-Governor.

281. For the production of wheat, and contains over 300,000 square miles.

282. It is an arm of the sea, which almost divides the Island of Cape Breton.
283. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. These islands lie south of Newfoundland, and serve as fishing-stations.
284. They are shallow places in the sea, the largest of which is Grand Bank, and lies to the eastward of the island. This bank is more than 600 miles long and 250 broad.

285. It is situated at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. It is a barren island and only occupied by keepers of light-houses upon the coast.
286. South Carolina. Delaware.
287. On Montreal Island. This island is 32 miles in length, and is situated at the junction of the Ottawa with the St. Lawrence. The Isle of Jesus lies north of it.
288. For the grandeur and beauty of its natural scenery. Niagara Falls, the Thousand Isles, and Rapids of St. Lawrence, the falls near Quebec, and the grand scenery of the Saguenay River, are the admiration of thousands of tourists.
289. For having the highest tides in the world, which rise to the height of seventy feet.
290. Tides are elevations and depressions of the ocean at regular intervals, occurring twice in twenty-four hours. The neap tides are the least ebb and flow of the water, and are at the close of the first quarter and first of the last quarter of the moon. Spring tides are the greatest ebb and flow of the water, which occur at the time of the new and the full moon.
291. The attraction of the moon and sun. Probably not one teacher in a thousand can explain to the satisfaction of his scholars this attraction. The fact that the water rises on opposite sides of the earth at the same time is the difficult part of the question. How the attraction on one side produces a similar attraction on the other, we leave for your study, as we frankly confess we dare not attempt its explanation in this review.
292. Waves, tides and currents.
293. The action of the winds on the surface of a body of water. On the ocean, the height of waves produced by storms averages from 10 to 20 feet.
294. They are like vast rivers, transporting its waters from one part to another, and are caused by the heat of the sun, rotation of the earth, the saltness of the sea, by winds, tides, and melting ice.
295. Into constant, periodical, and temporary.
296. A stream which runs by the side of, or beneath another current, and in an opposite direction.
297. The position of the bay is such, that the Atlantic tide is forced into it, and the waters are raised by this pressure above the adjoining sea.
298. Grain, hemp, flax, potatoes, lumber, fish, coal, grindstones, and gypsum.
299. Halifax, Charlotte Town, St. John's, Fredericktown, Ottawa, and New Westminster.
300. Newfoundland.
301. The rapids of the St. Lawrence, Niagara Falls, and falls in the River St. Mary.
302. In ascending the river, the rapids are avoided by canals on the left bank, but the downward passage, though perilous, is made by the river itself. The Welland Canal connects Lakes Ontario and Erie, thereby avoiding the Falls of Niagara. The falls of the St. Mary River are passed by a ship canal.
303. By an isthmus, fourteen miles in width.
304. Grand, Navy, and Goat.
305. The Canadians claim that American fishermen have gone into British waters. Several seizures were made, and the matter called the attention of the two governments.
306. The great water route is the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. By railroad, the Grand Trunk, which passes from Detroit, Michigan, through the principal cities of the Dominion to Quebec, with a branch to Portland, Maine.
307. Into three divisions: Malasia, Australasia, and Polynesia.
308. The East India Archipelago, which lies to the southeast of Asia. The principal divisions are the Sunda Isles, Spice Islands, Philippine, and Celebes.
309. Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.
310. They are varied, for no part of the world is richer in its vegetable productions. The minerals are also valuable. Nearly all of the spices that we use—such as cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and pepper—are raised on these islands. The bread-fruit tree, sago, cocoanut palm, bananas, yams, and various tropical fruits are grown extensively. Coffee is exported from Java; gold and diamonds from Borneo; tin from Banca; sugar, hemp and tobacco from the Philippine Isles.
311. They are among the largest and fiercest upon the earth. The tiger, rhinoceros, elephant, and ourang-outang are found in Sumatra.
312. They are principally Malays.
313. The Dutch, English, Spanish, and Portuguese. Java, the Spice Islands, Sumatra, Celebes, a part of Borneo, and most of Timor belong to the Dutch. The Philippine Isles to Spain. A part of Borneo and Papuan to the English, and a part of Timor belongs to the Portuguese.
314. Batavia and Manilla.
315. Borneo contains about 260,000 square miles,
Sumatra 125,000, Java 52,000, Celebes 46,000, Philippine 66,000.
316. Pennsylvania.
317. The torrid. The equator crosses Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and some of the Spice Islands.
318. Most of them are mountainous, and many contain active volcanoes. Java alone contains forty-three.
319. With the exception of Java, they are not. Java, which is about the size of Arkansas, contains 18,000,000 people.
320. This is the largest division of Oceanica, and comprises Australia, Papua or New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and many other islands.
321. They are a cannibal negro race and inhabit a long group of islands extending from New Guinea to New Caledonia.
322. To Great Britain.
323. New Caledonia.
324. North Australia, South Australia, West Australia, Queen's Land, New South Wales, Victoria, and Alexandra Land.
325. About four-fifths as large as the United States.
326. Near the coast are mountain ranges. The central regions have never been explored, but are supposed to consist of a low, barren plain. The Murray is the only river of much importance.
327. The greater part of them are Europeans and their descendants. The natives are a race of negroes, called Papuans.
328. Mining and raising wool. They also produce large amounts of wheat, indigo, cotton, sugar, coffee, tin and copper.
329. The colonies are politically independent of one another, and are governed by representatives chosen by universal suffrage, and by executive officers appointed by the Crown.
330. The northern part is tropical, while the southern part is subjected to sudden successions of floods and droughts.
331. One line, from the principal cities, crosses the middle of the continent to the northwest coast, and is continued by ocean cable to British India, and thence through Asia and Europe. Other lines and cables connect direct with London.
332. The largest is the kangaroo. The most singular one is the platypus, which has the body of an otter, the bill of a duck, and lays eggs.

333. Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Perth.
334. It is not. The estimated number of inhabitants is two million.
335. It is about one-half as large as England, and is a fine agricultural island, inhabited solely by European col-onists.
336. It is situated southeast of Asia. These islands are mountainous, and the inhabitants belong to the Malay race.
337. They are but little known. There are no white settlements in any of them except New Caledonia.
338. The great number of islands which are scattered throughout the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean.
339. The Sandwich, Society, Friendly, Marquesas, Caroline, and Ladrone.
340. They are divided into two classes : The mountain-ous, which are principally of volcanic formation, and the low islands, which are the work of the coral insect.
341. Most of the natives belong to the Malay race.
342. When first discovered, these islands contained neither insects nor reptiles, and no animal larger than a hog.
343. Honolulu, on Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands.
344. New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Dela-ware. They are about twice as large.
345. New York contains 47,000 square miles, and Penn-sylvania 46,000.

346. New York is somewhat undulating. The Cats-kill and Adirondack Mountains are in this State. Penn-sylvania is quite mountainous ; here the Alleghany system has attained its greatest breadth. The greater part of New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland is a low and gener-ally sandy tract.

347. In wealth, population, and commercial import-ance, it holds the first rank in the Union.

348. Rochester has the most extensive flour-mills in the East, and Syracuse the greatest salt-works in the country. West Point is the seat of the United States Military Acad-emy, and Saratoga is well-known as a fashionable watering place.

349. It is one of the wealthiest States in the Union. Much of its wealth lies in mining and manufacturing ; but it is also rich in grain and live stock.

350. The mines of iron and coal far surpass those of
any other State. Petroleum in large quantities is found in the northwestern part.
351. Pittsburg is the greatest iron manufacturing city, and Philadelphia is the second greatest manufacturing city in the Union.
352. It is in Philadelphia, and the great celebration of 1876, called the Centennial, was held there.
353. It is estimated at 1,500,000. In a radius of thirty miles it is more than 2,500,000.
354. See answer No. 651 on United States History.
355. The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World.
356. Chiefly agricultural. They supply New York and Philadelphia with vegetables.
357. Long Branch, Cape May and Atlantic City.
358. With the exception of Rhode Island, it is the smallest State in the Union. It contains 2,120 square miles.
359. It is situated on the Potomac River, and has an area of seventy square miles. It contains Washington and several small towns. It is under the government of Congress.
360. One hundred and sixty-five feet.
361. Into three divisions: the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas.
362. Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico.
363. The chain of islands which extends from Porto Rico to South America.
364. They are low islands of coral formation, and lie north of the Greater Antilles.
365. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles belong to Great Britain; Hayti is independent; and the remaining islands are owned by France, Denmark, Holland and Venezuela.
366. They consist principally of whites, free negroes, and slaves. About one-sixth are white.
367. They are mountainous, and are supposed to be the remains of a mountain chain which at some remote period connected North and South America.
368. Tropical fruits, sugar, coffee, tobacco, rum, mahogany, and spices.
369. Spirits distilled from molasses.
370. Into two distinct states: the Republic of Dominica and the Republic of Hayti.
371. The island once belonged to France and Spain.
In 1791 the slaves in the western, or French division, rose against their masters, and after a bloody and cruel war succeeded in establishing themselves, first as an empire, then as an independent republic. In 1849, the President (Soulouque) proclaimed himself emperor, with the title of Faustin I. After a reign of ten years, Soulouque was deposed and a republican form of government was again adopted. In 1821 the eastern division revolted from Spain and formed a republic.
372. They are east of the United States and belong to Great Britain. There are about 400 of these islands. Most of them are so small and barren that they have neither name nor inhabitants.
373. Cuba is about the size of Pennsylvania, and Hayti is about half as large as Michigan, containing 28,000 square miles.
374. Small rocky islands of coral formation.
375. A chain of rocks lying near the surface of the water.
376. It is fringed with reefs, and as many of the rocks are just below the surface of the water, it becomes dangerous to navigation.
377. It is the most southern town in the United States, and is situated upon an island of coral formation, southwest of the mainland of Florida. Its exports are salt and sponge.
378. By solar evaporation.
379. A soft porous substance, which is found attached to rocks below the surface of the water, supposed to be the work of marine insects.
380. It is generally level, there being no mountains in the State. In the south, dense marshy thickets called everglades cover the surface for a distance of 160 miles with an average breadth of 60 miles.
381. Cotton, corn, sugar-cane, rice, and tobacco. Tropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, pineapples, olives, etc., are abundant.
382. It is near the southern part of Florida, and is a great swamp connected with the everglades.
383. They propose that capitalists shall drain these lands by a system of canals. As the lands when drained will be unsurpassed in fertility, it is reasonable to suppose that eventually it will be done.
384. On account of the numerous reefs, or keys, which skirt the shores, and the lowness of the land as it approaches the sea.
385. Louisiana. About one-fifth part of the State is on the east side of the river.
386. On the west side. It is the greatest cotton mart in the world, and is about 100 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi. It is built round a bend in the river, and therefore is called the "Crescent City." The foundation is artificial, having been built on a swamp. It lies below the level of the river, but is protected by the Levee, which at this place is a continuous quay, four miles long and 100 feet wide.
387. It is various. The richest tract in the State is a narrow belt of land, from one to two miles wide, on both sides of the river, extending from 150 miles above to 100 miles below New Orleans. This tract is annually inundated by the spring floods. Only a small part of the State is under cultivation.
388. There are ten: Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Indian Territory. Alaska is not an organized territory.
389. Greenland and Iceland.
390. It has not. The interior and northern parts are unknown, and the supposition by some is, that the island is only a projection of an Arctic continent not yet discovered.
391. It was named by an Icelandic chief, who, for some crime, was obliged to flee from his native land. To induce his countrymen to follow him to Greenland, he falsely represented it to be superior in fertility to Iceland.
392. It is of volcanic formation. Ranges of high, rugged mountains border the coast, while the interior is a dreary desert of volcanoes, ice-clad mountains, or fields of lava.
393. The Geysers, or boiling springs. About fifty of these hot springs occupy an area not exceeding twelve acres. Some are so powerful that they throw up water, and even large stones, to a great height.
394. The nearness to Mount Hecla, which is thirty-five miles distant, or the volcanic commotion beneath.
395. It was so called by a Norwegian pirate, who, on his first visit, saw a bay filled with ice, which had floated there from Greenland.
396. Lichtenfels and Reikiavik.
397. About 4,000,000 square miles.
398. From north to south it is about 5,000 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 4,800.
399. Large portions of it have not, as yet, been explored. The shores are not indented by deep gulfs or inlets, which is one of the principal reasons why the interior is so little known. The surface is various. There are mountain systems, sandy deserts, and elevated plateaus. The greater part is in the torrid zone, and, much of the country being desert land, it is, as a whole, the hottest and dryest grand division of the globe.
400. Except the northern part and some settlements on the coast, the inhabitants are Negro tribes, whose religion is Paganism and their condition barbarous.
401. Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Barca.
402. Morocco is an independent empire. Algiers is a colony of France. Tunis and Tripoli are subjects of Turkey.
403. It is from 750 to 1,200 miles wide, and 3,000 in length.
404. It occupies a large portion of Central Africa, extending across the continent south of the Great Desert. The soil is fertile, climate tropical and similar to Amazon Valley. It contains a large number of semi-barbarous States with a large population. The religion is largely Mohammedan, although a great many tribes of Negroes are Pagans and combine with their religion a belief in evil spirits, witchcraft and magic charms, and is known as Fetichism. The exports are gold, ivory, ostrich feathers and gum arabic. Commerce is carried on by caravans.
405. Cape Colony, Natal, Caffraria, the Transvaal Republic, Orange Free States, and Zoolu, Bechuna, Namaqua, and Damara.
406. Cape Colony and Natal are British colonies. The others are in possession of independent tribes.
407. It is on the western coast of Africa, and is a Negro republic, with a government modeled after that of the United States. Liberia was founded in 1821, by the American Colonization Society, as a place of refuge for free blacks and liberated slaves from the United States.
408. It is situated above Liberia, and was founded for the same purpose in 1787, by the British government.
409. They differ in different parts. The southern portion exports corn, wine, wool, hides, horns, ivory, gold, and diamonds; the western part, ebony, palm oil, gold dust, and ostrich feathers; the northern, fruits, wool, hides, gums, indigo, salt, leather, cotton, rice, opium, coffee, and many other articles.
410. It is the largest of the African islands, containing 240,000 square miles. It is a mountainous country, and but little known. Part of the inhabitants belong to the African and part to the Malay race.
411. Cairo is the largest and Alexandria the second.
412. At the ends of the Suez Canal.
413. It is 65 miles long and belongs to Egypt.
414. Helena, Olympia, Boise City, Cheyenne, Salt Lake City, Prescott, Santa Fe, Tahlequah, Bismarck and Sitka.
415. For their rich gold and silver mines, and the natural advantages for grazing and stock-raising.
416. The Yellowstone Park is in the northwest corner of Wyoming and contains 3,600 square miles. Its deep canyons, lofty falls, and numerous bathing pools, geysers, and lakes, make it in many respects the most wonderful portion of the continent, and even of the world. It has been set aside by Congress as a "perpetual reservation for the benefit and instruction of mankind."
417. It has less mountains than Idaho or Montana. Much of its surface consists of rolling prairie land, well watered, and especially adapted for farming and cattle-raising.
418. This name is given to that part of the great railroad west of the Missouri River. It passes through the southern part of Nebraska, up the valley of the Platte River, touching the northern boundary line of Colorado and the southern part of Wyoming, through Northern Utah and Nevada, and thence through California to the Pacific Ocean.
419. Omaha, Fremont, Columbus, Kearney, Julesburg, Cheyenne, Laramie, and Ogden.
420. It is on the Jordan River, near Great Salt Lake, south of the Union Pacific Railroad, on a branch of that road.
421. It contains the Great Salt Lake and the eastern portion of the Great Basin, which is the most desolate region in the United States. Rain seldom falls in this basin, but some portions near the rivers and lakes have been made fertile by irrigation. Gold, silver, iron, salt, coal and other minerals are plentiful.
422. The Mormons, or Latter-day Saints.
423. For grazing.
424. By tribes of Indians, and large herds of wild horses.
425. Cotton, corn, sugar, tobacco, rice, and tropical fruits. Stock-raising is the principal business of the inhabitants.

426. A great portion of the State is much elevated, and therefore free from extremes of heat and cold. Snow is seldom seen, but from October to March, the " Northers " (violent winds) sweep over the prairies of Texas and plains of Mexico.

427. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington.

428. Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, on the east, and Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and most of Louisiana, on the west.

429. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, from Kentucky and West Virginia.

430. It is more irregular than that of any other division of the earth. Large seas and gulfs penetrate far into the interior, affording unequaled advantages for commercial intercourse.

431. It is divided into extensive plains and mountain systems. Southern Europe is crossed from west to east by a great mountain system, which is continued, in Asia, to the Pacific Ocean. Northward from this system extends a great plain, which stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

432. Caucasus, Balkan, Alps, Cevennes, Pyrenees, and Cantabrian.

433. Russia, Northern Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and a part of France.

434. It varies in the same latitude. In Eastern Europe the winters are excessively cold, while the summers are very hot. On the shores of the Atlantic the warm ocean current renders the climate mild and moist.

435. Russia, Austria, Germany and Turkey are empires; Great Britain, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece are kingdoms; France and Switzerland are republics.

436. Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France and Austria.

437. Scandinavian, Jutland, Iberian, Italian, Morea and Crimea.

438. It comprises Sweden and Norway, two distinct States with separate governments, but united under one king. Nearly the whole of Norway and the eastern part of Sweden are mountainous. The southeastern part of Sweden is a level plain.
439. Iron, copper, lumber, and fish.
440. 1,400 miles. These grains are rye, oats and barley.
441. The southern point of Greenland.
442. It is in that part of Europe north of the Arctic Circle, and between the White Sea and Atlantic Ocean. It belongs to Russia, Sweden and Norway.
443. It is, by a tribe of the Mongolian race called Laplanders, who own numerous herds of reindeer, which supply them with food, clothing and means of traveling.
444. It is next to the largest, in extent, in the world, comprising fully one-half of Europe, and more than one-third of Asia. The entire area is about 8,000,000 square miles.
445. For the most part it is very level. The only mountainous section in European Russia, is between the Azov and Caspian Seas.
446. Into four classes: 1, the nobles; 2, the clergy; 3, the merchants; 4, the lately emancipated serfs.
447. It is an absolute monarchy. The greater part of the inhabitants are adherents of the Greek Church.
448. The inhabitants are called Sclaves, and their monarch the Czar.
449. The question of a constitutional government. The Czar has recently signified his willingness to grant one, which if done will place the government among the list of limited monarchies.
450. They are a people who believe in self-government and the overthrow of the empire. They resort to deeds of secret personal violence to accomplish their cause.
451. England is fearful of the Russian advances in Asia and jealously watches every movement. It is believed that the situation is critical and may terminate in a declara-tion of war.
452. In its forests (two-fifths of the country is covered with forests), and the products of agriculture and grazing.
453. In Central and Southern Russia.
454. It is mostly a sterile region, and has the appearance of having been subjected to volcanic fires. Salt lakes and fire-hills are numerous.
455. It is an inland sea, containing 140,000 square miles, and below the level of the Mediterranean Sea. Several large rivers flow into it, but there is no visible outlet.
456. Large, barren plains in southeastern Russia.
457. Poland is that part of Russia lying north of Aus-tria. Circassia is the region of the Caucasus Mountains.
458. Near Central Russia, on a branch of the Oka River. It is a railroad center, and one of the principal cities for trade. It was burned by the Russians during Napoleon's invasion of 1812, to defeat him, by depriving his troops of their expected winter quarters. This great sacrifice of the Russians saved their empire and compelled Napoleon to withdraw from the country.
459. For the siege which it sustained for one year, against the English, French, Turkish and Sardinian armies.
460. It was one of the strongest Russian fortifications, and was a perpetual menace to Turkey. Its destruction ended the Crimean war.
461. The Cossacks are the inhabitants, and are of great service to the Russian army as light cavalry.
462. A great fair is held there every year, which is attended by thousands of people who come from different parts of Europe and Asia to buy and sell goods.
463. St. Petersburg, Cronstadt, Riga, Archangel, and Odessa.
464. Caspian, Azov, Black, Baltic, White and Kara; Riga, Finland, Bothnia, Onega and Petchora.
465. Great Britain, Ireland, and many small adjacent islands.
466. England, Scotland and Wales.
467. England and Ireland are generally level or undulating; Scotland and Wales are rugged and mountainous.
468. It is divided by the Grampian Hills into the Highlands and Lowlands. The Highlands lie north, and the Lowlands south of the mountains.
469. It is very irregular, and abounds in fine harbors and roadsteads.
470. It is moist and mild. The winters, even of Scotland, are rarely severe. The moisture of the climate and low temperature in summer sometimes prevent crops from maturing. Corn will not ripen.
471. In her commerce, manufactures and mining.
472. She surpasses every other country in the world. The principal manufactures are those of cotton, wool, and iron.
473. They have 25,000 merchant vessels and more than 200,000 seamen. The navy is regarded as the strongest in the world, although that of Russia is hardly inferior. Germany, France and Italy have powerful navies. The United States have practically none.
474. Great Britain .................150,000 men.
German Empire................475,000 "
France.......................500,000 "
Italy........................734,000 "
Russia.......................975,000 "
United States................25,000 "
Besides these immense armies they hold in reserve millions subject to call. The result of such enormous defence is a distressing taxation and must eventually breed discontent and civil revolution. No country can stand for a long period the terrible drain on the resources of the people.
475. It is a constitutional monarchy. The Legislature, or Parliament, has two branches—the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. The executive power and the entire responsibility of the government are in the hands of the Ministry, who are appointed by the sovereign through the influence of the Commons. The Prime Minister is practically the real ruler of the empire ; if opposed by a majority of the House of Commons, he resigns, and the sovereign appoints his successor.
476. Europe, 327,744,000; Asia, 795,591,000; Africa, 205,800,000 ; North America, 80,000,000 ; South America, 35,000,000 ; Australia, 4,500,000.
477. Principally from Cornwall (England) and the Island of Banca. The mines of Cornwall have been famous from remote antiquity.
478. Peat, or bog turf, of which there are over 3,000,000 acres.
479. It has colonies in every quarter of the globe, and unites under one sovereign a greater number of people than are ruled by any other government.
480. Gibraltar in Spain, and the Islands of Malta and Gozo.
481. British India, including Ceylon, Hindoostan, a part of Farther India, and Singapore ; the Island of Hong Kong, and the City of Aden.
482. Sierra Leone and other settlements on the western coast ; Cape Colony and Natal ; the Islands of Seychelle, Mauritius, Ascension and St. Helena.
483. Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Norfolk, Labuan, and a part of Borneo.
484. British America, Bermuda Islands, Balize, Jamaica, Bahama Islands, and many of the Lesser Antilles, British Guiana, and the Falkland Islands.
485. Liverpool, for its great commerce; its fine dock covers more than 400 acres. Leeds and Bradford, for their manufactures of wool. Birmingham, for hardware. Limerick, for the manufacture of gloves, laces, and fish-hooks. Merthyr Tydvil, for its iron-works.
486. It covers 122 square miles.
487. The question of Home Rule. In order to bring content, the great political leader of the English people, Mr. Gladstone, proposed a bill to grant them a Home Government subject to the Crown. The bill was defeated, but still continues to agitate the people of England. Mr. Gladstone also proposed to have the government buy the great estates of Ireland and sell them in small farms, thus giving the Irish people a chance to own their own lands.
488. It is the principal plateau of Europe, the whole central part of which consists of a series of lofty plains, divided from each other by parallel mountain chains. This plateau comprises 93,000 square miles, or nearly one-half of the peninsula.
489. The vine, olive, mulberry, and orange. Large flocks of sheep are raised on the tablelands of the interior.
490. The 40th parallel. It passes through Central United States, or New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Northern Missouri, Central Nebraska and Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and Northern California.
491. Southern Italy and Turkey.
492. Turkey, Georgia, Turkistan, Pekin, and the Empire of Japan.
493. In the northeastern part of the Spanish Peninsula.
494. The population is only 5,000 or 6,000, but the country has been independent for more than a thousand years.
495. Cuba, Porto Rico, a part of the Philippines, Ladrone, Caroline, and the Canary Islands. Those of Portugal are the Azores, the Cape Verd, and the Madeira Islands, and Lower Guinea in Africa.
496. Twelve miles in its narrowest place.
497. It is situated on a mountainous promontory, and is the strongest fortification in the world.
498. It contains 204,000 square miles.
499. As one of the richest and most powerful. The position of the country and the fertility of the soil give it great commercial and agricultural advantages.
500. The eastern portion is mountainous, while the rest belongs to the Great Plain, which extends across the continent.
501. They are plains of shifting sands in the south-western part of France.
502. France exports more wine, brandy, and silk goods than any other country.
503. The influence of fashions.
504. Algeria, Senegal, Pondicherry, Isle of Bourbon, New Caledonia, Marquesas Islands, French Guiana, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Martinique, Guadaloupe, and Corsica.
505. In Holland, stock-raising and dairying are the chief pursuits. Belgium is an agricultural and manufacturing country; it also has extensive mines of coal and iron. Holland is now called Netherlands.
506. It is so low that in many places dykes, or embankments, are necessary to prevent inundations.
507. By numerous canals. In Holland especially, canals run through the principal streets of the towns, and form a complete network over the country.
508. An arm of the sea, or gulf, which indents the northern part of Holland.
509. The people of Holland.
510. Next to Great Britain they are the most extensive and valuable in the world. They include the most important portions of the East Indian Archipelago, Dutch Guiana, and several islands in the West Indies.
511. Agriculture is the principal occupation in the Netherlands and manufacturing and mining in Belgium. Their foreign commerce is one of the largest in the world and their exports are fine manufactured goods, including those of silk, cotton, wool, linen, leather and iron. Lace forms an important industry. Many of the people control great amounts of wealth.
512. It is nearly flat; some portions are below the surface of the sea, from which it is defended by dykes.
513. On the eastern coast of the Island of Zealand, and partly on the adjacent Island of Amak. Many of the buildings are built above the water.
514. Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, and several small islands in the West Indies.
515. The kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Würtemburg, and Saxony, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free cities, and the new State of Alsace.
516. Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck.
517. It was formerly a part of France, but since the late Franco-Prussian war it was ceded to Germany.
518. Prussia is Berlin, Saxony is Dresden, Bavaria is Munich, Wurtemberg is Stuttgart.
519. It is a limited monarchy, and all the States are the same, with the King of Prussia as the German Emperor. The Legislature of the empire consists of two bodies. The Federal Council somewhat resembles the English House of Lords and consists of 59 members; and the Reichstag, whose members, 397 in number, are elected by universal suffrage.
520. It is the strongest in the world, and every move of the government is to strengthen its position, its armor and its power.
521. Prussia has the most complete and comprehensive system of public schools of any nation, and the general education of the whole empire is remarkably good. The manufactures are varied and extensive, and they export wheat, wine, zinc, and almost every description of manufactured goods.
522. Hamburg and Bremen.
523. Nearly the whole of Germany is under cultivation, and large crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats, tobacco, beet-root, and linseed are produced.
524. Sandy tracts in Northern Germany and Denmark.
525. They are of different races. The Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Poles are most numerous.
526. The Austro-Hungarian Empire.
527. It is divided into two distinct and nearly independent groups of provinces. Each group has a government of its own, but the whole is under one general government. The Kingdom of Hungary and its dependencies constitute nearly one-half of the empire. The Emperor of Austria is King of Hungary.
528. The chief exports are wheat, wine, salt, wool and the manufactures of linen, cotton, iron and glass.
529. It forms an important system of waterways, extending entirely across the empire.
530. On eighty-two small islands, separated by 150 canals crossed by 360 elevated bridges.
531. An important kingdom of Central Europe, but, after suffering many reverses, it was divided between Russia, Germany and Austria.
532. Switzerland.
533. It is composed of twenty-two States, or cantons. It is about one-third as large as the State of New York.
534. For their love of liberty, and attachment to their native country. Most of the population speak the German language. Italian and French are spoken in the cantons adjoining Italy and France.
535. For the manufacture of watches and jewelry.
536. It was formerly divided into a number of States, but after a protracted struggle, the efforts of the people to obtain national unity were successful, and the whole country is now united under a liberal and enlightened government.
537. It was the central part of the Roman Empire, which ruled all the known world.
538. Almost every place is connected with some remarkable event, which is renowned in history or art.
539. It is a small republic, with an independent government, on the Adriatic Sea.
540. Italy.
541. It comprises Turkey in Europe, Asiatic Turkey, Isle of Candia, and Egypt. Tripoli, Barca, and Tunis are nominally under the control of the government. Also a portion of Arabia, Crete and other small islands.
542. They are a grave and solemn people,—ignorant, bigoted, and indolent. Their religion is Mohammedanism.
543. She is inferior in every particular. The people are not energetic and their civilization is far below the standard.
544. They were formerly parts of the Turkish Empire, but are now independent Christian States.
545. Bulgaria is a self-governing but tributary principality to Turkey.
546. Tobacco, wine, olive-oil, cotton, fruits, wool, carpets, and morocco leather.
547. This country was in advance of all other nations in civilization and learning. Athens was the birthplace of many renowned philosophers and orators.
548. It is very irregular, projecting southward, and having many indentations from the sea, one of which, the Gulf of Lepanto, nearly separates it, forming the peninsula of Morea, which is connected with the mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth.
549. St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, Hague, Brussels, Paris, Madrid, Lisbon, Rome, Vienna, Athens, Constantinople, Berne, London, Edinburgh.
550. The United States.
551. Hammerfest. It is due to the warm waters of the
Gulf stream which flow by the coast of Norway, and the warm southwest return tradewinds.
552. The Po, the Rhone, the Rhine and the Danube.
553. Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and the greater part of South America.
554. Cuba and Porto Rico.
555. The interior consists of tablelands from 4,000 to 9,000 feet high. The Pacific coast is abrupt and abounds in fine harbors, but upon the Gulf of Mexico it is flat and sandy, and deficient in good harbors.
556. Only by two carriage roads ; one by Jalapa, from Vera Cruz ; the other by Saltillo, from Matamoras and Monterey.
557. As Mexico contains high and lowlands, it exhibits a great variety of climate. In ascending from the coast to the surface of the plateau, there are three regions : the hot, swampy and pestilential lowlands ; the temperate regions ; and the cold, desolate plains above.
558. Whites, Indians, mixed races and Spanish Creoles. The Indians and mixed races form the greater part of the population.
559. The wet and dry. The rainy season continues from May to October, and the dry from October to May.
560. They vary with climate. Wheat and barley are produced in the cooler regions, and cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, tropical fruits and spices in the plains and valleys below. Commerce is limited and is mostly with England and the United States.
561. Gold and silver, iron and copper.
562. It is situated in a plain 7,000 feet above the level of the sea, enclosed by lofty mountains. The city is about two miles from Lake Tezcuco, is in the form of a square, and noted for its numerous churches, convents, and squares.
563. Popocatapetl and Iztaccihuatl. The former is 17,717 feet high, and its name signifies Smoking Mountain. The latter is 15,600 feet high, and is White Lady.
564. The cochineal is an insect which feeds on a species of cactus. When killed and dried in the sun it yields a brilliant crimson dye. Pulque is a favorite Mexican beverage, manufactured from the Maguey plant. It is intoxicating.
565. In 1521 Fernando Cortez, a Spanish adventurer, conquered the country. He found an extensive kingdom, with regular laws, and with cities, temples, public roads,
and many of the arts of civilization. After the conquest the cruelty of the Spaniards drove the Indians back into a state of barbarism. In 1821 Mexico became independent of Spain, and established first an empire, then a republican form of government. The people are restless, and revolutions have been common. By the war with the United States she lost valuable territory.

566. Yucatan and Old California. These parts are but little known. Yucatan is noted for its ruins of ancient cities and temples.

567. It is a federal republic of twenty-seven States, one territory, and a small federal district which contains the capital. It was for three centuries the most important colony of Spain.

568. The question of difference is called the Cutting Case, the Mexican government claiming the right to arrest an American citizen for an act committed on American soil. In this case Cutting published an article which was considered libelous by Mexican authority and on his crossing the line was arrested and thrown into prison. This act was condemned by the United States government and Cutting was released, but the question of the right to arrest has not been settled.

569. Five independent republics: Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and the British colony of Belize. This country bears a general resemblance to Mexico.

570. Comayagua, San Salvador, Managua, Nicaragua and San Jose.
571. It is situated south of the eastern part of Yucatan. It belongs to the British.
572. Mahogany and other hard cabinet wood, cochineal, tortoise shells, sarsaparilla and cocoa-nuts.
573. Across the Isthmus of Panama; by way of the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua; and by the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
574. About one-fourth as large.
575. North temperate and torrid; the Tropic of Cancer in the central part.
576. In Northern Michigan and Wisconsin.
577. In Southwestern Wisconsin and parts of Illinois and Iowa which adjoin; also in Nevada and Colorado.
578. Cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar, corn and sweet potatoes.
579. The following, taken from the report of the Com- missioner of Agriculture of 1885, will be about the condition of 1887 :

COTTON.
Texas .................................995,400 bales.
Georgia ................................807,400 "
Alabama ................................648,700 "
Arkansas ...............................531,400 "
South Carolina..........................511,800 "
Louisiana...............................485,200 "

CORN.
Iowa................................252,600,000 bushels.
Illinois ...........................244,544,000 "
Missouri............................197,850,000 "
Kansas .............................168,500,000 "
Nebraska............................122,100,000 "
Indiana ............................105,757,000 "

WHEAT.
California...........................44,320,000 bushels.
Minnesota............................41,407,000 "
Ohio.................................41,425,000 "
Kansas...............................34,990,000 "
Indiana..............................33,745,000 "
Illinois.............................32,374,000 "

POTATOES.
New York.............................33,904,000 bushels.
Pennsylvania.........................16,337,000 "
Michigan.............................13,192,000 "
Iowa.................................12,518,000 "
Ohio.................................12,090,000 "
Illinois.............................10,699,000 "

TOBACCO.
Kentucky ...........................208,692,000 pounds.
Virginia.............................99,763,000 "
North Carolina.......................34,858,000 "
Pennsylvania.........................34,143,000 "
Tennessee............................31,392,000 "
Maryland ............................31,255,000 "

South Carolina produces the most rice ; Louisiana, sugar ; and California, wine.
GEOGRAPHY.
580. SWINE.
Iowa................................4,800,998 in number.
Missouri............................4,210,193 " "
Illinois............................4,090,681 " "
Indiana.............................2,801,211 " "
Ohio................................2,467,128 " "
Texas...............................2,233,081 " "

CATTLE.
Texas...............................4,937,779 head.
Iowa................................3,164,666 "
New York............................2,418,303 "
Illinois............................2,309,123 "
Missouri............................2,009,787 "
Kansas..............................1,960,576 "

SHEEP.
Texas...............................7,558,461 head.
California..........................5,892,911 "
New Mexico..........................5,410,944 "
Ohio................................4,900,035 "
Oregon..............................2,519,950 "
Michigan............................2,364,174 "

HORSES.
Illinois............................1,038,375 head.
Texas...............................933,516 "
Iowa................................917,908 "
Ohio................................738,902 "
Missouri............................715,736 "
New York............................635,142 "

MULES.
Missouri............................196,866 head.
Tennessee...........................183,537 "
Texas...............................164,033 "
Mississippi.........................144,620 "
Georgia.............................143,843 "
Alabama.............................131,038 "

581. Gold, California ; silver, Colorado ; iron, Pennsylvania ; copper, Michigan ; lead, Illinois ; coal, Pennsylvania ; lumber, Michigan ; turpentine, etc., North Carolina.

582. Turpentine and resin are made of the sap of the pitch pine, by boiling; turpentine is the vapor, while resin, like sugar, is what remains. Tar is also made from the pitch, but by burning; the timber having been placed in nearly a perpendicular position, and covered to prevent a flame, the heat causes the pitch to ooze out and run below where it can be saved.
583. From her pine forests.
584. On account of the abundance of palmetto trees which grow there, it is often called the " Palmetto State."
585. Corn.
586. The Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Central Plain.
587. The country which extends from the Alleghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico.
588. The country between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.
589. The Mississippi Valley, the Texas Slope, the basin of the St. Lawrence, and the small valley of the Red River of the North.
590. The St. Lawrence Basin, Atlantic Slope, Mississippi Valley, Texas Slope, Pacific Slope, inland Basin of Utah, and Red River.
591. It is crossed by a system of mountains, table-lands and plains.
592. It may be divided into four divisions: Arctic Asia, Desert Asia, Peninsular Asia and Insular Asia.
593. Arctic Asia represents the Great Siberian Plain. Desert Asia is that belt of high and dry plateaus, extending through the central sections. Peninsular Asia is the most important division of the continent, and includes Hindoostan, Indo-China, Corea, with the projecting portion of China. Insular Asia includes the richest and most important archipelagoes in the world.
594. One-half of the human race.
595. As it embraces all varieties of climates, so, too, are the productions of all descriptions, from those of the arctic regions to those of the tropical climate.
596. The caravan trade from Pekin through Irkoutsk, Tobolsk, to Moscow and St. Petersburg.
597. They are divided into two classes—those of Central and those of Southern Asia. They are the loftiest and most extensive in the world.
598. Turkistan and Siberia. This is a continuation of the great plain of Europe.
599. It commences with the Taurus Mountains, and is continued by the Elburz and Hindoo Koosh to the Balor Mountains. From this point it branches off into four great chains—the Himalaya, Kuen Lun, Thian Shan, and Alti—which are the grandest and most stupendous mountains upon the globe.
600. It is near the central part of Asia, south of the Thian Shan Mountains. This desert is only a part of an immense belt of desert land which extends almost across the continent from west to east.
601. Into three divisions, that of Northern, Central, and Southern Asia.
602. It is characterized by intense cold, with short intervals of great heat during summer.
603. It is a great plain, comprising more than one-third of Asia. Near the Arctic Ocean it is a barren and desolate region, and the cold is so intense that the spongy soil is frozen to the depth of several hundred feet. Near the Irtysh River the soil is rich and pasturage good, but there are few inhabitants.
604. Central Asia has the climate of the temperate zone. It is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, and, except near the shores of the Pacific, is remarkably dry—for the mountain system intercepts the warm and moist winds of the Indian Ocean. Southern Asia has the climate of the torrid zone.
605. Mongolian, Caucasian, and the Malay.
606. Those nations living north of the Himalaya Mountains, those of Farther India, the Japanese, and Turks.
607. The Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Persians, Afghans, and Hindoos.
608. The Peninsula of Malacca, and many of the islands of Oceanica.
609. Caucasian race, 554,500,000; Mongolian, 554,500,000; Ethiopian, 200,000,000; Malay, 56,000,000; American, or Indian race, 13,000,000. Total, 1,380,000,000.
610. As a place of banishment for exiles and criminals. A large portion of the population consists of them and their descendants.
611. It is a Russian province. The people are a vigorous and handsome race.
612. Into Russian and Independent Turkistan. The Russian division contains a number of districts called Khanates, which are ruled by native rulers, although only as vassals of Russia. Independent Turkistan includes those Tartar khanates
that are not yet annexed by Russia, representing only a small area of what was formerly Turkistan.
613. The name given to the rulers of the several independent States of Turkistan.
614. It includes China, the dependent provinces of Mantchooria, Mongolia, Kashgaria and Thibet, and the tributary kingdom of Corea.
615. So dense is the population in some districts that great numbers of the inhabitants dwell constantly upon boats in the rivers, or on rafts in the lakes, which they convert into gardens by covering them with earth. They are a very industrious people, but deceitful and very immoral, and jealous of Europeans.
616. The most important are rice, tea and silk. Rice is the chief article of food for the entire population.
617. A despotic monarchy. The laws are severe; for trifling offenses punishment with the bamboo is inflicted, while serious crimes almost always meet with death.
618. Education is compulsory. All adult males are able to read and write and possess a knowledge of the elements of arithmetic.
619. They are selected by means of a public competitive examination, and the humblest subject may be chosen to the highest position, except the Emperor.
620. The domestic commerce is immense, but the foreign commerce is in the hands of foreigners. Their skill in their various occupations cannot be excelled, and many of our first inventions were known to them hundreds of years before being discovered by the Europeans, but these inventions were not put to a practical use.
621. The wall is 1,200 miles long, from thirty to forty feet high, and twenty feet thick with numerous towers and equipments for defense. The wall was built about 211 B. C. to keep the Mongol Tartars out of China.
622. Canton, Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchow, Amoy.
623. Nipon, Sikoke, Kiusui, and Jesso.
624. Rice, wheat, barley, tea, tobacco, and camphor.
625. It is a constitutional monarchy.
626. He is called the Mikado.
627. They surpass the Chinese in intelligence and equal them in mechanical skill. Although of the same race, and having similar beliefs, yet they differ greatly in their language and political institutions. They are quick to adopt the great inventions of the Europeans, such as their military systems, lighthouses, steam power and electricity.
628. Hindoostan and Indo-China.
629. Nearly all of Hindoostan and the western coast of Indo-China. It is the richest and most important dependency ever possessed by any nation.
630. It includes Burmah, Siam, Anam and many smaller independent States. All have despotic governments.
631. It is written in a peculiar poetical and religious language which has been the custom long before the Christian era. Besides being poetical, they are almost universally musical.
632. The country is under the control of a Governor-General and a Supreme Council appointed by the British government. The Queen of England is "Empress of India."
633. It is a rich and populous island south of Hindoostan and a separate colony of Great Britain.
634. The southeastern coast of Indo-China is called Cochin-China.
635. They possess an important province in the southwestern part of Indo-China, and Saigon is its capital.
636. Calcutta, Colombo, Mandalay, Bangkok and Hue.
637. Cotton, rice, wheat, opium, sugar, indigo, jute, fine silk fabrics and costly cashmere shawls. Ceylon is noted for its coffee and cinnamon.
638. Persia, Afghanistan and Beloochistan occupy the desert plateau of Iran, between the valleys of the Tigris and the Indus. The people of Afghanistan are hardy, warlike, and divided into numerous states or tribes. As this country is the chief route from India to Western Asia, it is of great commercial and military importance.
639. This country is mostly a barren wilderness, and consists of a number of small States under the headship of the Khan of Kelat.
640. A despotic monarchy. The sovereign is called a Shah.
641. The greater part is a desert plateau. The principal fertile tracts are Oman and Yemen, and the mountain valleys.
642. The greater portion of them are Bedouins, who are a wandering people and inhabit the deserts, devoting themselves to the care of their camels, horses, goats and sheep. They are generous and hospitable, but quarrelsome, revengeful, and addicted to plunder.
643. Mecca is regarded by the Mohammedans as a
holy city, the birthplace of Mohammed, and is annually visited by vast numbers of pilgrims. Medina is the burial place of Mohammed.

644. They are very polite in their manners, and having a comparatively high civilization, are often called the French of Asia.
645. He is called the Shah.
646. It was once one of the grandest and most formidable governments of the world.

647. Arabia is about one-third as large as the United States. It consists of three regions: A great plateau, having many large and fertile valleys, occupies the interior; surrounding this is a broad belt of deserts, covering more than one-third of the peninsula; along the coasts is a low and narrow sandy plain, containing a few fertile districts. There are several independent States governed by despots called Sultans.

648. Arabia, Hindoostan, Farther India, Corea, and Kamtschatka.

649. It connects Malacca with the mainland.

650. Sirikol, the source of the Amoo River, on the table-land of Pamer, is 15,600 feet above the level of the sea.

651. Palestine is in the northeastern part of Arabia, on the Mediterranean Sea. Jerusalem is a city of Palestine.

652. Behring 40 miles, Dover 30, Gibraltar 12.

653. Panama 27 miles, Tehuantepec 130, Suez 65.

654. Australia, Greenland, Borneo, New Guinea, and Madagascar.

655. The Pacific Ocean contains about 82,000,000 square miles; greatest width, 10,000 miles. The Atlantic, 30,000,000; width, 5,000. The Indian, 22,000,000; width 6,000. Antarctic, 12,000,000; and the Arctic, 4,000,000.

656. By Capt. Perry, in 1827, 502 miles from the Pole. By Capt. Ross, in 1842, 803 miles from the Pole.

657. London 4,100,000, Paris 2,500,000, Pekin 1,648,000, Canton 1,600,000.

658. New York 1,400,000, Berlin 1,350,000, Vienna 1,300,000, St. Petersburg 1,000,000.

659. New York, Philadelphia 974,000, Chicago 724,000, Brooklyn 625,000, St. Louis 420,000.

660. Coal, iron, salt, lead, and tin.

661. Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Rio Grande, Columbia, Nebraska, and Red.

662. Of the Chinese Empire 400,000,000, Japan 37,000,000, Hindoostan 225,000,000, United States 60,000,000.
663. It is a little more than one-fourth as large as the United States, and contains about 420,000,000 people.
664. For drainage, commerce and milling.
665. Philadelphia, Columbus, Indianapolis, Spring-field, Denver, Pekin, Constantinople, and Madrid.
666. The boundary line between the States of Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia, from Tennessee.
667. Cape Horn is 53° south, and Good Hope about 32°.
668. Commercial cities require good harbors and water communication to facilitate commerce, while manufacturing cities depend very much upon water power to run their machinery.
669. Lakes of this class lose water by evaporation only, and retain the salt and other materials carried into them by their affluent rivers.
670. Cotton, wheat, pork, cheese, machinery.
671. Wool, tea, coffee and spices, dry goods, sugar and liquors.
672. It may be divided as follows: The Atlantic system, the Mississippi system, the Great Lakes with the St. Lawrence River, and the canals.
673. The rivers in the Atlantic system are usually rapid and form great manufacturing points, which prevent a free passage of large vessels. Besides these obstructions to navigation, large sand-bars are formed at the mouths of many of these streams, which prevent navigation only at high tide.
674. This system contains fifty-six great tributaries, containing 17,000 miles navigable to steamboats and more than 20,000 by barge. It carries an immense commerce, but in some localities the annual floods and droughts prevent a continuous shipment. Below the mouth of the Ohio the Mississippi sometimes rises more than fifty feet.
675. It contains the Great Lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario and the navigable streams which flow into and through the St. Lawrence River. This system is closed for several months in the year on account of ice, but floods or droughts never affect it.
676. The principal canals are those that lie at the entrance of Lake Superior, the Niagara Falls, the Rapids of the St. Lawrence and the Erie Canal. Besides these great commercial canals there is in contemplation the Hennepin to connect the Mississippi River system with Lake Michigan, the Fox River, the canals of North Carolina and Florida.
677. They form one vast network of connections, to which the great prosperity of the country is due. It opens up inaccessible sections, calls for emigration and virtually annihilates distance.
678. Like rivers, they form numerous systems, and the main lines of these systems are called Trunk Lines.
679. The Eastern Trunk Lines, the Central, the Southern and the Western.
680. The Grand Trunk, New York Central, Erie, Pennsylvania, and Baltimore & Ohio.
681. The New York Central, which runs from Buffalo to Albany, and there is divided into two roads: the Hudson River Railroad to New York and the Boston & Albany to Boston. From Buffalo to Albany the road maintains four tracks. This road is known as the Trunk Line of the Vanderbilt System, and has heavy branches as feeders, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern from Chicago to Buffalo being the most important. The traffic on this system is immense.
682. They are the Michigan Central; Lake Shore & Michigan Southern; Toledo, Wabash & Western; Atlantic & Great Western; Nickle Plate; Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago; Pittsburg, Cincinnati & St. Louis; Marietta & Cincinnati; Ohio & Mississippi; Illinois Central; Chicago & Alton.
683. These lines may be divided into three divisions: those of the Atlantic coast, connecting the Atlantic cities with those of the Eastern States; those running from the Atlantic west, crossing the Mississippi River at New Orleans, Vicksburg and Memphis; and those running north and south connecting the cities of the South with the cities of the North.
684. The Northern Pacific; the Central Pacific; Union Pacific; Kansas Pacific; Southern Pacific; Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe; Texas Pacific; New Orleans Pacific; Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio; Chicago, Burlington & Quincy; Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific; Chicago & Northwestern; Chicago & Alton; Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific; Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul.

QUESTIONS ON READING.

1. What is reading?
2. What is elocution?
3. What does elocution embrace?
4. What is expression?
5. What mental qualifications must a good reader possess and employ?
6. What are the physical requisites for good reading?
7. What, then, does good reading demand?
8. What objects are to be aimed at in the study and teaching of reading?
9. What does orthoepy embrace?
10. Define articulation.
11. What is correct articulation?
12. How can a good articulation be acquired?
13. What is Phonetic Analysis?
14. What is an elementary sound?
15. What are oral elements? How produced?
16. Into what classes are the elementary sounds of the English language divided?
17. Define vocals. Subvocals. Aspirates.
18. Give a list of the most common faults in articulation.
19. What is accentuation?
20. What is accent?
21. How are accented syllables designated?
22. Name and define the kinds of accent.
23. When two syllables of a word are accented, which has the greater force?
24. What are the expressions of speech? 25. What is emphasis?
26. What is the object of emphasis?
27. How is it accomplished?
28. Define slur.
29. How are emphatic words distinguished?
30. When should emphatic words be used?
31. How many kinds of emphasis are there?
32. What is absolute emphasis?
33. Define antithetic emphasis.
34. What are inflections?
35. How many inflections are there?
36. What is the circumflex?
37. What is a series?
38. What is a commencing series, and what a concluding series?
39. What is the Monotone?
40. What is Transition?
41. Define Monotony.
42. When is the rising inflection used?
43. When is the falling inflection used?
44. In what is the circumflex mainly used?
45. What is modulation and its divisions?
46. What is pitch? How divided?
47. Define force. What are its divisions?
48. Define rate. How classified?
49. What is quality, and how divided?
50. What is the difference between quantity and pitch?
51. What is the difference between force and emphasis?
52. What is cadence?
53. What is stress?
54. What is climax?
55. Define grouping.
56. What is pure tone?
57. What is the orotund?
58. Describe the aspirated tone.
59. What is the guttural quality?
60. When is the trembling tone used?
61. What is personation?
62. What are pauses?
63. What are grammatical pauses?
64. Define rhetorical pauses.
65. What are etymological points?
66. Explain the Apostrophe, Caret, Diaeresis, Marks of Quantity, Marks of Accent, Hyphen, Period.
67. What are the points of reference?
68. What is suspensive quantity ?
69. What does quantity embrace ?
70. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation ?
71. What quality of voice is mostly used in reading and speaking?
72. What determines the proper accent of words?
73. How is inflection sometimes affected by emphasis ?
74. What is the difference between the construction of prose and poetry?
75. What is a parenthetic clause, and how should it be read ?
76. When melody comes in conflict with accent, which must yield ?
77. Give a principle of reading that will admit of general application.
78. What are some of the essential qualities of good reading ?
79. Give rules for the use of capitals.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  READING.

1. The enunciation of written language.
2. The delivery of composition.
3. Orthoepy and expression.
4. It is the manner of delivery.
5. A good reader or speaker must have :
A clear conception.
A vivid imagination.
Real sympathy.
Good imitation.
Vocal power.
Artistic skill.
Good judgment.
6. The physical requisites are :
Distinct articulation.
Full and free respiration.
Perfect control of a clear, full, round, musical tone of voice.
Graceful and expressive action.
Cultivated taste and judgment.
7. Articulation, Accent, Emphasis, Inflection, Modula-tion, and Pauses.
8. The objects to be aimed at are :
The acquisition of great knowledge.
The acquisition of a love for reading.
The improvement of the memory, judgment and taste.
Improvement of the social faculties.
Improvement of the health.
A graceful carriage and address.
A preparation for public life.
The prevention and correction of improprieties.
9. Articulation, Syllabication, and Accent.
10. It is the distinct utterance of the oral elements.
11. Accurate and distinct utterance of the elementary sounds.
12. By continued practice of the utterance of the elementary sounds, and an observance of the phonetic analysis of syllables and words.
13. It is the separation of syllables and words into the elementary sounds of which they are composed.
14. It is a simple distinct sound made by the organs of speech.
15. They are the elementary sounds that form syllables and words, and are produced by the positions of the organs of speech in connection with the breath.
16. They are divided into vocals, subvocals, and aspirates.
17. Vocals are pure tones, and are the prominent elements of all words.
Subvocals are those consonants which produce an undertone of voice when their sounds are uttered.
The aspirates are mere whispers made by the organs of speech and breath.
18. The faults most common are:
Suppression of vocal sounds in unaccented syllables.
Suppression of subvocal and aspirate sounds.
Incorrect articulation of vocal sounds
Omission and addition of syllables.
Blending the end of one word with the beginning of the next.
19. The act of applying accents in reading and speaking.
20. The force given to one or more syllables of a word.
21. They are designated by a mark thus, ('); as command'-ment.
22. They are primary and secondary. The primary the more forcible stress of voice, and the secondary the less forcible.
23. The primary.
24. Emphasis, Slur, Inflection, Modulation, Monotone, Personation, and Pauses.
25. The force given to one or more words of a sentence.
26. The object is to attract particular attention to the word or phrase upon which it is placed.
27. It is usually done by an increased stress or empha-sis, but sometimes by an unusual lowering of the voice, even to a whisper.
28. It is that smooth, gliding, subdued movement of the voice used in parenthetic clauses, words contrasted or repeated, and in explanation.
29. By italics, SMALL CAPITALS, and CAPITALS.
30. When words and phrases are important in mean-ing, or when they point out a difference; when emphatic words are repeated, or when a succession of important words or phrases occurs.
31. There are two kinds: absolute and antithetic.
32. It is used to designate the important words of a sentence, without any direct reference to other words.
33. It is founded on the contrast of one word or clause with another.
34. The upward or downward slides of the voice.
35. Three: the rising inflection, falling inflection, and circumflex.
36. A union of the rising and falling inflections, begin-ning with the one and ending with the other.
37. A series is a number of words or phrases following one another in the same sentence.
38. Where a succession of particulars occurs at the be-ginning or middle of a sentence it is called a commanding series. Where it concludes a sentence it is a concluding series.
39. A sameness of tone.
40. A change in the manner of expression.
41. Monotony is a frequent occurrence of the same tone, without reference to the sense.
42. It is generally used when the sense is incomplete; in questions which may be answered by yes or no; when a word or sentence is repeated as a kind of interrogatory exclamation; usually in negative sentences; and in the last but one of a passage.
43. When the sense is incomplete; when language de-mands strong emphasis; in exclamations; and in questions which cannot be answered by yes or no.
44. In the language of irony, sarcasm, and contrast.
45. Modulation is the variation of the voice made in reading and speaking, and is divided into pitch, force, quality, and rate.
46. Pitch is the degree of elevation of the voice, and is divided into high, moderate, and low. High pitch is that which rises above the usual speaking key, and is used in expressing joyous and elevated feelings. Moderate pitch is that which is heard in common conversation, and is used in expressing ordinary thought and moderate emotion. Low pitch is that which falls below the usual speaking key, and is employed in expressing emotions of sublimity, awe, and reverence.

47. Force is the volume, or loudness of voice, and is divided into loud, moderate and gentle. Loud force is used in expressing violent passions and vehement emotions. Moderate force is a medium loudness of voice, and is employed in narrative, description, and ordinary assertion. Gentle or subdued force is employed to express fear, caution, secrecy, solemnity, and tender emotions.

48. Rate is the speed, and is divided into quick, moderate, and slow. Quick rate is used to express joy, mirth, violent anger, and sudden fear. Moderate rate is similar to moderate force. Slow rate is used to express grandeur, vastness, pathos, horror, and consternation.

49. Quality has reference to the kinds of sound uttered, and is divided into the pure tone, orotund, aspirate, guttural, and trembling.

50. Quantity has reference to loudness or volume of sound; pitch to the elevation or depression of a tone.

51. Force is the energy with which the whole is uttered; emphasis is the stress on a particular portion.

52. It is the dropping of the voice at the end of the sentence, which indicates that the sense is complete.

53. Stress is the manner in which force is applied.

54. Climax is an utterance gradually increasing in intensity, and changing in pitch and movement.

55. Grouping is that nice modulation and adaptation of the voice to the sentiment expressed which renders the utterance not only more impressive, but more pleasing to the ear.

56. A clear, smooth, flowing sound, with moderate pitch.

57. It is the pure tone deepened, enlarged, and intensified, and is adapted to the expression of the sublime and pathetic emotions.

58. It is an expulsion of the breath, the words being spoken in a whisper.

59. The guttural is a deep undertone, expressing hatred, contempt, loathing.
60. The trembling is a constant waver of the voice, used to express an intense degree of suppressed excitement, or to represent the tones of enfeebled old age.
61. Changes of the voice necessary to represent two or more persons speaking.
62. Suspensions of the voice in reading or speaking.
63. Grammatical pauses are indicated by the punctua- tion marks.
64. They are suspensions of the voice which the sense requires when a grammatical pause is not admissible.
65. They are the points used to indicate something in regard to the formation, use, or omission of words or parts of words.
66. The apostrophe (') is used to show the omission of a letter or letters; as, Sec'y.
The caret (v) is used to show some omissions in writ- ing; as, come
"The king is v to marshal us."
The diæresis marks the separation of contiguous vowels; as, preëngage.
Marks of quantity are used to show that the vowel is long or short, and is placed over the letter, ( ¯ ˘ ).
The marks of accent express the tones of the voice and are the grave (`), the acute (´), and the circumflex (^).
The hyphen (-), is used to separate syllables, or to unite the parts of a compound word.
The period (.), is used to show the abbreviation of a word; as, lat. for latitude.
67. The points of reference are used to refer the reader to some other place on the page or the book, and are as fol- lows :
The Asterisk (*).
The Obelisk or Dagger (†).
The Double Dagger (‡).
The Section (§).
Parallels (||).
The Paragraph (¶).
If necessary, these points may be doubled.
68. Prolongation of the voice at the end of a word with- out making an actual pause.
69. Force and rate.
70. Enunciation is the utterance of words; pronuncia- tion, the mode of utterance.
71. The pure tone.
72. General usage.
186 THE QUESTION BOOK.
73. It sometimes changes the falling to the rising inflection.
74. Prose pays no attention to the melodious arrangement of its words, while poetry is written with regard to the rhyme and feet of each line.
75. Something abruptly introduced into a sentence for the purpose of modifying, explaining, or adding to the leading proposition, and should be read in a lower voice.
76. Accent.
77. Be sure you understand what you read, and endeavor to express the sentiments of the author as you would express the same if they were your own, and you were talking.
78. To read slowly, mind the pauses, give the proper inflections, speak plainly, and read as if talking.
79. Capital letters are used:
To begin the first word of a sentence.
To begin all proper names.
To begin all titles of honor.
To begin the first word of every line of poetry
To begin the names of objects personified.
In writing the pronoun I, and interjection O.
To begin appellations of the Deity.
To begin the names of the days of the week and of the month.
To begin direct quotations.
To begin words derived from proper names.
To begin the chief words in the titles of books, headings of divisions of books, chapters, discourses, etc.
To begin words of special importance

QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. What is Physical Geography?
2. Into how many classes may the objects of which Physical Geography treats, be divided?
3. In what condition was the earth supposed to be in a remote period of its existence?
4. What are the proofs of this molten condition of the earth?
5. How did the earth become solid?
6. What is the thickness of the earth's crust?
7. What is a simple substance?
8. How many elements have been discovered?
9. How many elements mainly compose the crust of the earth?
10. What is Oxygen? Silicon? Carbon? Hydrogen? Sodium? Chlorine? Sulphur? Potassium? Calcium? Magnesium? Aluminum?
11. How are rocks classified?
12. What are stratified rocks?
13. How are these rocks formed into layers?
14. How did water originate on the earth's surface?
15. What are igneous rocks?
16. What are metamorphic rocks?
17. What are fossils?
18. What are fossiliferous rocks? Non-fossiliferous?
19. Into how many ages does geology divide the globe?
20. What is the Azoic Age? The Silurian Age? Devonian Age? Carboniferous Age? Reptilian Age? Mammalian Age? Age of Man?
21. Where are minerals found ?
22. Name the most important metals.
23. How does the United States compare with other countries in mineral resources ?
24. In precious stones ?
25. Where is zinc found in the United States ?
26. How much zinc is annually produced ?
27. Where is salt found most abundantly?
28. When was the first petroleum well sunk ?
29. By what agencies are the changes of the earth's crust produced at the present time ?
30. How does the atmosphere produce a change ?
31. How does the water produce a change ?
32. What is erosion ?
33. Where is the greatest example of erosion?
34. How much earthy matter is annually discharged by the Mississippi River ?
35. What are the changes which are produced by the action of the heated interior ?
36. Where are there illustrations of the slowly progressing change?
37. What will eventually be the condition of the earth's surface ?
38. What proportion of the whole volume of the globe is water?
39. What is the position of the continents ?
40. What proportion of the land surface do the islands form?
41. How are islands divided?
42. What are continental islands ?
43. Give illustrations of continental islands.
44. What are oceanic islands ?
45. What two classes of oceanic islands ?
46. How do continental islands compare in size with oceanic islands ?
47. What is the difference in the rock material of the two classes of islands ?
48. What is coral? Where found ?
49. Into how many classes are coral formations divided ?
50. What are fringing reefs ?
51. What are barrier reefs ? Encircling reefs ?
52. What are atolls, or coral islands ?
53. What is a lagoon ?
54. What is the theory of the circular formation of atolls?
55. Describe the common forms of coral islands.
56. Upon what are coral islands built?
57. Where are these islands found, and why are they confined to these regions?
58. Into how many great classes may we divide the surface of the earth?
59. Where is found the highest elevation of the earth? The lowest depression?
60. What is trend?
61. What constitutes a relief of a country?
62. What two forms of relief exist?
63. What influence has the relief of a country upon its climate, life and importance?
64. What elevation is given as necessary to become tablelands?
65. Where are the great plateaus of the world?
66. Where are the great low plains of the world?
67. Into how many classes are mountains divided?
68. How are mountains supposed to have been formed?
69. In the manner of formation, what two kinds of mountains do we find?
70. What is a longitudinal valley? A traverse valley?
71. What are continental axes?
72. How many mountain systems in America?
73. What is the extent of the Rocky system?
74. Describe the Alleghany system.
75. Describe the plateau of North America. How may this region be divided?
76. How may the plateaus of South America be divided?
77. Describe the plateau of the Andes.
78. Into what divisions are the plateaus of Asia divided?
79. What does the central tableland of Asia embrace?
80. What tablelands does Southern Asia embrace?
81. What are the known tablelands of Africa?
82. Describe the principal plateau of Europe.
83. Where is the great plain of North America?
84. What does the great plain of South America comprise? How is it divided?
(a) What are llanos, selvas, pampas, and wastes?
(b) What are steppes, heaths, lands, and where found?
(c) What is a plain? Plateau, or tableland?
(See Questions in Geography Nos. 227, 228, 229, 230, 231.)
85. What is the boundary of the great plain of the Eastern Continent ?
86. What are some of the chief points in the physical geography of Siberia ?
87. What are the principal known plains of Africa ?
(a) Describe the Desert of Sahara.
88. Of what is the interior of Australia supposed to consist ?
89. What resemblance between North and South America ?
90. What general law of relief has been observed from a study of the continents ?
91. Where are the land masses of the globe located ?
92. What is the common form of the land masses ?
93. What difference between the Eastern and Western Continents in the direction of their length ?
94. What difference in other respects result from this ?
95. In outline, what is the difference?
96. What influence has the articulation of the coast upon a country and its people?
97. What fact is true of well articulated countries ?
98. How do the continents compare in this respect ?
99. From what do volcanic phenomena result? How are these phenomena divided ?
100. What is a volcano?
101. How are volcanoes classified ?
102. What are intermittent volcanoes ?
103. What is the crater of a volcano ? Lava?
104. What is the width of craters ?
105. Where may the crater be located ?
106. Where is the largest known crater in the world ?
107. Into what classes are volcanoes divided?
108. What is the central ? The lineal ?
109. Where are volcanoes most numerous ?
110. How many volcanoes have been enumerated?
111. What is the peculiarity in the distribution of volcanoes ?
112. Explain this fact.
113. Locate the two volcanic zones which encircle the earth ?
114. What theory is advanced as the cause of volcanoes ?
115. What are some of the volcanic phenomena ?
116. What are mud volcanoes? Where found ?
117. What are fields of fire ? Where found ?
118. What is a mountain pass ?
119. What are earthquakes, and where confined?
120. What are the movements of earthquakes ?
121. What is the theory of earthquakes ?
122. What is the dynamic force of earthquakes ?
123. What is the duration?
124. What connection exists between volcanoes and earthquakes ?
125. What relation exists between earthquakes and atmospheric conditions ?
126. What noted volcanic action occurred A. D. 79 ?
127. How many eruptions of Mt. Ætna are recorded ?
128. Describe the eruption of Casequina in 1835.
129. How many lives are estimated as having been lost by earthquakes ?
130. By what signs is an earthquake usually preceded ?
131. For what was the year 1868 remarkable ?
132. Give an account of the earthquake at New Madrid.
133. Of what does hydrography treat ?
134. What are springs, and how may they be classified ?
135. What are perennial springs ? Intermittent ? Periodical ?
136. How are springs produced ?
137. Where are springs most numerous ?
138. Upon what does the temperature of springs depend ?
139. What are artesian wells ?
140. What is bifurcation ?
141. What is the composition of water ?
142. What office do the waters of the earth perform ?
143. What important peculiarity does water possess ?
144. What is the great reservoir of water ?
145. How are the waters dispersed over the earth ?
146. What are the sources of springs ?
147. Into what classes are rivers divided? Describe them.
148. What are canyons ?
(a) What is the basin of a river ? A watershed ?
149. On what does the amount of water in a basin depend ?
150. What is an avalanche ?
151. What is a confluence ?
152. Into what divisions may the United States be divided with reference to its drainage ?
153. What are the divisions of Europe?
154. What is a singular fact in regard to the watershed of Europe which separates the three systems of drainage ?
155. Where do the largest streams of Africa flow ? Of Asia?
156. Why do larger streams flow into the Atlantic than into the Pacific?
157. How are lakes divided? Describe each class.
158. Why are most inland waters fresh ?
159. What name is given to lakes without an outlet?
160. Where are the principal steppe lakes ?
161. Describe the Caspian Sea.
162. Describe the most extensive lake region of the globe.
163. What is said of the Great Lakes ? How large are they?
164. Describe the lake regions of Europe.
165. What are the Tundras ?
166. What place have lakes in the economy of nature ?
167. What is the cause of the saltness of some lakes ?
168. What is the color of the ocean ? Depth? Transparency ?
169. Which is heavier, fresh or sea-water? At what temperature will sea-water freeze ?
170. What causes the phosphorescence of the sea ?
171. What is constantly going on in the ocean?
172. How many, and where are the great mediterranean seas?
(a) What is a mediterranean sea ?
173. Name the principal border seas. What separates these seas from the ocean ?
174. What is the width and velocity of the Gulf stream ?
175. What is the color of the Gulf stream ?
176. What influence has this stream on the climate of Western Europe ?
177. Describe the equatorial current of the Atlantic? Of the Pacific?
178. Describe the Japan current.
179. Describe the Arctic currents.
180. Mention the Antarctic currents.
181. What are whirlpools ?
(a) What are three distinct movements of the ocean ?
(b) What are tides? Neap tides? Spring tides? Flood tides? Ebb tides?
(c) What are the chief causes of the tides ?
(d) What are waves? Breakers? How high do waves roll?
182. What causes the advance of the waves ?
183. To what depth is the sea agitated by waves ?
184. What is the height of tides ?
185. Describe the great tidal wave.
186. What are ocean currents ? How are they divided?
187. What is the cause of currents ?
188. What are temporary currents ?
189. What are periodical currents ?
190. What are constant currents ?
191. What is a counter current? Where are they found ?
192. To what three classes of currents does difference of temperature give rise ?
193. What modifies the direction of the polar and return currents ?
194. How are ocean basins divided ?
195. Describe the Pacific basin.
196. Describe the Atlantic basin.
197. Wherein do the ocean basins present great differences ?
198. How are coast waters classified ?
199. What is known of the ocean bed ?
200. How are the depths estimated in the absence of soundings ?
201. Of what does meteorology treat ?
202. What is the composition of air ?
203. What is the depth of the atmosphere ?
204. How does air compare with water in weight ?
205. To what is air essential ?
206. What is temperature ?
207. On what does the temperature of a place depend ?
208. What is the depth of the limit of invariable temperature in the several zones ?
209. What is the depth of the limit of invariable temperature in the ocean ?
210. What is the mean temperature of a place ?
211. Does the mean temperature of a place vary one year with another?
212. What are isothermal lines ?
213. Into how many zones of climate may the surface of the earth be divided by the isothermal lines ?
214. What is wind ? How produced ?
215. To what region must we look for the cause of the circulation of the winds of the globe?
216. Explain the circulation of the atmosphere. 217. What are trade-winds ?
218. Why do these currents become distinct winds at 30° of latitude?
219. In what direction do the trade-winds blow ? Why ?
220. Name some periodical and variable winds.
221. How many wind-zones are there ?
222. Where is the zone of calms ?
223. Where are the sub-tropical zones ?
224. Where are the zones of variable winds ?
225. What are monsoons ?
226. Where are the principal monsoon regions ?
227. Describe the monsoons of the Indian Ocean.
228. What is the cause of the monsoons of the Caribbean Sea ?
229. What are the "Northers" of Texas and Mexico ?
230. What are land and sea breezes ?
231. Where are the Etesian winds ? To what do they owe their origin ?
232. What are the most noted hot winds, and where do they prevail ?
233. What are the most noted cold winds, and where do they prevail ?
234. What are whirlwinds? Waterspouts? Sand-pillars?
235. How are the tropical storms variously named ?
236. Where are the three principal hurricane regions ?
237. What is the nature of tornadoes ?
238. What is dew, hoar-frost, fogs, clouds, rain, and snow ?
239. How is hail formed ?
240. Upon what does the distribution of rain depend ?
241. How are clouds formed ?
242. Under what circumstances is dew formed ?
243. What is hoar-frost, and how is it formed ?
244. What are vapors ?
245. Mention some of the uses of snow.
246. Into what classes are clouds divided? Describe each class.
247. How may the surface of the earth be divided in reference to the quantity of rain that falls ?
248. Where are the regions of periodical rains ?
249. Describe the zone of calms.
250. Describe the zones of the trade-winds.
251. What are the characteristics of the sub-tropical zones ?
252. Where are the regions of frequent rains ?
253. Where are the rainless regions ?
254. Why are the Pacific shores of Peru and Bolivia rainless ?
255. What would be the condition of South America, providing the Andes were on the Atlantic coast ?
256. Why is the Pacific shore of Mexico rainless ?
257. Where is the largest rainless district of the globe ? Why are these regions rainless ?
258. What is the cause of barrenness of the desert of Gobi ?
259. Where does the greatest amount of rain fall ?
260. What particular place has the greatest annual rain-fall on the globe ?
261. What is climate ?
262. What circumstances affect the climate of a place ?
263. What are the two chief classes of climate ? Describe them.
264. Define Astronomical climate.
265. Define Physical climate.
266. What is the general law of astronomical climate ?
267. Why is temperature greater at the Equator, and why does it diminish towards the Poles ?
268. What modifications of climate do the earth's motions produce ?
269. Where are the general deviations from the astronomical climate most marked ?
270. Where are the extreme deviations from astronomical climate found ?
271. What difference between oceanic and continental climate ?
272. What effect has the soil on the climate of a country ?
273. Why does California have but little rain between May and November ?
274. Where are storms most violent ?
275. What are glaciers ?
276. What is the origin of glaciers ?
277. Where is the most remarkable glacier region ?
278. What evidence exists of former systems of glaciers ?
279. What is the snow line ?
280. What is electricity ?
281. How many kinds of electricity are there ?
282. What are conductors and non-conductors of electricity ?
283. Mention some of each.
284. What is lightning ?
285. What is heat-lightning ?
286. How is thunder produced ?
287. Why do we see the lightning before we hear the thunder ?
288. Where are thunder-storms most frequent ?
289. What is the aurora borealis ?
290. How is it supposed to be produced ?
291. What is mirage ?
292. Name some electrical phenomena.
293. What is organic life ?
294. Under what three divisions is this department considered ?
295. What is botanical geography ?
296. What constitutes the flora of a country ?
297. What gives varieties to the plant life of the globe ?
298. What is indispensable to the existence of vegetable life ?
299. How many species of plants are supposed to exist ?
300. What two forms of distribution of vegetation do we find ?
301. In what region is found greatest luxuriance, and why ?
302. What similarity exists between the vertical and horizontal distribution ?
303. What four regions are destitute of vegetation in consequence of the want of moisture ?
304. Into what two great classes are vegetable forms divided ?
305. What plants are flowerless ?
306. How are flowering plants divided ?
307. Describe the endogenous. The exogenous.
308. About how many distinct plant species are there ?
309. Which are the simplest forms of the plant species?
310. Where are the lichens, algæ, and mosses found ?
311. Which are the most stately of all vegetable forms ?
312. What are the principal food-plants of the torrid and hot zones ?
313. What are bananas, bread-fruit, dates, cocoanuts, yams, cassava, and sago ?
314. What are the principal food-plants of the warm and temperate zones ?
315. What plants are the most valuable for furnishing clothing ?
316. What spices are in common use in the various countries of the globe?
317. What are the principal narcotics used in the different parts of the globe?
318. What is opium, betel, haschish?
319. What is Zoological Geography?
320. What constitutes the fauna of a country?
321. What law of distribution prevails?
322. What exception to this rule in the case of marine animals?
323. What marks the range of animals?
324. What exception to this rule?
325. What appears to be the basis of distribution of animals?
326. What modifies the fauna of each continent?
327. Where does the musk-deer live? The cashmere goat? The elephant?
328. How have the animals upon the globe been classified?
329. What are vertebrates? How have they been divided?
330. What are mollusks? Articulates? Radiates?
331. What is the mammalia?
332. How have the mammalia been classified?
333. Of what does Ethnology treat?
334. What evidences exist as to the unity of the human race?
335. What three strongly marked types exist?
336. What three secondary races are found?
337. What is supposed to have produced the diversity of races?
338. What is the law of perfection of type in man?
339. Which is the typical or normal race?
340. From what race of people did the people of Europe descend?
341. Mention the chief European divisions of this race.
342. What nations are descendants of the Celtic race?
343. The Teutonic?
344. The Slavonic?
345. The Gaulic? What country was ancient Gaul?
346. The Pelasgians?
347. The Northmen, or Normans? 348. Who were the Saxons? Who the Anglo-Saxons?
349. From whom have the Italians derived their origin?
350. The Spanish and Portuguese?
351. Write a brief description of these races, giving their order of descent.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. That science which treats of the natural divisions of water, the atmosphere, and all organic life.
2. Into Land, Water, Air, Plants and Animals.
3. In a state of igneous fluidity. All the elements of the earth were one molten mass, surrounded by a thick atmosphere, charged with vapors and gases
4. A direct proof is the ball-like form of the earth, which, but for its plastic condition, would not have been. Astronomy furnishes us with examples of like condition. Our sun is even now in a state of intense ignition, and the stars of the firmament are burning suns. The moon was once a fiery ball, but is now cooled, and covered with extinct craters.
5. In the course of countless ages the earth lost heat and cooled sufficiently to form a solid crust, while the interior, even now, is liquid lava, gradually losing its temperature, which in time will cause a solid earth.
6. It is variously estimated at from fifty to one hundred miles. At the depth of 60 feet, water obtains its greatest degree of cold; at 2,200 feet the temperature rises to 90° Fahrenheit; at 8,000 feet water would boil, and as the temperature increases regularly from the surface downward, at a depth of twenty-eight miles iron would melt.
7. An element that cannot be separated into other component parts.
8. Sixty-three, and of these only fourteen have been found in a pure state, as gold, silver, copper, platinum.
9. Twelve : oxygen, silicon, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, iron, carbon, sulphur, hydro-gen, chlorine.

10. Oxygen is a gas, and a constituent of all rocks, and composes about one-half by weight of the earth's crust.
Silicon is the element next in abundance; combined with oxygen it forms silica or quartz, sandstone, and ordi-nary sand.
Carbon is an element which, combined with oxygen, enters largely into the composition of various rocks. Char-coal and diamonds are pure carbon.
Hydrogen is a gas, and combined with oxygen, consti-tutes water.
Sodium is a metal, and with oxygen forms soda. It is the basis of salt.
Chlorine with sodium forms common salt.
Sulphur is a simple mineral substance, and united with oxygen and lime makes gypsum.
Potassium is a metal which, combined with oxygen, forms potash.
Calcium is a metal which, with oxygen, forms common quicklime, and with carbon limestone.
Magnesium is also a metal which, combined, with oxy-gen, forms magnesia.
Aluminum is a white metal, and with oxygen forms alumina, the basis of clay.

11. As stratified and unstratified, the unstratified being divided into igneous and metamorphic.
12. Those which are made up of a series of layers, as sandstone, slate-rock, limestone.
13. By the waters of the globe removing materials from one place and depositing them in another, as stratified sediment.

14. When the surface of the earth had become cooled, or fallen below the boiling point of water (212° Fahrenheit), the vapors of the atmosphere were condensed and gathered as water in the depressions of the earth.
15. Those which, instead of being a sedimentary de-posit, were forced in a melted condition from the burning depths below.
16. These rocks were at first stratified, but by the igneous lava breaking forth and flowing near them, a sub-terranean heat was produced, thus destroying the sedimen-tary or stratified condition.
17. Petrified remains of animals or plants that lie imbedded in the rock formation of the earth's crust.
18. Stratified rocks that contain fossils. Non-fossiliferous rocks are those without fossils, or igneous rocks.
19. Into seven: The Azoic Age, the Silurian Age, Devonian Age, Carboniferous Age, Reptilian Age, Mammalian Age, and the Age of Man.

20. The Azoic Age is the earliest, and includes the time from the first forming of a solid crust to the appearance of animal life. Rocks of this age contain no animal fossils.
The Silurian Age succeeded the Azoic, and the rocks abound in fossils of the simplest animals and plants. Star-shaped animals and animals that consist of joints or segments, as worms, make their first appearance on the earth; but the mollusks, animals like our oyster, predominate.
The Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes, succeeds the Silurian. Rocks of this age contain fossils of higher and more developed animals and plants than those of the preceding age. Of fishes, the shark and gar-fish predominate.
The Carboniferous Age was the Age of Vegetation. Great forests and jungles covered the land from the poles to the equator. It was a period of unceasing change. Destructive floods undermined the dense vegetation, which fell, layer upon layer, gradually changing into vast coal-fields under the pressure of the waters.
The Reptilian Age is remarkable as the era of the culmination of reptiles and mollusks. Among the former were the gigantic ichthyosaurus, a marine animal with the teeth and head of a crocodile, and from ten to thirty feet long; the plesiosaurus, a huge reptile with the head and neck of a snake, and the pterodactyl, a flying reptile.
In the Mammalian Age many of the lower animals and vegetable forms become extinct, and more perfect ones appear. The gar-fishes give place to the salmon, perch, and herring; the cycads among plants, to the oaks, willows, and palms. Animals of great size tread the earth, which are now known only by their remains.
The Age of Man is the present era. The animal element is no longer dormant. The majority of the large beasts, that during the preceding era were the chief denizens of the world, have become extinct, and made room for smaller but higher creatures. Man, as the most highly organized being, appears latest upon the earth, which has,
by means of successive changes in the past, arrived at that stage of development which renders it a fit dwelling-place for him. The earth, in this last stage, has reached a state of comparative stability. Changes take place, but they are less sweeping and less violent than those of the preceding ages.

21. The greater part lie deep in the earth, and require much labor to obtain them. Some are found in the soil and sandy beds of rivers.
22. Gold, silver, platinum, mercury, iron, lead, copper, tin, nickel, zinc, and antimony.
23. It surpasses all others.

24. There are no well-defined localities where precious stones are found. Some have been found in Alaska, California, Arizona, and occasionally one picked up, apparently out of place, or lost. The largest diamond found in the United States was picked up by a workman on the banks of the James River, opposite Richmond. It weighed 24 carats.

25. It is found in the Appalachian region, particularly Pennsylvania and New Jersey; also in Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee.

26. The annual product is about 6,000 tons.

27. It is produced most abundantly in New York and Michigan, but in a natural state Nevada has inexhaustible quantities of rock salt. In this state it can be obtained in blocks so perfectly pure and clear that a newspaper can be read through the thickness of a foot. A railroad cutting one of these immense mines graded its bed for a distance of three miles.

28. It was sunk in 1859, in Pennsylvania, and yielded 400 gallons a day.
29. By the atmosphere, the water, and by the action of the heated interior.
30. The moisture in the atmosphere crumbles the exposed rock-surfaces, and the dusty fragments are drifted by the wind, and in the course of time deep deposits of it are formed.

31. Rivers and creeks are everywhere at work gradually moving the whole surface of continents towards the oceans. Rivers also produce important changes by erosion.
32. Rivers wearing out deep channels in their courses.

33. The Canon of the Colorado River, which is a narrow chasm three hundred miles long, and with perpendicular walls of rock, from three thousand to six thousand feet in height, worn by the flowing river.
34. It is estimated that over 400,000,000 tons are carried into the Gulf of Mexico. This yearly discharge, if placed in one accumulation, would cover an area of ten square miles to the depth of twenty-five feet.

35. Changes of level, which are slowly progressing by the century, or suddenly by the action of volcanoes and earthquakes.

36. The northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula is slowly rising at the rate of four feet in a century, while the southern part, and Holland and Denmark, are gradually subsiding. It is by this subsidence that the greater part of Holland and Denmark is below the level of the sea, and should the dykes which protect these countries become broken, great inundation would follow.

37. When the interior of the earth has cooled beyond the power to react and disturb its surface, the leveling of continents by the elements of nature will begin to be apparent. By the washings of rain the surface of the country is slowly moving to the bottom of oceans; by the action of the moist atmosphere rocks crumble to dust and are borne away. Though the process of decomposition is slow, yet the all-devouring element of time will tear down the mountains of earth and fill up the valleys of the seas, until land shall disappear, and the earth shall be one wide expanse of ocean.

38. About one-five-hundred-and-thirtieth part of the whole volume of the globe, or if the earth were a perfect sphere, without elevations and depressions, the volume of water would be about 10,000 feet in thickness.

39. They lie with their masses about the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and narrow as they extend southward.
40. About one-seventeenth, or 3,000,000 square miles.
41. Into two classes, continental and oceanic.
42. Those that lie near continents, and appear, by their position, to be detached portions.
43. The West Indies, Bahamas, Aleutian, Japan, East Indies, and many others.
44. Such as lie far removed from any continent. Nearly all of the islands of the Pacific Ocean belong to this class.
45. They are mainly of two kinds, the volcanic and coral.
46. Continental islands, as a rule, are larger than oceanic islands.

47. The continental islands have the same formation as of the mainland, being composed of sandstone, slate, granite, and the various metamorphic rocks, while the volcanic islands are composed of volcanic substances, or of limestone.

48. It is the limy secretion or deposit of small marine animals that lie together in vast numbers. It is found in tropical seas, or where the temperature of the water is not below 68° (Fahrenheit).

49. Four : fringing reefs, barrier reefs, encircling reefs, and atolls, or coral islands.
50. Lines or ribbons of coral near the shores.

51. They lie parallel to the shore, but are separated from it by a channel of water of considerable depth and varying greatly in width. The grandest example of coral formation known is the Great Australian barrier reef. Externally it rises, with little inclination, from a fathomless ocean—stretches upwards of 1,000 miles along the north-east shore—varies in breadth from two hundred yards to a mile, and in distance from the shore from twenty to seventy miles. There are many openings through the reef, by which vessels enter the interior ocean, which is everywhere safely navigable. An encircling reef is a barrier reef which encloses one or more islands.

52. They consist of a low, narrow rim of reef surrounding a lagoon.
53. The vacant place enclosed by atolls or coral islands.

54. It is based upon a regular and gradual subsidence of the bed of the ocean. A fringing reef is first formed near the shore of an island, which becomes an encircling reef, and as the ocean bed subsides, the coral deposits still continue to grow upward until by the subsidence the interior island disappears, and the atoll alone remains.

55. Though of a great variety of shapes, they agree in one particular, viz.: They consist of a low narrow rim of coral rock, enclosing a body of water called a lagoon.

56. As the reef-building polyps do not live below the depth of 100 or 120 feet, they select for a foundation the submarine mountains and plateaus, or the slopes of volcanic cones, which come near the surface.

57. They are found in tropical waters where they are protected from cold ocean currents, from the influence of fresh river waters, and are remote from active volcanoes. They are not found where the mean annual temperature of the water falls below 68° Fahr.

58. Into three classes : mountains, tablelands or plateaus, and lowlands.
59. The Himalayas are the highest elevation, rising 29,000 feet above the level of the sea. The lowest depression is the Dead Sea, in Palestine, which lies 1,300 feet below the level of the ocean.
60. The direction of a mountain chain.
61. The shape, its elevation, plains, tablelands, mountains, and valleys.
62. Elevations as a whole and linear elevations.
63. As an elevation of 330 feet produces a difference of temperature of 1° Fahr., then the altitude of but a few thousand feet changes the character of a region, like a removal of it from torrid to temperate latitudes, or from temperate to frigid. The relief also controls the drainage of a continent, and influences to a certain extent the direction and character of the winds, and the distribution of rain.
64. Above an elevation of 1,000 feet. Low plains are below 1,000 feet.

65. Mean elevation in feet.
The Plateau of Thibet 14,000
The Bolivian Plateau, in the Andes 13,000
Plateau of Anahuac, in Mexico 8,000
Arabian Plateau 7,000 to 8,000
Colorado Plateau 7,000
The Great Basin 4,000 to 5,000
The Sahara 2,000 to 3,000
Southern Africa 3,000 to 5,000
Central Asiatic Plateau 2,000 to 4,000

66. In the Western Continent there is the Mississippi Plain, the Arctic Plain, Atlantic Coast Plain, Llanos of the Orinoco, Selvas of the Amazon, and the Pampas of the La Plata. In Europe there is the Great Central Germanic Plain. In Asia, there is the Siberian Plain, the Plain of Turkistan, the Chinese Plain, and the Mesopotamian Plain. Africa has no great low plains.
67. Into three: those rising to an elevation of 20,000 feet or upwards ; those between 10,000 and 20,000 feet, and those between 2,000 and 10,000 feet
68. By the pressure of the inner forces of the earth.
69. Mountains by folding, which are generally of moderate elevation ; and mountains by fracture, to which belong the highest chains of the globe.
70. Longitudinal valleys are those which separate parallel ridges of mountain chains, and extend in the same
direction. Transverse valleys cut the ridges at right angles, and extend in an opposite direction.

71. The great dividing ridges of a continent. The sub-divisions are called secondary axes.

72. Six: the Rocky Mountains, Californian, Alleghanian, Andean, Parime, and Brazilian.

73. This system, including the Californian system, occupies the whole western part of the continent, extending from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of 5,700 miles.

74. It extends in a southwesterly direction from the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the northern part of Georgia and Alabama. This system consists of many parallel chains, varying in height from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, enclosing fertile valleys.

75. It extends from the 50th parallel of north latitude, between the Rocky Mountains and the coast range of the Pacific, through the central part of Mexico, to the Isthmus of Panama, and may be divided into the Great Basin of Utah, the Great Mexican Plateau, and the tablelands of Central America.

76. The Great Plateau of the Andes; the elevated plains of Quito, Bogota, and Popayan; and the tableland of Brazil.

77. It is an extensive tract of lofty tableland, stretching along the top of the Andes between the parallels of 15° and 3° south latitude, with an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet.

78. They are divided into Central, Southern and South-western Asia.

79. The great desert of Gobi, and the tableland of Thibet.

80. Those of Hindoostan, Iran, Asia Minor, and Arabia.

81. Those of Abyssinia and South Africa.

82. It is the Spanish peninsula, the whole central part of which consists of a series of lofty plains, divided from each other by parallel mountain chains. This plateau comprises 93,000 square miles, or nearly one-half of the peninsula.

83. It extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Alleghanies, and is divided about midway into a northern and southern slope.

84. The entire peninsula east of the Andes, except the mountain systems and the Brazilian tableland, and is divided
vided into the llanos, selvas, pampas, and wastes of Pata-gonia.
85. It extends from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, to Behring Strait.
86. It contains a great plain, extending from the foot of the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and from the Altai Mountains to the Arctic Ocean. This plain, near the Arctic, is a barren and desolate region, and the cold is so intense that the spongy soil is perpetually frozen to the depth of several hundred feet. Near the Irtysh River, the soil is rich and pasturage good, but there are few inhab-itants.
87. Sahara, the plains of Egypt, Central Africa, and the region of Zambezi.
88. Of vast, barren plains.
89. Each have a predominant mountain system in the west, two secondary systems in the east, and vast, low plains intervening.
90. That all of the long, gentle slopes descend to the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, while the short and rapid slopes are directed towards the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
91. They are crowded around the North Pole, their northern limit being about the 70th parallel. As they extend south they gradually diminish in area, until they terminate in points widely separated from each other.
92. With the exception of Australia, they are more or less triangular.
93. The western continent extends north and south, while the eastern has its greatest length somewhat opposite.
94. The American continent extends about 9,000 miles and traverses all the climatic zones. Asia-Europe also extends about the same length, and has a general similarity of climate, vegetation and animals.
95. They exhibit striking differences. Some are deeply indented with gulfs and inland seas, while others are almost void of these indentations.
96. The greater the indentations of a country the more moderate are the extremes of temperature, and the more convenient for the development of the industries of man-kind. The climate is subdued, and the enlightenment of man becomes but the natural tendency of nature.
97. They become the abode of the most highly civilized nations.
98. Europe, Asia, and North America are most indented and its people are the most industrious and enlightened.
Africa and South America have few indentations and the people are less ambitious and enterprising.
99. From the reaction of the heated interior upon the solid crust. These phenomena are divided into three classes: volcanoes, earthquakes, and a rising or subsidence of portions of the earth's surface.
100. A mountain which emits fire, smoke, and lava.
101. As active, intermittent, and extinct.
102. Those having periods of rest.
103. It is the opening, or several openings, of a volcano. Lava is the matter thrown from a volcano.
104. They differ greatly in size, the larger varying from 2,000 to 18,000 feet.
105. They are sometimes on the sides.
106. It is that of Mauna Loa, on the Island of Hawaii, 4,270 feet high. This crater is over three miles long and one mile wide, and from 600 to 1,000 feet deep. Large pools of boiling lava may be seen from the brink.
107. Two: the central and lineal systems.
108. The central consists of several vents grouped together, one of which usually serves as a common point of eruption. The lineal consists of several vents extending in one direction, at no great distance from each other, forming, as it were, chimneys along an extended fissure.
109. On the islands and shores of the Pacific Ocean.
110. Humboldt has enumerated 225 still in action, and the number of extinct volcanoes is much greater.
111. Nearly all of the volcanoes are situated along the mountain ranges which are near the shores of the continents, while the interior is almost destitute of them.
112. Volcanoes appear where the earth's crust is weakest, and these mountain chains are a line of fracture formed by the gradual separation of the ocean's bed from the coasts of the continent.
113. One is the vast array of mountain chains, or continents and islands, which encircle the Pacific Ocean; the other, though less continuous, is a belt of broken lands and inland seas, which, extending around the globe, separates the northern from the southern continents.
114. That the cooling of the earth's surface produces an eruption or vent that is seen in the freezing of a barrel of water. Volcanoes are the outlet of this expansion.
115. Geysers, mud volcanoes, and fields of fire.
116. Miniature volcanoes which emit steam and mud, but never molten rocks. They are found in large numbers
in Sicily, and on the shores of the Caspian Sea, near the base of the Caucasus Mountains.
117. Regions where columns of fire break forth from the ground. These fires are classed with volcanic phenomena, although they may have their origin from the connection of the internal heat with large quantities of gases which accumulate in the crevices of rocks and burst forth in flames. They are found to the greatest extent west of the Caspian Sea.
118. A depression or valley crossing a mountain chain, through which a road is formed for traveling.
119. Convulsions of the earth, and are most common in volcanic districts.
120. Horizontal, vertical, and rotary.
121. That the convulsions are the results of the heated interior seeking vent, and may be caused by the collection of steam and gases, or like congealed water, the crust of the earth may contain the property of expanding during its process of cooling, thus forming a pressure which is resisted by violent agitations to obtain relief. The movements of earthquakes appear to be on the principle that waves recede when any substance is thrown into the water; thus, when convulsions occur great waves of the fluid interior recede, by which the crust is uplifted and more or less violently shaken.
122. They vary according to their power. The terrible earthquake of Lisbon, November 1st, 1755, in which 60,000 persons lost their lives, disturbed an area of 7,500,000 square miles, or, as the earth's crust is about twenty-five miles in thickness, 187,500,000 cubic miles of matter were moved.
123. Some of the most destructive lasted but a few seconds. That of Lisbon produced its terrible effects in less than five minutes.
124. Volcanoes are supposed to be outlets of the pressure of the subterranean forces, while earthquakes are the forces seeking vent.
125. In the tropics, especially, earthquakes are most frequent in that part of the year in which the greatest atmospheric disturbances take place. They are most dreaded at the beginning of the rainy season, when the monsoons are changing directions.
126. A terrific eruption of Mt. Vesuvius destroyed the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae, and covered them with ashes and cinders to the depth of fifteen feet.
127. About sixty of its eruptions are recorded. In 1669, a stream of lava from this mountain overflowed the ramparts of Catana, sixty feet in height, and destroyed a portion of the city.
In 1832, several craters opened in the sides, and a stream of lava eighteen miles long, one mile broad, and thirty feet deep, poured over the adjacent fields.
128. In 1835, a terrible eruption occurred. It lasted three days, during which the light of the sun was obscured over half of Central America; more than 40,000 square miles are said to have been covered with dust, ashes, and lava.
129. It is estimated that 13,000,000 human beings have lost their lives by these convulsions of nature, but the estimate has no solid foundation for statistics.
130. At times the electrical condition of the air seems to be changed and felt by man and beast—the former experiencing oppression and dizziness; the latter uttering cries of distress and running wildly about. At these times the atmosphere is unusually still and hazy, and the sun seen through it looks like a ball of fire.
131. One of the most terrible earthquakes on record occurred in South America, in August, 1868. Its center of activity seems to have been in Arica, a seaport of Peru, which was completely destroyed. The shock extended through the whole eastern shore of South America, and numerous towns and cities were laid in ruins. Probably 50,000 people lost their lives.
132. The most remarkable earthquake that has occurred in the United States is that of New Madrid, on the Mississippi River, in 1811-12. For several months there was an incessant quaking of the ground, which for a distance of 300 miles rose and sank in undulations. The most of the town was submerged.
133. The waters upon the earth.
134. Fountains of waters which flow from reservoirs underneath the ground, and are classified as perennial or constant, intermitting, and periodical.
135. Perennial springs are those which continue to flow at all seasons. Intermittent are those that alternately flow and stop. Periodical depend upon the prevailing character of the seasons.
136. They depend upon the peculiar arrangement of the pervious and impervious stratification. The water penetrates the pervious stratum and sinks to the impervious, where, if the stratification is tilted, the water will follow this layer until an outlet is found. Should the pervious
stratum lie between two convex layers of impervious matter, springs could be obtained at any place where the height is less than the highest points of the pervious stratum, by breaking through, whereby the water would rise to the surface and flow.

137. In and around mountainous regions.

138. It depends much upon the strata through which the water passes. Some are icy cold, particularly in mountain regions. Others coming from great depths are warm, hot, and even boiling. This heat, in some places, is due to volcanic action, and in some instances to chemical action.

139. Artificial springs formed by boring to the pervious stratum, as explained above.

140. When a river is so situated that it may divide and flow to two distinct river basins. The best known example is the Cassiquiare River, in Venezuela, which connects through its bifurcation the river systems of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers.

141. It is composed of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, chemically combined in the ratio, by weight of eight to one.

142. It sustains vegetable and animal life, and in a large measure was the principal agent in shaping what is now the solid land.

143. Water contracts in volume with a falling of temperature, until reduced to 39.2° Fahr., where its density is greatest. Below this temperature it expands.

144. The great reservoir is the sea.

145. They are raised by evaporation and spread over the earth in the form of rain.

146. A spring is the outlet of an underground current of water which has for its source some reservoir or supply higher than where the spring comes from the ground. It is this pressure which produces the flow.

147. Into oceanic and continental. The oceanic are those that flow into the ocean, and are divided into five classes, one for each ocean. The continental are those which never reach the ocean.

148. A deep gorge, ravine or gulch between high and steep banks, worn by water-courses.

149. Upon the extent of the territory which it drains; the rains; the physical features of the country—a well-wooded country impeding evaporation; and the climate.

150. A large mass of snow, ice and earth, sliding or rolling down a mountain.
151. The junction of two or more rivers.
152. The St. Lawrence basin, Atlantic slope, Mississippi valley, Texas slope, Pacific slope, inland basin of Utah, and the Red River basin.
153. There are three classes : the Atlantic basin, the Arctic slope, and the inland basin of the Caspian Sea.
154. They are entirely within the low plains of Russia.
155. Into the Atlantic Ocean.
156. The position of the several grand divisions partially enclose, and slope to the Atlantic, while mountain chains which form the divides between the river basins of these oceans are near the shores of the Pacific.
157. Into four classes : first, those which receive no streams and have no outlets; second, those which receive no streams, but have an outlet; third, those which receive streams, but have no outlet ; fourth, those which both receive and discharge streams.
158. As rivers and lakes are formed by rain or snow they are fresh because in the evaporation of water the impurities are left behind. Salt lakes have no outlet which retains all of the salt which flows into them.
159. Steppe lakes.
160. Great Salt Lake of the United States, Lake Titicaca of South America, the Caspian Sea, Lake Tchad and Nagami of Africa, and numerous smaller ones throughout Central Asia.
161. It is over 176,000 square miles in extent, and 2,957 feet deep; its surface lies eighty-four feet below the level of the ocean, and is slowly diminishing in size. Several large rivers flow into it.
162. This region is in North America, and sweeps in the shape of a broad belt around Hudson Bay, from Labrador to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The lakes of Canada, those in the New England States, New York, Minnesota, the great northern lakes, and the many lakes in the great northern plain east of the Rocky Mountains, belong to this region.
163. These lakes have been estimated to contain one-half of all the fresh water of the globe. Lake Superior contains about 32,000 square miles ; Lake Michigan about 22,400; Lake Huron, 21,000; Lake Erie, 10,815; Lake Ontario, 6,300.
164. In Europe there are two lake regions. The one surrounds the Baltic Sea and its branches. To it belong the countless lakes of Finland, the great Ladogo and
Onega lakes of Russia, the numerous small lakes in Northern Germany, and those of Denmark and Sweden. The other lake region is that of the Alps, containing 426 lakes, the largest of which lie along the base of this mountain system.

165. They are the most extensive swamps on the globe, and belong to Northern Russia and Siberia. These swamps are frozen to a great depth, and thawing during the summer months at the surface only, are covered with a dense covering of mosses.

166. They form reservoirs, which, receiving the surplus waters in time of freshets, equalizes the flow of rivers and prevent destructive inundations. In their basins the wild mountain torrents find rest and the muddy waters deposit their sediment, and flow out pure and transparent with a gentle current.

167. Because they have no outlets to carry off the saltness which is continually washed from the earth by rains or contact with beds of salt.

168. The color is generally a deep, bluish green, which becomes clearer near the coast. The depth depends upon the formation of the bottom, which, like the land, is diversified by mountains and valleys, high and low plains. The greatest depth in the region of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable is about 12,700 feet; in the South Atlantic, 25,000 feet; in the Pacific, over 43,000 feet. The clearness and transparency vary in different localities. In the Arctic Ocean shells and animals are distinguishable at a depth of 500 feet; around the Lesser Antilles objects are distinctly seen 150 feet below the surface. Sea-water, in general, is more transparent than fresh water.

169. By the presence of mineral substances, chiefly salt, sea-water becomes heavier. Fresh water congeals at 32° Fahrenheit, seawater at 28½°.

170. It is due to myriads of minute animalcules which inhabit the water.

171. The great body of the ocean is never at rest; not only is the surface agitated by the winds, but even at great depths the water moves from one region to another.

172. There are four: The Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Mediterranean Sea, and the Baltic Sea, with the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.

173. Caribbean Sea, Gulf of St. Lawrence, North Sea, Behring Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Japan, Yellow, and China seas.
174. It is from 25 to 150 miles wide, and moves with a velocity of from 1½ to 5 miles an hour.
175. A deep indigo blue, strikingly different from the green of the surrounding ocean.
176. A branch of this stream flows by the shores of Western Europe, and being warm, tempers the winds which blow over it, making the climate mild and genial.
177. The Equatorial current crosses the Atlantic from the coast of Africa to Cape St. Roque, where it divides into two branches, a northwesterly and a southwesterly, each of which follow the South American coast—the former making its way into the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, where it takes the name of Gulf Stream.
In the Pacific two Equatorial currents are found—one north and the other south of the equator. The former, turning to the northeast near the Loo Choo Islands, continues under the name of the Japan current.
The south Equatorial current of the Pacific consists of two branches, one of which, striking the Australian coast, divides into a northwesterly and a southwesterly branch, as does the Atlantic current on the coast of Brazil; the other, farther north, turns near the Caroline Islands, and reverses its course, crossing the Pacific again in a direction nearly due east to South America, under the name of the Equatorial counter-current.
178. The Japan current is the north branch of the Equatorial current, and bears a remarkable resemblance to the Gulf Stream. Its course is through the China Sea along the Asiatic Island chains, in a northeasterly direction toward the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the climate of which it improves, as the Gulf Stream does that of Northwestern Europe. Between the Japan current and the main land a cold current sets in the opposite direction, as in the case of the Gulf Stream.
179. From the Arctic Ocean two cold currents flow to the south, one on each side of Greenland. Uniting at the mouth of Davis Strait, they continue their southerly course as far as Newfoundland, where part of this broad Arctic River, as an under-current, flows beneath the Gulf Stream; and the rest, as a surface-current, keeps inside of this stream, close to the American shore as far south as Florida. It is this Arctic current which chills Labrador and makes it a desolate region.
180. There are three currents—one which flows into the Atlantic in a northwesterly direction along the coast of
Africa, joining the Equatorial current near the Gulf of Guinea; one flows into the Pacific along the South American shore under the name of the Peruvian or Humboldt current, and with the Equatorial west of the Gulf of Guayaquil; one flows into the Indian Ocean along the western shore of Australia and unites with the Equatorial just north of the Tropic of Capricorn.

181. Circular currents, which occur in certain localities and are caused by the action of the tides flowing against a peculiarly shaped shore or island.

182. It is a movement communicated from one portion of the sea to another following in a line of succession. In shallow water, or the shore, these movements are broken and the last motion throws the water as if it came in the form of a current.

183. Experiments show an agitation from 450 to 620 feet.

184. The great tidal-wave rises less than three feet in mid-ocean, but when it strikes against the shores of continents its altitude is much greater, varying according to the formation of the inlets, sometimes rising as high as seventy feet.

185. This vast tidal swell or wave, probably originates southeast of Australia, and, like other waves, it is not an onward flow of water, except over shoals and near the land. The reason assigned for giving this point as the place of commencement, is, the position of the continents. Beyond this commencement extends the great ocean, which consists of the Antarctic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Over this vast water-area the flood-tide journeys westward around the earth, sweeping up against the African and Asiatic coasts into the Atlantic Ocean, and around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean.

186. They are like vast rivers, transporting its waters from one part to another, and are caused by the heat of the sun, rotation of the earth, the saltness of the sea, by winds, tides, and melting ice. They are divided into constant, periodical and temporary.

187. The winds, the rotation of the earth, the excessive evaporation of the ocean in the tropics, and the Polar currents which flow to replace that evaporation. The waters of the Polar under-currents are heavier, because of their temperature, and in flowing into the tropics force the warmer waters to flow away as surface-currents.

188. Those which continue for a limited time, and are caused by tides, melting ice, or gales of considerable duration.

189. Such as flow at regular intervals, and are occasioned by tides, and by periodical winds called monsoons.

190. Those which flow throughout the entire year in the same direction, and have their origin in permanent causes. There are two kinds: Polar currents, flowing from the Poles to the equator, and Equatorial currents, flowing from east to west near the equator. The origin of constant currents may depend upon the rotation of the earth and enormous evaporation in the equatorial regions. By the evaporation currents are formed from beyond the equator to supply the loss, and by the rotation of the earth from west to east, the waters at the equator, where the velocity of the earth is greatest, are inclined to flow or slide to the west, which produce currents in an opposite direction from the motion of the earth.

191. A stream which runs by the side of, or beneath another current, and in an opposite direction.

192. Polar, Equatorial, and Return Currents.

193. If acted upon by no external forces, they would move in a direct line between the Poles and the Equator, but the rotation of the earth causes the Polar currents to tend towards the west and the Return currents towards the east. The prevailing winds also modify these directions, and the basins of the several oceans somewhat shape their course.

194. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are subdivided, each having a northern and a southern basin; the Indian Ocean has only a southern basin; the Arctic is properly a continuation of the Atlantic; the Antarctic, also, is not properly a separate ocean but is the common center from which the three great basins radiate.

195. The Pacific is oval in outline and broadly open at the south, but is nearly closed at the north.

196. The Atlantic basin has been likened by Humboldt to a long valley, with approximately parallel sides. This is the only basin widely open at the north and, stretching from pole to pole, it forms the only complete channel for the interchange of polar and equatorial waters.

197. In regard to the position and character of the branches, by which the coasts of the continents are indented.

198. According to their forms, they are classified as inland seas, border seas, and gulf or bays.

199. Numerous soundings have given an approximate idea of the ocean beds, especially of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. In the Pacific these soundings are somewhat limited.

200. From the velocity of the tide-wave and earthquake waves. These waves depend upon the depth of the basin in which they move.

201. Of the atmosphere, temperature, winds, and moisture (dews, fogs, rain, snow, and hail).

202. It is composed of three gases, in the following proportion: Nitrogen, 76.84; oxygen, 23.1; carbonic acid, 0.06.

203. Estimates based upon the pressure of the atmosphere in high and low localities, place the depth at 45 to 50 miles.

204. Experiments prove that air is 815 times lighter than water.

205. To the transmission of sound, to combustion, and to life.

206. The quantity of sensible heat which a body possesses, as indicated by a thermometer.

207. The direction of the sun's rays, its vicinity to the sea, the prevailing winds to which it is exposed, and its elevation above the sea.

208. In the tropical zone the limit is but one foot from the surface; in the temperate zone it is from sixty to seventy feet; and in the frigid zone it is about fifty.

209. In the tropical zone, it is probably about 7,200 feet; 60° north and 56° south latitude, it reaches the surface, and in 70° about 4,500 feet.

210. The average amount of heat a place receives during the year.

211. The variation is but little. The variable produce of our harvests is owing more to the change in distribution of heat through the different months, than to any difference in the annual supply.

212. Lines which are drawn through all places, which have nearly the same mean annual temperature.

213. Six: the torrid, hot, warm, temperate, cold, and frigid.

214. Air in motion. It is produced by the different amount of heat which the atmosphere receives in different localities.

215. To the equatorial regions.

216. Within the tropical regions the air is heated. It expands, becomes lighter, and rises. From both sides the colder air rushes in to restore the disturbed equilibrium, thus producing two lateral currents, one from the north, and the other from the south. But the air drawn by these currents must be restored, else there would be an accumulation of atmosphere in these regions. This is effected by the ascending current, which, on reaching a certain elevation, is pressed outward, forming two return currents, one flowing to the north, the other to the south. It is by these currents, one ascending current, two lateral Polar currents, and two returning Equatorial currents, that the general circulation is effected.
217. They are the lateral Polar currents, although the name is generally applied only to that part of the currents between the equator and 30° of latitude, where they become distinct surface winds.
218. The Equatorial currents, which in the tropics flow high above the Polar currents, become chilled in their transit through the upper regions of the atmosphere, and have a tendency to descend and intermingle with the Polar currents, which replace each other successively, thus preventing constant currents above that latitude.
219. They are northeast winds in the northern hemisphere, and southeast winds in the southern hemisphere. The direction is due to the rotation of the earth, the velocity of the surface of the earth being greater as the Polar currents approach the equator, which cannot acquire, suddenly, the same velocity, and the earth moves under it, and the trades, in the northern hemisphere, by this reason blow from the northeast, instead of coming directly from the north. By a similar reason the Equatorial currents flow in an opposite direction. As these currents commence to flow from the equator, they acquire the equatorial velocity, which cannot, suddenly, conform with the decreased velocity of the earth's surface as they approach the Poles, but unlike the trades, which lag behind, they have acquired a velocity and flow beyond the meridian from which they started.
220. The marked periodical winds are Monsoons, and Land and Sea Breezes. The variables are Whirlwinds and Hurricanes, Typhoons or Cyclones.
221. Seven: the zone of calms, the two zones of the trade-winds, the two sub-tropical zones, and the two zones of the variable winds.
222. It extends from 1½° to 11° north latitude. This place has the greatest mean annual temperature, conse-
quently it is where the trade-winds cease, or rather, where they rise and flow back again as Equatorial currents, thus producing a series of calms.

223. Those belts which lie between the summer and winter limits of the trade-zones. The trades prevail here during the summer, but in winter they recede, and the variable winds prevail.

224. They extend from the limits of the sub-tropical zones to the Poles.

225. Trade winds whose direction has been modified by the unequal heating of the land and sea. The name was originally restricted to periodical winds which blow in the Indian Ocean, blowing part of the year in one direction, and part in the opposite.

226. In the Indian Ocean, along the coast of Guinea, and in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.

227. During the cooler months of the year, the monsoons are the regular northeast trade-winds, but as the sun crosses the Equator, and the continent of Asia becomes intensely heated, an ascending current results, and the trades are deflected and rush to the continent to restore the equilibrium, thus turning the trades in almost an opposite direction. A similar deviation is also produced south of the Equator when Australia becomes heated.

228. The northeastern trades are deflected by the overheated Mississippi valley, and like the trades of the Indian Ocean, they are bent to supply the demand on the continent.

229. Violent winds which sweep over the prairies of Texas and plains of Mexico. They prevail from October to March, and are considered as winter monsoons.

230. Those winds which blow in summer from the sea to the land during the greater part of the day, and from the land to the sea at night. They are caused by the different temperature of the land and water, the land being warmer than the water in the day, and colder at night.

231. They are periodicals which blow on the Mediterranean Sea in summer, and owe their origin to the Sahara desert.

232. The simoon, khamsin, harmattan, sirocco, and the solano. The simoon prevails on the deserts of Arabia, Nubia, Persia, and Syria; the khamsin blows in Egypt, but is not so oppressive as the simoon; the sirocco is a well-known hot wind of Greece and Italy, and the solano of Spain, which owe their origin to the vicinity of the Sahara. 233. The pamperos and bora. The pamperos are cold southwest winds which originate among the snows of the Andes, and sweep with great violence over the level pampas of South America. The bora is a northeast wind, common on the eastern shores of the Gulf of Venice.

234. A whirlwind is the meeting of two winds at an angle. Waterspouts are whirlings occurring on the sea or on lakes. They first appear in the form of an inverted cone attached to a dark cloud. The cone swings backward and forward, and gradually approaches the water, which becomes violently agitated. The whirling eddy draws up masses of spray, which unite with the descending cone. When fully formed, they appear as tall pillars of cloud of sombre grey, stretching from the sea to the sky, whirling around an axis. They continue but for a short time, when the column breaks, and rain often descends from the cloud above. The drops of water forming this rain are never salt, as would be the case were they carried up from the ocean. They must, therefore, have been derived from the clouds, as in ordinary rain. Sand-pillars are produced by whirlwinds on a desert where columns of sand are drawn up in a body.

235. As hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones, and tornadoes.

236. In the West Indies, Indian Ocean, and the Chinese Sea. The wind revolves.

237. They differ from the other tropical storms merely in their extent and duration. Their extent is quite limited, and their duration at any one place is seldom more than a few seconds.

238. Dew is moisture collected on substances during the night. Hoar-frost is frozen dew. Fogs are masses of vapor resting on or near the surface of the earth. Clouds are masses of visible vapor, differing in no respect from fogs, except in position. Rain is water which, originally taken up in the atmosphere in the form of vapor, is returned to the earth in drops. Snow is the frozen vapor of the atmosphere.

239. As they are composed of alternate layers of snow and ice, it is supposed that the wind revolves around a horizontal axis, by means of which the moisture of the air is successively carried into warm and cold clouds. In the cold clouds the particles of snow are collected, and by the whirl are carried into rain clouds, where they receive a coating of water, which when returned to the cold cloud
becomes ice. In this manner the hailstones grow rapidly in size, and are finally hurled to the ground.

240. The quantity of moisture depends upon its tem-perature, and its vicinity to the sea. The rain-fall decreases as we pass from the Equator to the Poles, and from the coasts of the continents towards the interior.

241. Clouds or fogs result whenever two bodies of air of different temperatures are mingled, especially if, as is generally the case, the warmer of the two is the moister.

242. The cooling of a still moist atmosphere causes a portion of this vapor to fall or collect in the form of small drops of water.

243. It is the freezing of the falling dew.

244. The particles of water so fine and light that they float in the air unseen, except where they condense and become clouds.

245. Being a non-conductor of heat, it protects the roots of vegetation from the severe frosts of winter. It also collects in great masses on lofty mountains and grad-ually thawing, it feeds streams, springs, and numerous underground currents, which are of great benefit in the economy of nature.

246. The cirrus, cumulus, stratus, and nimbus. The cirrus occupy the highest position in the atmosphere, and resemble a lock of hair, being composed of parallel streaks. The cumulus resemble a mountain of snow, and are most common in summer. The stratus consist of horizontal bands near the surface of the earth, and belong to the night. The nimbus is the rain-cloud, and much more dense than the others, although the others may be changed to the nimbus.

247. Into rainless regions, regions of periodical rains, and regions of frequent rains.

248. In the zone of calms, the zone of trade-winds, and the sub-tropical zones.

249. In this zone it rains daily. The ascending current, hot and highly saturated, is cooled when it reaches greater elevations. In the afternoon, usually, a ring of clouds appears, and, accompanied by thunder and lightning, tor-rents of rain descend.

250. These zones are characterized by almost constant serenity, and a deep-azure sky. But as the sun stands over the zenith during a part of the summer in these zones, it carries with it the calms and rains of the first zone. Hence
the serenity of the trade-zones is interrupted by a brief rainy season during summer, while the winters are dry.

251. They are characterized by dry summers and rainy winters. This is due to the trades which prevail there during the summer, and absorb rather than bring moisture. During the winter the variable winds prevail, and bring the irregular rains of the temperate regions. A large portion of the United States lies within this zone, and would have dry summers if it were not for the monsoons occasionally blowing from the Mexican Gulf far inland, and bringing thunder storms.

252. A part of the temperate zone and the frigid.

253. They lie almost entirely within the zones of the trade-winds.

254. The trade-winds coming across the entire continent, are intercepted by the Andes Mountains, and are forced to ascend their slopes, where they meet the cold air, which condenses their vapor, and the rain flows down the eastern slopes. The wind passes over the crest and reaches the western slopes dry and vaporless.

255. The greater part would be a barren desert.

256. The trade-wind is here deprived of its vapor by the Plateau of Anahuac.

257. The Great Desert, Arabia and Persia. The trades prevail here, but have lost their moisture on the passage across the mountains and plateaus of High Asia.

258. It is found to be in the Himalayas, which intercept the prevailing southwest winds, and deprive them of almost all their moisture.

259. In the tropics of the New World. This amount is about 115 inches, while in the tropics of the Old World the fall is about 77 inches. In the temperate parts of the Old World, 34 inches fall; in the New World, 35 inches.

260. On the Khasia Hills in Farther India, which face the Bay of Bengal and receive winds heavily laden with vapor on their passage over the Indian Ocean. The annual fall is about 50 feet.

261. The state of the atmosphere in regard to tempera-ture, winds, moisture and salubrity.

262. The latitude of a place; its height above the level of the sea; the position and direction of the mountain chains; its distance from the sea; the slope of the coun-try; the character of the soil; the degree of cultivation and density of population; and the quantity of rain that falls.
263. Oceanic and continental. Those regions which are open to the influence of the ocean are moist and mild, while those which are removed from the influence are commonly dry and suffer from great excesses of heat and cold.
264. It is the climate based upon the latitude of a place and not the general conditions of that country.
265. It is the modifications of the general law of climate by the action of winds, ocean currents, mountain ranges, deserts and the bodies of water.
266. That the heat gradually decreases from the Equator to the Poles.
267. It is due to the direction of the sun's rays. As the sun is perpendicular to the Equator the rays fall direct and the heat is retained, while the direction, as we approach the Poles, becomes more oblique, on the same principle that heat decreases from midday to evening.
268. Because of the inclination of the earth's axis the position of the earth to the sun is continually changed in its revolution, which produces a constant change of climate.
269. Chiefly in the middle latitudes.
270. The extreme deviations occur on the coasts of the North Atlantic, those of Western Europe being warm and mild while the shores of Northeastern America are cold and desolate. These differences of temperature are due to the physical conditions, the Gulf Stream and the Arctic currents.
271. Oceanic climate is characterized by uniformity of temperature, while continental climate is subjected to sudden changes and great extremes of heat and cold, especially in the middle and higher localities.
272. A country covered with a barren, sandy soil is subject to great and rapid changes in its temperature, owing to the readiness with which it receives and parts with heat, while marshy lands, or lands covered with forests or vegetation, are more salubrious.
273. It is owing to the eastern or trade-winds which prevail, they having been deprived of moisture by crossing the continent and meeting the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains. The westerly winds prevail from December to May, which produces the rainy season.
274. The most remarkable for violence, and for the regularity of their course, are the hurricanes of the West Indies and of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean; the typhoons
of the South China Sea; and the cyclones of the Gulf of Bengal.

275. Immense masses of ice and snow, which move with extreme slowness down the higher mountain valleys or slopes. The upper parts are formed of soft snow, but the great weight and pressure condense the lower portions into clear hard ice.

276. It is the weight of the great fields of snow pressing downward and forcing the whole mass as explained above.

277. The glaciers of the Alps.

278. By the condition of the country; masses of unstratified rocks left behind; deep grooves, or scratches, cut in the bottom or sides of the valleys by imbedded rocks. These cuts are parallel, and show the direction of the motion.

279. It is the lower limit of perpetual snow. Within the tropics it is about three miles above the sea level, in the temperate latitudes about two miles, and at the northern limit of the continents about half a mile.

280. One of the great forces of nature, with the origin and nature of which we are unacquainted. Like the power of gravitation it is a part of nature itself, indispensable in her organization, mild and terrific, and at last becoming the greatest agency in the advancement of civilization.

281. There are two kinds—a positive and a negative. A substance charged with one kind will attract a substance charged with the other, but repel a body charged with the same.

282. Conductors are those substances which transmit electricity freely; non-conductors do not.

283. Water, metals, living plants and animals, smoke, steam and moist air are conductors. Silk, glass, India rubber, guttapercha, hair, feathers and dry air are non-conductors.

284. Lightning is a discharge of atmospheric electricity, accompanied by a flash of light.

285. It is the weak discharge of electricity from the clouds, producing a slight flash but not of sufficient strength to cause an explosion.

286. Thunder is the sudden rushing of the atmosphere to fill the vacuum produced by the lightning.

287. As light travels faster than sound, we see the flash before we hear the report.

288. Within the tropics during the rainy season.

289. It is a beautiful exhibition of nature, at night, in the Polar skies. In the temperate regions it is known as northern lights.
290. It is supposed to be electric currents passing through a strata of highly rarefied air.
291. A reflection of some distant object plainly visible on the clouds. It is due to certain peculiarities of the atmosphere and conditions of the country. Vessels have been seen and recognized in this mysterious way. Sailors often regard this phenomena of nature as an evil omen.
292. St. Elmo's fire and Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis. The latter is the electric display in the Southern Hemisphere.
293. It is that department of Physical Geography which treats of all vegetable and animal life.
294. Botanical Geography, Zoological Geography, and Ethnography.
295. Botanical Geography treats of the different divisions of the vegetable kingdom and their geographical distribution.
296. The plants of any section of country taken together are called its flora.
297. They differ widely, by reason of the differences in heat, moisture, light, slope and soil—more particularly by the first two.
298. Moisture, in the form of rain or dew.
299. More than 250,000 different species of plants are supposed to exist on the earth. Over 120,000 have been named by botanists.
300. A horizontal and a vertical. The horizontal is the distribution arising from the influence of the heat and cold as we go from the Equator to the Poles. The vertical is the same influence from the base of a tropical mountain to the summit.
301. In the equatorial regions, where heat and moisture are most abundant.
302. Plants of the same species are found as we go from one elevation to another up the tropical heights, to correspond with the plant creation as we journey north or south from the Equator.
303. The deserts of Gobi and Arabian in Asia, the Sahara in Africa, and the Atacama on the western slope of the Andes.
304. Into the cryptogamous (flowerless) and the phenogamous (flowering). 305. The mosses, lichens, fungi, ferns and seaweeds.
306. Into two classes: the endogenous and the exogenous.
307. The endogenous are those plants which increase from within, as grasses, sugar-cane, corn, etc. The exogenous are those which increase by coatings from without, as the trees of the forest, etc.
308. It is estimated that there are about 250,000 distinct plant species upon the earth. Less than half of these have been described by botanists.
309. The lichens, algæ and mosses.
310. Lichens cover the rocks in tropical deserts and in the regions of ice or snow. They are the most widely distributed class of plants. Algæ are sea and fresh water weeds, of the most varying forms and colors. Some attain an enormous size. One species, growing in the Straits of Magellan and near the Falkland Islands, is often 400 feet long. Mosses are also found in all zones, wherever moisture is abundant. In our forests they are quite common.
311. The palms. The tall and slender shaft rears on high its crown of shining, fan-like leaves. Some are nearly 200 feet high. They require a mean annual temperature of 78° to 82° Fahrenheit, and occur, therefore, chiefly in the hottest parts of the tropical zone.
312. Rice, bananas, bread-fruit, dates, cocoanuts, yams, cassava and sago.
313. Bananas are the fruits of tropical plants. This plant rises 15 or 20 feet high, with leaves six feet long and a foot broad. The fruit is four or five inches long, and an inch or more in diameter. They grow in large bunches, weighing fifty pounds or more. Bread-fruit is produced by the bread-fruit tree, which grows on the isles of the Pacific Ocean, of the size of the common apple tree. The fruit is of round or oval shape, as large as a small loaf of bread, which is eaten as food. Dates are a delicious fruit, produced by the date-palm of Asia and Africa. Cocoanuts are the fruits of the cocoa tree. These nuts hang in clusters of a dozen each on the top of the tree, and are bound together by tough, stringy filaments. Yams are roots resembling the potato, and are cultivated in a similar manner. Cassava is a kind of bread made from the roots of the cassava plant. Sago is obtained from the pith of several species of palm trees, which form entire forests in many of the Spice Islands. The pith is prepared into sago-
meal by mixing it with water and straining. A tree commonly yields from 300 to 500 pounds.

314. Wheat, potatoes, corn, rye, oats, and barley.
315. Cotton, hemp, and flax.
316. Pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and vanilla.
317. Tobacco, opium, betel, and haschish.
318. Opium is prepared from a species of poppy, and is very extensively used in China and Turkey. The betel plant is a climbing shrub, which grows in Hindostan and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The leaves are used by the natives as tobacco. Haschish is a powerful narcotic, obtained from a species of hemp-wort, and is used in India to produce intoxication.
319. That department of physical geography which treats of the divisions of the animal kingdom and its geographical distribution.
320. The animals found in any region of country are called its fauna.
321. As a rule, the luxuriance and diversity of animal life decreases as we pass from the Equator to the Poles. A similar decrease is noticed in passing from the coasts of the continents towards the interior.
322. In marine animal life it is the reverse ; both numbers and size of the species increase from the Equator to the Poles. This is probably due to the more equable temperature of the ocean in high latitudes.
323. Large bodies of water, deserts, or mountain ranges mark the boundaries of animals, as their physical condition in a great measure, draw the isothermal lines.
324. Man, and his faithful friend, the dog.
325. The distribution of heat, moisture and vegetation.
326. The physical condition of that country—its heat, moisture and vegetation, which are governed by its elevation, mountains, deserts, winds, and ocean currents.
327. The musk-deer and cashmere goat live in Thibit and other parts of High Asia. (The costly musk is formed in a gland about the size of a pigeon's egg.) The elephant lives in India, Ceylon, and the Eastern Archipelago.
328. Into four classes : vertebrates, mollusks, articulates, and radiates.
329. This division includes all animals which have an internal skeleton joined to the backbone. It comprises four classes : 1. Mammalia ; 2. Birds ; 3. Reptiles ; 4. Fishes.
330. Mollusks are animals of soft texture, and have no skeleton; as the oyster, snail, and mussel. Articulates are animals consisting of a number of joints or rings, soft or hard, supplying the place of a skeleton; as the lobster, worms, spiders, and insects. Radiates are so called because in many cases their organs are arranged like rays proceeding from a center. The coral and microscopic animals belong to this division.
331. They are the most perfect of the animal creation. They differ greatly in appearance and habits, but correspond in one particular of suckling their young. They number about 3,000 species.
332. Into eight classes : Quadrumana (four-handed), monkey, ape ; carnivora (flesh-eaters), bear, cat, dog ; Marsupialia (pouched), oppossum, kangaroo ; rodentia (gnawers), beaver, squirrel, rat ; edentata (toothless), sloth, armadillo ; pachydermata (thick-skinned), elephant, horse, hog ; ruminantia (chewing the cud), camel, ox, sheep ; marine mammalia, whale, dolphin, seal.
333. It treats of the varieties of the human race, their physical and intellectual characteristics, and their geographical distribution on the earth.
334. By a comparison of the different tribes and races of men we find the same general modification of types. The highest race will produce the same degraded forms of humanity as the lowest, there being no distinct species except that variety of modification produced by the enlightenment of man.
335. The Caucasian, Mongolian, and the Negro.
336. The Malay, or Brown Race ; the Australian, and the Indian, or Copper-colored.
337. The ever varying external conditions.
338. It is an exception to that observed in the lower orders of creation. The human family appears in its highest physical perfection, not within the Tropics, but in the Temperate Zones.
339. The White race seems to be the normal race from which the others have gradually deviated.
340. From the Aryans, a primitive people supposed to have lived in prehistoric times, in Central Asia, east of the Caspian Sea and north of the Hindu Koosh Moun-tains.

341. The Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic, Gaulic, Pelasgians, and the Northmen or Normans.

342. The Celts are an ancient race of people who formerly inhabited a great part of Central and Western Europe, and whose descendants at the present day occupy Ireland, Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, and the north-ern shores of France.

343. The Teutons were a people of ancient Germany and are now represented by the Germans, Dutch, and Saxons.

344. The Slaves were a people who anciently inhabited the country between the Rivers Save and Drave, and their descendants are people of Russia, Poland, Bulgaria, and Bohemia.

345. The people of France. This country was anciently known as Gaul.

346. The Pelasgians were the ancient people of Greece, but were largely supplanted by the conquests of the Hel-lenes, who now form the greater portion of the Greek ancestry.

347. The people of Norway and Sweden are descend-ants of that ancient race of Norsemen, who formerly occu-pied the northern portion of Europe. These people were a bold, hardy race who conquered large portions of Europe, establishing a powerful monarchy in England in the eleventh century, which, in a large measure, is the foun-dation of the present kingdom. At this time they were known as Normans.

348. The Saxons were an ancient people of the north-ern part of Germany, who, with other Teutonic tribes, conquered England in the fifth and sixth centuries. The people of England are largely descendants of this race, and all descendants of the English people are termed Anglo-Saxons, or English-Saxons.

349. From the Romans, Germans, and Normans.

350. A mixture of Celts, Romans, Germans and Arabs.
230 THE QUESTION BOOK.

351.
Aryan.
        Celtics.        { Irish.
                        { Welsh.
                        { Highlanders of Scotland.
        Teutonic.       { Germans.
                        { Saxons
                        { Dutch.
                        { The English or
                        { Anglo-Saxons.
        Slavonic.       { Russians.
                        { Polanders.
                        { Bulgarians.
                        { Bohemians.
        Gaulic.         { The people of France.
        Pelasgians      { The people of Greece.
        and
        Hellenes.
        Northmen        { Inhabitants of Northern Europe.
        or
        Normans.        { The Ancient Scandinavians.

The Huns were a wild and barbarous race of Tartars who overrun Europe in its early history, but were finally defeated and driven out, except in the province of Hungary. These people and the Turks do not trace to Aryan ancestry.

QUESTIONS  ON  ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. What is English Grammar?
2. What is the object of studying grammar?
3. What is language, strictly speaking?
4. What can you say of the composition, of language?
5. Into what parts is grammar divided?
6. Of what does pronunciation treat?
7. Define etymology.
8. Of what does syntax treat?
9. Of what does prosody treat?
10. What is the basis of grammar?
11. Of what does language consist?
12. How are words classified?
13. How are words distinguished?
14. By what general name are the different classes of words called?
15. What is a part of speech? How many?
16. How are nouns divided?
17. What is a collective noun?
18. What is an abstract noun?
19. What is a participial noun?
20. When does a proper noun become a common noun?
21. When does a common noun become proper?
22. What is the office of a pronoun?
23. What is the antecedent of a pronoun?
24. What is the subsequent of a pronoun?
25. What is the difference between the antecedent and the subsequent?
26. Into what classes are pronouns divided?
27. What is a personal pronoun? Name them.
28. Where are thou, thy, thine, thee and ye used?
29. In parsing, how are the pronouns, ours, yours, hers, theirs and mine disposed of?
30. What peculiarity about the pronoun it?
31. What is a compound personal pronoun?
32. What is a relative pronoun?
33. To what are the relatives who and which applied?
34. How is the relative what used?
35. When is as a relative pronoun? When is that?
36. What pronoun is used when the antecedent is supplied?
37. What are the compound relative pronouns?
38. What is an interrogative pronoun?
39. What is a responsive, or indirect interrogative pronoun?
40. What is an adjective pronoun? How many?
41. To what do distributive pronouns relate?
42. What is the difference between the demonstrative and indefinite pronouns?
43. What do the reciprocal pronouns denote?
44. How should either, neither, each other, and one another be used?
45. How should this and that be used?
46. What properties have nouns and pronouns?
47. When are objects personified?
48. In personified objects when is the masculine gender preferred?
49. When is the feminine gender preferred?
50. What are the methods of distinguishing the two sexes?
51. When and how are proper nouns made plural?
52. What class of nouns is generally used in the singular number? How may they be used in the plural?
53. When is a collective noun singular? When plural?
54. How are most nouns made plural?
55. What is the origin of the use of the possessive sign 's?
56. How are most compound words made plural?
57. How are the titles Mr., Mrs., Miss and Dr. made plural?
58. How is the plural of foreign nouns formed?
59. How are foreign words ending in a, us, um or on, is, x or ex changed to form the plural? Form the plural of the following words: Formula, larva, nebula, vertebra, focus, radius, sarcophagus, stimulus, phenomenon, datum, analysis, synthesis, axis, basis, crisis, emphasis, oasis, parenthesis, thesis.
60. How are letters and figures made plural?
61. How is the editorial we used?
62. What is enallage as used in grammar?
63. What is case? Name them.
64. When is a noun or pronoun used in the different cases?
65. When is a noun or pronoun used independently?
66. How is the possessive case denoted?
67. How can the possessive case be expressed without the apostrophe?
68. When are two terms in apposition? When is one predicated by the other? In what must these terms agree?
69. How is a compound term expressed in the possessive case?
70. When is a noun or pronoun in the same case as another?
71. In how many cases are compound personal pronouns used?
72. Decline who, which, what, and that.
73. When may that have two cases?
74. What is declension?
75. How are the articles the, a, and an used?
76. Why are a and an both called the indefinite articles?
77. When should a be used?
78. When should an be used?
79. What is an adjective?
80. How are the adjectives divided? Define each class.
81. Into what smaller classes are adjectives divided?
82. Define a common adjective.
83. Define a proper adjective.
84. What is a participial adjective?
85. What is a compound adjective?
86. What is a numeral adjective?
87. How are the numeral adjectives divided? Define them.
88. What is a pronominal adjective?
89. Into what classes are the pronominals divided?
90. What modifications have adjectives?
91. What is comparison? How many degrees?
92. Why is this called comparison?
93. Define the positive degree. Comparative. Superlative.
94. What parts of speech have comparison?
95. How are degrees below the positive expressed?
96. When should more or most in comparison be preferred?
97. What is the difference between comparison ascending and comparison descending?
98. When are adjectives redundant?
99. When adjectives of one syllable and those of several syllables come together, which are placed first and how are they compared?
100. Must adjectives always agree with their substantives in number?
101. When does an adjective become a noun?
102. What is a verb? A regular verb? An irregular verb?
103. What are the principal parts of a verb?
104. Why are these called the principal parts?
105. What is a redundant verb? A defective verb? A finite verb?
106. What parts of a verb are not finite?
107. What is a transitive verb? An intransitive verb?
108. When may a transitive verb become intransitive?
109. When may an intransitive verb become transitive?
110. What is a neuter verb?
111. What is a principal verb? An auxiliary verb?
112. Define a redundant verb.
113. Give examples of redundant verbs.
114. What properties have verbs?
115. Define voice, mode, tense.
116. What are the person and number of a verb?
117. When is a verb in the active or passive voice?
118. How is a verb in the active voice changed into the passive?
119. To what verbs does voice belong?
120. How many modes are there?
121. What does a verb in the indicative mode express? In the subjunctive? In the potential? In the imperative?
122. What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive modes?
123. How many tenses in each of the modes?
124. What are the signs of the tenses?
125. What are the forms of a tense?
126. How is the emphatic form of a verb expressed?
127. How is the passive form expressed? The progressive?
128. What is the ancient form?
129. How is a proposition made interrogative? How made negative?
130. When the subject consists of words differing in person, how is the form of the verb or pronoun determined?
131. What is an impersonal verb?
132. What properties have auxiliary verbs?
133. Which are auxiliary verbs?
134. Which are sometimes principal verbs?
135. When is it proper to use shall and should?
136. When is it proper to use will and would?
137. When are do, be and have principal verbs?
138. What stands as an answer to what? or when? of a transitive verb?
139. How will you determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive?
140. How many terms implied in a transitive verb?
141. How many terms implied in an intransitive verb?
142. What is a copulative verb?
143. What is the principal copulative verb?
144. What is the peculiarity of these copulative verbs?
145. What is an infinitive? How many?
146. How is the present infinitive formed, and what does it denote?
147. How is the perfect infinitive formed, and what does it denote?
148. When is to, the sign of the infinitive, omitted?
149. What is a participle? How many?
150. How is the present participle formed? What does it represent?
151. How is the perfect participle formed? What does it represent?
152. What voice have participles?
153. What is a compound participle?
154. What do being, having and having been express in relation to participles?
155. What are some of the chief particulars in which participles and infinitives agree? Some in which they differ?
156. What is the conjugation of a verb?
157. What is the inflection of a verb?
158. What is meant by the weak and the strong conjugation of verbs?
159. What is the theme of a verb?
160. What is a paradigm?
161. What is it to make a verb?
162. What is the synopsis of a verb?
163. What forms of a verb are called composite?
(a) Conjugate lie, to repose; lie, to speak falsely; dare, to venture; bear, to carry.
(b) Give the principal parts of the following verbs: drink, lay, rose, build, eat, sow, dive, gone, set, sit, get, bid, dig, slay, thrust, was.
(c) Give the synopsis of the verb eat, in the third person, singular number, indicative mode, passive voice.
(d) Give a synopsis of the verb run, in the first person, singular number, interrogative form, in the indicative and potential modes.
164. What is an adverb? How are most of them formed?
165. What is a conjunctive adverb?
166. Into what classes are adverbs divided?
167. What is the difference in the use of an adjective and an adverb?
(a) Classify the following adverbs: Now, much, more, so, well, here, whither, everywhere, to-morrow, forever, daily, enough, nearly, yesterday, aloud, hither, whence, forth, away, often, little, yet, too, nevertheless, together, to-day, yonder, out, somewhat.
168. How can we ascertain to what class adverbs belong?
169. What is a preposition? An adjunct? To what does an adjunct relate?
170. What may a substantive, governed by a preposition, be?
171. When does a preposition become an adverb?
172. What is a conjunction? Correlative connective?
173. What is the difference between analysis and synthesis?
174. What is parsing?
175. What is relation? Agreement? Government?
176. What is a sentence? Clause? Proposition? Phrase?
177. What is a declaratory sentence? Interrogatory? Imperative? Exclamatory?
178. What is a simple sentence? Compound? Complex?
179. What is the subject and predicate of a sentence?
180. What is the logical and grammatical subject and predicate of a sentence?
181. What is discourse? Of what may it treat?
182. What is a paragraph?
183. What is analysis based upon?
184. What are elements of sentences?
185. What must every proposition have?
186. What is a modifier? How many kinds?
187. By what may a noun and pronoun be modified?
188. By what may a verb be modified?
189. When an infinitive or participle is used as a noun, what modifiers do they take?
190. What parts of speech are never modified?
191. What kinds of words are connectives?
192. In the analysis of phrases, what forms are given?
193. What part of a sentence is considered the most important?
194. When may a subordinate element occupy the chief place?
195. What is a period in Grammar?
196. In what do all the errors of language consist?
197. What is a figure in grammar?
198. Name the figures of grammar.
199. What is a figure of orthography?
200. What is a figure of etymology?
201. What is a figure of syntax?
202. What is a figure of rhetoric?
203. How many, and what are the names of the most important figures of etymology?
204. What is aphæresis? Syncope? Apocope? Prosthesis? Paragoge? Tmesis? Diæresis? Synæresis?
205. What is ellipsis? Aposiopesis? Zeugma? Pleonasm?
206. What is a simile? Metaphor? Allegory? Synecdoche?
207. What is antithesis? Irony? Paralipsis? Hyperbole?
208. What is euphemism? Interrogation? Exclamation?
209. What is versification? Verse?
210. What is a foot?
211. What is rhyme? Blank verse?
212. What is a couplet? Stanza?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. The science of speaking and writing the English language correctly.
2. To be able to understand, speak, and write a language correctly.
3. Any method of communicating thought or feeling.
4. It is of two kinds, prose and verse.
5. Pronunciation, orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody.
6. Of the sounds of letters and syllables.
7. It treats of the different parts of speech, their derivation and modification.
8. Of the arrangement and relation of words in sentences.
9. Of versification, punctuation, figures and utterance.
10. The usage of the best authors.
11. Of sounds which, combined, form words which represent ideas.
12. They are classified :
As names of beings, places, or things.
As substitutes for names or facts.
As qualifiers or limiters of names.
To assert action, being, or condition.
To modify an assertion or a quality.
To express relations of things or of thought.
To introduce or connect words and sentences.
To express a sudden or intense emotion.
For rhetorical effect.
13. They are distinguished as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations, words of euphony.
14. They are known by the general name of Parts of Speech.
15. Classes of words, differing according to their usage and meaning.
16. Into proper and common; and the common are divided into collective, abstract and verbal.
17. One that denotes a collection.
18. The name of some quality of a substance.
19. A participle or infinitive used as a noun.
20. When it is used to denote a whole class; as, "The Washingtons of the world are few."
21. When personified, or used as a proper noun.
22. To avoid the repetition of nouns.
23. The word, phrase or clause which the pronoun represents.
24. Interrogatives or relatives of the interrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase contained in the answer, which is called the subsequent.
25. The antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in meaning; the former signifying going before, the latter following after.
26. Personal, relative, interrogative and adjective.
27. One which distinguishes the persons. *I*, *thou* or *you*, *he*, *she* and *it*, with their compounds and declined forms, are the personal pronouns.
28. In the Bible and addresses to the Deity, and frequently in poetry.
29. As these words are equivalent to a noun and pronoun, the parsing should correspond with the words which they represent.
30. The antecedent of *it* is sometimes considered lost, when the pronoun denotes merely the state or condition of things, or a point of time, or when it introduces a sentence and is explained; as, It rains. It is twelve o'clock. It was moonlight. It is mean to take advantage of another's distress. Some authors consider *it* in the above examples as having no antecedent, yet, if we observe closely there may be one somewhat remote; as, in the first example, we might use *clouds* for the antecedent; in the second example, shorn of his beams." "Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears.'
49. When the character of the object is noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or submission, as "Soon Peace shall come with all her smiling train." The earth, moon, and ship, when personified, are given the feminine gender.
50. By different words, different endings, and by a distinguishing word; as, father, mother; emperor, empress; man-servant, maid-servant.
51. When they refer to a class of the same character, they are made plural by adding s when it does not coalesce in sound, otherwise es; as, the Cherokees; the Napoleons; the twelve Cæsars.
52. The names of substances, actions, states, qualities, arts, sciences, and diseases, when they refer to the kind of thing; but when different kinds are meant they are plural; as, wine, wines, tea, teas; fever, fevers; religion, religions.
53. When the whole collection is regarded as one thing, it is singular, but plural when different collections are meant, or when it refers to the individuals composing the collection; as, army, armies; congregation, congregations; most people are eager to succeed.
54. By adding s to the singular; but those ending in i, o, u, y, and preceded by a consonant, and s, x, z, sh, and soft ch, add es.
55. It is the abbreviation of the old English ending es or is; the sign (') being called an apostrophe, because it indicates the omission of the e or i.
56. By making plural that part described by the rest; as, mouse-traps, cupfuls.
57. Mr., Dr. and Miss are made plural by annexations; as, Messrs., Drs., Misses. When the title is Mrs., or when a numeral stands before the title, the title is made plural; as, the Mesdames Brown, the two Misses Smith.
58. Most of them retain their foreign plural when used in the English language.
59. When the ending is a, it is changed to æ or ata, us is changed to i, um or on to a, is to es or ides, x, or ex to ces or cies.
60. By annexing 's.
61. To represent one person.
62. A change of words, or a substitution of one gender, number, case, person, tense, mode, or voice of the same word, for another.
63. The property of nouns and pronouns shows their relation to other words. They are nominative, possessive, and objective.
64. In the nominative when it is the subject of a verb; in the objective when it is the object of a verb or preposition; and in the possessive when it denotes possession.
65. By direct address. "John, your father is here." By exclamation, "Alas, poor Yorick!" By pleonasm or specification, "He that hath ears, let him hear."
66. By adding the apostrophe and s, except when the word ends in s, when the apostrophe only is added.
67. By using of, or by making the possessive word an adjective. "The death of Socrates." "Soldiers' Home."
68. When a verb joins the terms, one is predicated of the other; as, "He is president;" but when no verb joins them, the latter term is in apposition with the former; as, "Webster, the orator." These terms must agree in case.
69. It takes the possessive sign but once; generally at the end, or next to the name of what is owned. "The court-martial's decision." "Daniel Webster's oration."
70. When it denotes the same person or thing.
71. Only in the nominative and objective cases, and then they retain the same form.
72. Nominative who, possessive whose, objective whom; which and what have the same form in the nominative and objective, but borrow whose for their possessive. That is not declined.
73. When it is a relative, and equivalent to that which.
74. A regular arrangement of the grammatical properties of a noun or pronoun.
75. The is used to point out a particular one, object or class; while a or an is used to show that no particular one of a class is meant.
76. They have the same meaning, therefore, used in the same class. One is a later and the other an earlier form of the same word.
77. Whenever the next word begins with a consonant sound.
78. Whenever the next word begins with a vowel sound.
79. A word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun.
80. Into two chief classes: descriptive and definitive. The descriptive describes or qualifies; the definitive specifies or limits. 81. Into common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound.
82. The common adjective expresses quality.
83. A proper adjective is derived from a proper name.
84. A participle used as an adjective.
85. A compound word used as an adjective.
86. One that expresses number.
87. Into cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, and indefinite. The cardinals are one, two, etc.; the ordinals, first, second, etc.; the multiplicative, single, double; the indefinite, few, many.
88. One sometimes used as a pronoun.
89. The distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite.
90. Number and comparison.
91. A variation in the form of adjectives and adverbs to denote the different degrees of meaning. There are three degrees, positive, comparative and superlative.
92. To give a variation of the degree of expressions.
93. The positive expresses the quality of the adjective; the comparative expresses the quality in a higher or lower degree; the superlative expresses the quality in the highest or lowest degree.
94. Adjectives and adverbs.
95. Usually by adding less and least.
96. Usually with adjectives of more than two syllables, or those of two syllables that do not end in le or y.
97. One expands in volume of expression, or grows greater in its comparison, while the other decreases with the prefixes less and least.
98. When they have more than one form for its superlative, as, near, nearer, nearest or next.
99. The monosyllables are placed first, and all are compared by prefixing more and most; as, "The more nice and elegant parts."
100. Yes, although the substantive is not always expressed.
101. When it is used abstractly, or in place of a noun of which it expresses quality; as, the briny deep, the good.
102. A word used to state the act or state of the subject. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense by adding ed; an irregular verb does not add ed.
103. The present tense, past tense, present participial, and perfect participial.
104. By the means of these and the auxiliary verbs all the other parts of the verb can be formed.
105. A redundant verb is one that has more than one form for some of its principal parts. A defective verb is wanting in some of its principal parts. A finite verb predicates the act or state of its subject.
106. The infinitives and participles.
107. One that has or requires an object. An intransitive does not have or require an object.
108. When it is the chief design to set forth the act, and leave the object unknown. "She reads well."
109. In poetical expressions, in a causative sense, and in idiomatic expressions; as, to march armies, I laughed myself hoarse.
110. One that does not express action or state.
111. A principal verb expresses the chief act or state. An auxiliary verb helps other verbs to express their grammatical properties.
112. They are called redundant because they have more than one form for some of the modes and tenses.
113. Am or be, awake, bereave, bet, dig, dwell, lean, keep, hang, gild, kneel, hew, knit.
114. Voice, mode, tense, person and number.
115. Voice shows whether the subject does or receives the act. Mode is manner of assertion. Tense expresses time.
116. The form of the verb to agree with the subject.
117. In the active, when the subject acts, in the passive when it receives the act.
118. By using the object of a verb for the subject.
119. To transitive verbs only.
120. Four: indicative, subjunctive, potential and imperative. Some grammarians add the infinitive mode.
121. The indicative indicates or declares a fact. The potential expresses power, possibility, liberty, inclination, duty and necessity. The subjunctive expresses a wish, an uncertainty, or future contingency. The imperative commands or entreats.
122. The only difference is in the third person singular of two of the tenses, the present and the present-perfect.
123. Six in the indicative; three in the subjunctive—the present, past, and past-perfect; the potential, four—the present, present-perfect, past, and past-perfect; the imperative, one—the present tense.
124. In the indicative mode have is the sign of the present-perfect tense; had the sign of the past-perfect; shall or will, of the future; shall have or will have, of the future per- fect; the present or past tense is a verb in its simplest form, expressing present or past time. The signs of the present potential are may, can, must; of the present-perfect, may have, can have, must have; of the past, might, could, would, should; of the past-perfect, might have, could have, would have, should have. The three tenses of the subjunctive mode are the same in form as the indicative, except in the singular number of the present and past tense, which takes the plural form without variation. The imperative has the same form as the present indicative.
125. The different ways in which it can be expressed; as the common form, the emphatic, the progressive, the passive and solemn.
126. It denotes emphasis, and is expressed by do or did, as a part of the verb.
127. By combining the verb be, or some of its variations, with the perfect participle. The progressive form represents the continuation of the act or state, and is formed by combining the verb be, or some of its variations, with the present participle.
128. The old common form that is still used in the solemn style. It uses thou or ye, and has the ending t, st or est for the second person singular; th or eth for the third person singular.
129. By placing the verb, or part of it, before the nominative. It is made negative by placing not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary.
130. The first person is preferred to the second, and the second to the third. You, John and I are attached to our country. If the nominatives are taken separately, or connected by or or nor, the verb prefers the nominative next to it. He or I am to blame.
131. A verb having person and number without a subject; as, methinks, meseems.
132. Voice, mode, tense, person and number.
133. Be and its variations—do, did; can, could; have had; may, might, must; shall, should; will and would.
134. Be, or am, was, do and have.
135. When required to express a duty, command, determination, resolve; and in future propositions when the subject is of the first person and no reference is made to the will of the subject.
136. When the expression is of willingness, inclination or in future propositions, when the subject is of the second or third person, and no compulsion required.
137. When not combined with any other verb expressed or understood.

138. The object or complement of the transitive verb stands as an answer to the question what? or whom? with the verb.

139. By asking the question what? or whom? and if it will carry an answer relating to some particular thing it is transitive, but if it does not carry the subject to some termination it is intransitive.

140. It implies three terms—a subject, a predicate and an object.

141. It requires but two terms, a subject and a predicate.

142. One used to assert a condition of a subject; as, sugar is sweet. It is an incomplete verb using an adjective, noun or pronoun relating to the subject, and is often called a neuter verb.

143. It is to be and those belonging to this class, as, become, seem, appear, grow, feel, look, smell, taste, etc.

144. They imply in their meaning the verb to be; thus, become is really to come to be; appear is to be in appearance.

145. The form of the verb generally preceded by to, expressing an act or state without predicating it. There are two infinitives—the present and perfect.

146. By combining to with the simplest form of the verb, or to be with a simple participle.

147. By combining to have, or to have been, with a simple participle. It represents the completion of the act or state at the time referred to.

148. When the infinitive is combined with an auxiliary or after the active verbs bid, dare, let, make, need, see, hear, feel, and sometimes after have, help, please and find.

149. A word derived from a verb, participating in the properties of a verb and adjective, and is generally formed by adding ing, d or ed to the verb. There are two participles—the present and perfect.

150. By annexing ing to the simplest form of the verb, and represents the act or state as present and continuing at the time referred to.

151. By annexing ed to the simplest form of the verb, and it represents the act or state as completed at the time referred to.

152. The simple present participle of a transitive verb is nearly always in the active voice. The simple perfect participle of a transitive verb is either active or passive; it is in the active voice when have or any of its forms is combined with it; in the passive voice when it stands by itself, or when be in any of its forms is combined with it.
153. Being, having, or having been, combined with some other participle.
154. Being expresses the present passive participle; having expresses the perfect active participle; having been the perfect passive participle.
155. They have voice and tense, are annexed to auxiliary verbs, they partake of the nature of nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and when nouns they assume case. A participle may become an adjective, it may govern the possessive case, it may become concrete and assume number, it may be used after prepositions; but an infinitive has none of these attributes.
156. The regular arrangement of the modes, tenses, persons and numbers, and participles of verbs.
157. It is called its conjugation.
158. The weak conjugation is the regular formation of the verb, as, move, moved. The strong conjugation is its irregular formation, as, grow, grew, with the past participle ending in n or en.
159. The theme of the verb is that form which admits of the preposition to before it. It is the infinitive form of the verb.
160. A word given as a model by which to inflect other words.
161. To make a verb in grammar is to place a word in the position of a verb where it will carry the properties of an action.
162. An outline of its parts through the modes and tenses, in a single person and number.
163. Those which consist of auxiliaries combined with participles or infinitives.
164. A word used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb. The most of them are formed from adjectives by adding ly.
165. A word used to perform the office of a conjunction and adverb at the same time.
166. Into adverbs of time, place, degree and manner.
167. An adverb expresses manner, or describes the act; an adjective describes the object.
168. Adverbs of time answer to the questions: when? How long? How often? Adverbs of place answer to the
questions: Where? Whence? Adverbs of degree answer to the questions: How much? To what extent? In what degree? Adverbs of manner answer to the question: How?

169. A word used to show the relation between a fol- lowing noun or pronoun and some other word. An ad- junct is a preposition with its objects and modifiers, and may relate to a substantive, verb, adjective or adverb.

170. A noun, pronoun, infinitive, participial noun, and a clause.

171. When there is no word to govern; as, The eagle flew up, then around, then down again.

172. A word used to connect words, phrases or propo- sitions. A correlative connective is one of a separated pair that connect the same parts. Neither this nor that.

173. Analysis is the resolving of the whole into its parts. Synthesis is the combining of the parts to form the whole.

174. The resolving of a sentence into its parts, giving their properties and syntax.

175. The relation of words is their relation or connec- tion with one another; agreement is their similarity in per- son, number, gender, case, etc.; government is the power one word has over another.

176. A sentence is an assemblage of words making com- plete sense; a clause is a proposition that makes but part of a sentence; a proposition is a subject combined with its predicate; a phrase is two or more words, but not an entire proposition.

177. The declaratory expresses a declaration; the in- terrogatory asks a question; the imperative expresses a command or entreaty; the exclamatory expresses an excla- mation.

178. A simple sentence has but one proposition; a compound has two or more propositions; a complex has one principal clause, with one or more dependent clauses.

179. The subject is that of which something is said; the predicate is that which denotes what is said of the subject.

180. The grammatical subject and predicate are the subject and predicate words; the logical subject and predi- cate are these words with all their modifiers.

181. A train of thought expressed in language, and may be description, narration, science or philosophy.

182. A sentence or combination of sentences, completing a train of thought, and distinguished by a new begin-ning.
183. Three relations : the predicate relation, the adjective relation, and the adverbial relation.
184. Words, phrases and clauses.
185. A subject and predicate.
186. A dependent word, phrase or clause, used to limit or vary the meaning of some other word or expression, and may be an adjective or adverbial modifier.
187. By an article, adjective, a possessive, an appositive, a participle, an infinitive, phrases and clauses.
188. By an object, a predicate adjective, an adverb, a participle, an infinitive, phrases and clauses.
189. The infinitive takes only the modifiers of a verb ; the participle either those of a verb or noun.
190. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
191. Conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns, responsive pronouns, and the conjunctive adverbs.
192. Simple, complex, compound, mixed, and prepositional.
193. The beginning ; the next most important is the end.
194. When it is uppermost in the speaker's mind, or denotes what is most striking. " Out flew millions of flaming words." "By these we acquired our liberty."
195. A sentence so constructed that the meaning is suspended till the close.
196. In the improper arrangement of words, in the use of improper words, in the omission of words, and the use of unnecessary words.
197. A deviation from the ordinary form ; a construction or application of words, for the sake of brevity, force, or beauty.
198. They are the figures of orthography, of etymology, of syntax, and of rhetoric.
199. It is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word.
200. It is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word.
201. It is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words.
202. It is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words.
203. They are eight : aphæresis, syncope, apocope, prosthesis, paragoge, tmesis, diæresis, synæresis.
204. The shortening of a word by taking a letter or syllable from the beginning; as, 'gainst, there's. Syncope is the shortening of a word by taking a letter or a syllable from the middle; as, red'ning for reddening. Apocope is the shortening of a word by taking a letter or syllable from the end; as, th' for the. Prosthesis is the lengthening of a word by prefixing a syllable. Paragoge is the lengthening of a word by annexing a syllable. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound; as, on which side soever. Diaeresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into different syllables, usually marked thus, coöperate, aërial. Synæresis is the joining of two syllables into one, as, dost, loved, learned, for do-est, lov-ed, learn-ed.
205. Ellipsis is the omission of words, and elision the omission of letters. Aposiopesis is the leaving of something unsaid. Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones, when in strict syntax it can agree with only one of them. Pleonasm is the using of more words than the sense of syntax absolutely requires.
206. A comparison expressed. A metaphor is a comparison implied. "Life is an isthmus between two eternities." An allegory is a fictitious story about one thing, which is designed to teach some moral or practical wisdom about another. Synecdoche is the name of a part applied to the whole, or that of the whole applied to a part.
207. A contrast: "Virtue ennobles, vice debases." Irony is the sneering use of words with a contrary meaning. Paralipsis is the pretended omission or concealment of what is meant. "I will not call him a villain, for it would be unparliamentary." Hyperbole is exaggeration.
208. A softened mode of speech for what would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest language. An appeal in the form of a question to strengthen a statement. An abrupt mode of speech, designed to express more strongly the emotions of the speaker.
209. The art of making verse. Verse is the musical arrangement of words, according to some regular accent.
210. A foot is two or more syllables, constituting a portion of a line.
211. The similarity of sounds between the endings of poetic lines. Blank verse is verse without rhyme.
212. Two poetic lines that usually rhyme together. A stanza is a regular division of the poem, and consists of three or more poetic lines with complete rhymes.

QUESTIONS  ON  LETTER WRITING.

1. What five important things are to be considered in writing a letter ?
2. Of what does the heading consist?
3. What important things should be considered in giving the name of the place ?
4. Of what does the date consist ?
5. How should the heading be written ?
6. How capitalize and punctuate the heading?
(Properly write the heading for the following :)
(a) Caldwell; Ap. 1887. 1. Box 41. Wis.
(b) Ann Arbor 5 July 1820 Michigan.
(c) P. O. Box 2678 1860 Oct. 4 Chicago.
(d) Saint Nicholas New York 1 Hotel Nov. 1855.
(e) Philadelphia 670 1850 Chestnut St. 16 Apr.
7. Of what does the introduction consist?
8. What are the common titles in use, and to whom should they be applied ?
9. What is the most approved form of addressing the President?
10. If two literary or professional titles are added to a name, in what order should they be written ?
11. Name the order of some of these common titles.
12. How address the salutations ?
13. How commence the address of a letter?
14. Where begin the salutation ?
15. How punctuate the salutation ?
16. Where commence the body of the letter ?
17. How should business letters be composed?
18. What should be the character of official letters and formal notes.
19. How draw the conclusion?
20. What can be said about the signature?
21. Where commence the first word of the conclusion?
22. What is the superscription?
23. How address an envelope and stamp it?

FORM OF LETTER WRITING.

MILWAUKEE, Wis., April 14, 1887.
Wm. A. Gault,
Caldwell,
Wis:
My Dear Sir :—Yours of the 10th received. I am surprised to hear of the failure of Mr. B, and will meet you as requested at Mukwonago, on the 18th inst.

Yours respectfully,
JAMES GILMORE.

FORM OF ENVELOPE.

Stamp.
Mr. Wm. A. Gault,
Caldwell,
Wis.
Racine Co. dent, Governor, or Embassador; Hon. to the name of a Cabinet Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator, Judge and Mayor.
9. To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C. The salutation would simply be, Mr. President.
10. In the order in which they were conferred.
11. A. M., Ph. D., D. D., LL. D. The higher implies the lower, and great care should be taken to guard against an excessive use of these titles.
12. They vary according to the station of the one addressed, or the degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, etc.; acquaintances as Dear Sir, Dear Madam; friends, as My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Jones; near relatives and dear friends, as My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc.
13. Commence the address on the next line below the heading, at the left side of the page, and if it contains more than one line it should be spaced as in the heading. If the letter is of an official character or is written to a very intimate friend, the address may be placed at the bottom of the letter.
14. It should begin a little to the right of the address, unless the address is written below.
15. Every important word should begin with a capital letter, and the whole followed by a comma, or a comma and a dash, as, Dear Sir,—.
16. If the introduction is long, begin the body of the letter on the same line with the salutation, or below the line if the introduction is short.
17. They should be brief, and the sentences short, concise, and to the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing needful.
18. They should be more stately and ceremonious. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second, and there is no introduction, no conclusion, no signature:
Mr. & Mrs. F.
request the pleasure of Mr. K.'s company
at a social gathering
on
Tuesday evening, May 17th,
at 8 o'clock.
25 Kimball Ave., May 5th.
(Ans.) Mr. K. accepts with pleasure Mr. & Mrs. F.'s kind invitation for Tuesday evening, May 17th. Monday morning, May 9th.

19. The conclusion consists of the complimentary close, and the signature. The forms are many and varied according to the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship use, Your sincere friend, Yours affectionately, Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters, Yours, Yours truly, Yours respectfully, Very respectfully yours. In official letters, I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, Your most obedient servant, etc.
20. It should consist of the christian name and surname. In addressing a stranger write the christian name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should prefix to her signature her title, Mrs. or Miss, placing it within the marks of parenthesis, as, (Miss), unless in her writing she has indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply.
21. It should commence near the middle of the first line below the body of the letter and spaced according to the number of lines occupied, like the heading and address.
22. It is the address on the envelope.
23. The address should begin just below the middle of the envelope and near the left edge. The spacing should slope to the right as in the heading and the last line near the lower right-hand corner. The name and title should occupy the first line; if in a city, the door-number and name of street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the State on the fourth. In the country the name of the county may be written below the post-office address, or in the lower left-hand corner. Every line should end with a comma except the last, which should be followed by a period. Care should be taken to write plainly and in a straight line. The stamp should be placed in the upper right-hand corner.

QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOËPY AND PHONOLOGY.

1. What is Orthography?
2. Define Orthoëpy.
3. What is Phonology?
4. What is sound? How are sounds classified?
5. What are tones? What are noises?
6. What is a letter?
7. What are elementary sounds?
8. How many elementary sounds in the English language? How divided?
9. Are all of these elementary sounds distinct and true elements of our language?
10. How many true elements in our language?
11. How are these sounds produced?
12. What are the organs of speech?
13. How is voice produced?
14. What are the organs of voice?
15. What is the difference between voice and speech?
16. Describe the organs of voice separately.
17. What are the vocal chords?
18. What is the glottis? The epiglottis? What is inspiration, or inhalation? What is expiration?
19. What peculiar formation has the tongue?
20. Describe the palate. The nasal passages.
21. What connection has the ear with the production of voice?
22. How is speech produced? 23. How are the letters divided ?
24. What are vowels ? Consonants ?
25. How are the consonants divided ?
26. What is a mute? Name them.
27. What is a semivowel ? Name them.
28. What divisions are formed from the semivowels ?
29. What are the subvocal ? Which of the elementary sounds are represented by them ?
30. What are aspirates ? What sounds do they represent ?
31. Name the combinations of the consonants.
32. In the formation of the consonant sounds, how many classes are given them ?
33. How are the labials formed ? Name them.
34. How are the dentals made ? Name them.
35. What are the linguals ? How many ?
36. How many palatals, and how made ?
37. Why is the letter h not included in these divisions ?
38. What are cognates?
39. How do we analyze words ?
40. How is th aspirate distinguished from th subvocal ?

[The following table exhibits the properties of the consonants, and should be committed to memory for use in analyzing words.]

b is a consonant, mute, labial, subvocal.
d is a consonant, mute, lingual, subvocal.
f is a consonant, semivowel, labial, aspirate.
g hard is a consonant, mute, palatal, subvocal.
h is a consonant, semivowel, aspirate.
j is a consonant, semivowel, dental, subvocal.
k, g, and c hard, consonant, mute, palatal, aspirate.
l is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal.
m is a consonant, semivowel, labial, subvocal.
n is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal.
p is a consonant, mute, labial, aspirate.
r is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal.
s and c soft, consonant, semivowel, dental, aspirate.
t is a consonant, mute, lingual, aspirate.
v is a consonant, semivowel, labial, subvocal.
w is a consonant, semivowel, labial, subvocal.
y is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal.
z is a consonant, semivowel, dental, subvocal.
ch is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, aspirate.
th is a consonant, semivowel, lingual, subvocal.
ch is a consonant, semivowel, dental, aspirate.
sh is a consonant, semivowel, dental aspirate.
zh is a consonant, semivowel, dental, subvocal.
wh is a consonant, semivowel, labial, aspirate.
ng is a consonant, semivowel, palatal, subvocal.

[In analyzing words, the properties of the letters given in the table above can always be applied to the same letter, in whatever word it may be found, except silent and substituted letters.]

[The following is an approved plan for analyzing the letters of any word:]

SHRINE—Monosyllable.
sh—cons., semi., den., aspr., antecedent to its vowel i.
r—cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel i.
i—vowel, long sound.
n—cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel i.
e—vowel, silent.
VEIL—Monosyllable.
v—cons., semi., lab., sbv., antecedent to its digraph ei.
ei—digraph, substitute for long a.
l—cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its digraph ei.
PHRENSY—Dissyllable.
ph—subs. for f, cons., semi., lab., aspr., antecedent to its vowel e.
r—cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel e.
e—vowel, short sound.
n—cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel e.
s—subs. for z, cons., semi., dent., sbv., antecedent to its vowel y.
y—vowel, substitute for i, short sound.
MACHINE—Dissyllable.
m—cons., semi., lab., sbv., antecedent to its vowel a.
a—vowel, long sound.
ch—subs. for sh, cons., semi., den., aspr., antecedent to its vowel i.
i—vowel, subs for e, long sound.
n—cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel i.
e—vowel, silent.
ECHO—Dissyllable.
e—vowel, short sound.
ch—subs. for k, cons., mute., pal., aspr., consequent to its vowel e.
o—vowel, long sound.
ROSE—Monosyllable.
r—cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel o.
262 THE QUESTION BOOK.

o—vowel, long sound.
s—cons., semi, dent., aspr., consequent to its vowel o.
e—vowel, silent.
REPUBLICAN—Polysyllable.
r—cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel e.
e—vowel, long sound.
p—cons., mute, labial, aspr., antecedent to its vowel u.
u—vowel, short sound.
b—cons., mute, labial, sbv., consequent to its vowel u.
l—cons., semi., ling., sbv., antecedent to its vowel i.
i—vowel, short sound.
c—subs. for k, cons., mute, pal., aspr., antecedent to its vowel a.
a—vowel, short sound.
n—cons., semi., ling., sbv., consequent to its vowel a.

The plan of the above example should be carefully examined, and the table on page 260 should be studied so thoroughly, that the properties of all the consonants can be given without any hesitation. A little practice is required, after which any word can be analyzed readily.

The following are test words for analyzing : People, guard, jewel, avoirdupois, due, grammar, contradictory, nephew, phosphorus, arduous, was, alien, quartz, century, lungs, wrangle, ascension, special, free, buy, ride, chuck, debt, sovereign, rhetoric, rhinoceros, column, calf, isle, knife, weight, neigh, daisy.

For further practice let the student take any exercise in the spelling book, or any sentence which he may see or think of.

41. How are the elementary sounds divided ?
42. How many sounds have each of the vowels ?
43. According to this classification of elementary sounds, how many letters would be required to form a full alphabet ?
44. How is this deficiency filled ?
45. What names are given to the symbols which represent the different sounds ?
46. Of all the elementary sounds, which represent the purest product of the human voice ?
47. What can be said of all other vocals and subvocals ?
48. What is a diphthong ?
49. How many diphthongs are there ?
50. How many sounds are represented by these diphthongs ?
51. What is a digraph? Triphthong?
52. What are the elements of which orthoepy treats?
53. What is a syllable?
54. What is a word?
55. What are the words of one, two, three, four or more syllables called?
56. What is essential in every syllable?
57. By what is the principal sound in every syllable produced?
58. To what does every consonant belong?
59. When is a consonant antecedent or consequent to a vowel?
60. What is syllabication?
61. What is the guide for arranging words into sylla-bles?
62. How may words be divided at the ends of the lines?
63. Why are words divided into syllables?
64. When is the hyphen used?
65. When two vowels come together, how are they disposed of in syllabication?
66. When is one letter a substitute for another?
67. What properties does a substituted letter assume?
68. Which letters have no substitutes?
The following table contains a list of the substitutes of the elementary sounds:
A long has two substitutes : ei and ey, as in weight and they.
A short has no substitutes.
A circumflex has one substitute : e, as in there.
A broad has one substitute: o, as in for.
E long has one substitute: i, as in machine.
E short has two substitutes : a and u, as in says and bury.
I long has one substitute : y long, as in rhyme.
I short has four substitutes : y, e, u, and o, as in hymn, England, busy, and women.
O long has two substitutes : eau and ew, as in beau and sew.
O short has one substitute : a, as in what.
U long has one substitute : ew, as in new.
U short has three substitutes : e, i, and o, as in her, stir, and son.
U circumflex has one substitute: o, as in wolf and wool.
F has two substitutes : ph and gh, as in philosophy and rough.
85. When is p silent?
86. When is t silent?
87. When is w silent?
88. When is gh silent?
89. In what words is ch silent?
90. In what words is s silent?
91. Is m ever silent?
92. In how many ways are words designated?
93. What is a simple word? Compound?
94. What is a primitive word?
95. What is a derivative word?
96. What is a prefix? Suffix? Root?
97. Under what circumstances is a word primitive which is formed by the addition of prefixes or suffixes?
98. Give the general rules for spelling?
99. After ascertaining the syllabication of a word what is next to be observed?
100. When two accents occur in the same word which usually precedes the other?
101. Do words ever have more than two accents?
102. What is the rule for accent of a word of two syllables?
103. What applies to compound words?
104. What is the rule where words change their parts of speech from verbs to nouns or adjectives?
105. Where is the accent when words end in sion or tion?
106. Words ending in ical or acal, place the accent on what syllable?
107. What is a final letter?
108. What is the power of a letter?
109. What does the difference of accent sometimes serve to do?
110. Name and define the kinds of spelling.
111. What is phonetic spelling?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY, ORTHOËPY AND PHONOLOGY.

1. It treats of correct spelling, and the nature and power of letters.
2. The art of a correct pronunciation of words.
3. The science of uttering the elementary sounds.
4. The sensation produced upon the auditory nerve by vibration of the air or other conducting media. They are classified as tones and noises.
5. Tones are harmonious sounds which are pleasing to the ear. Noise is a sound without any regularity of production and is devoid of the harmony of tones.
6. A character used to represent an elementary sound.
7. Distinct sounds, from which all of the words of our language are formed.
8. Forty-five*. They are divided into three classes : vowels, subvocals, and aspirates.
9. They are not true and distinct, as many of them are similarly formed, but they are as near the requirements of a pure articulation as Phonetists have been able to devise.
10. On this question Phonetists have not united on any definite satisfaction, as this science is capable of being so minutely construed that only experts can detect the variation. Webster gives forty-five.
11. By the organs of speech, with the breath.
12. The principal ones are the lips, teeth, tongue, palate and nasal passages.
* Some authors give 43, some 41, and divide them into tonics, subtonics, and atonics.
13. By the action of the breath on the larynx.
14. They are the lungs, diaphragm, intercostal muscles, bronchi and trachea, larynx and pharynx.
15. Voice is tone produced by the action of the breath on the larynx, while speech is the modulation of the voice to express thought, and may be given in a whisper.
16. For description of the organs of voice see question on Physiology.
17. They are the special vocal apparatus, and consist of two ligaments or bands of fibrous tissue situated within the larynx.
18. For definition see Physiology.
19. It consists of a mass of muscular fibers so arranged as to admit of motion in every direction or several directions at once.
20. The palate is the roof of the mouth continuing backward, where it becomes a yielding, muscular membraneous awning, separating the mouth from the nasal passages and the upper part of the pharynx.
21. The ear receives the productions of the voice and by the communication of the auditory nerves with the brain it is understood.
22. By the action of the diaphragm and other muscles the breath is forced from the lungs through the bronchi and trachea into the larynx, where it comes into contact with the vocal cords, which being called into action, produce a vibration and by the resonating of the pharynx and other cavities, is communicated to the external air, and at length falls as a tone upon the listening ear.
23. Into vowels and consonants.
24. Vowels are letters that denote pure tones; consonants are letters that represent the subvocal or aspirate sounds.
25. They have three divisions formed from the whole: as single letters and combinations; mutes and semivowels; subvocals and aspirates.
26. A letter which admits of no escape of breath while the organs of speech are in contact. The mutes are b, p, d, t, k, c and g hard.
27. A letter which, in pronouncing, admits of an escape of breath. The semivowels are all the consonants except the mutes.*
* The difference between the mutes and semivowels, is that the organs of speech are more closely united in pronouncing the mutes than the semivowels. ā, ă, â, ä, ȧ, ạ, as in ale, add, air, arm, ark, all.
ē, ĕ, ẽ, as in eve, end, verge.
20 ī, ĭ, as in ice, ill.
vowel ō, ŏ, as in old, odd.
sounds ōō, ŏŏ, as in moon, wool.
ū, ŭ, û, as in use, up, urge.
ou, as in out.
oi, as in oil.
SUBVOCALS :
b, d, g, j, l, as in bet, dot, get, jet, lid.
25 m, n, ñ, r, th, as in mit, not, finger, rat, that,
conso- v, w, y, z, zh, as in vat, woe, yet, buzz, azure.
nant ASPIRATES :
sounds p, t, k, h, as in pet, tin, kit, hat.
ch, th, f, wh, as in chin, thin, fat, when.
s, sh, as in sin, shot.
43. It would require forty-five.
44. By giving to some letters more than one sound.
These sounds are represented by marks or symbols.
The Macron -
The Breve ˘
Vowel The Circumflex ^
marks. The Tilde, or Wave ~
Two Dots ¨
One Dot •
Consonant The Bar -
marks. The Dotted Bar .-
The Cedilla ,
46. Italian a, as in ah.
47. All others are considered modifications of this tone, as they require some portion of it.
48. A union of two vowel sounds in the same syllable.
49. Four : ou, ow, oi, oy.
50. Two: ou and ow represent the same sound, and are called inseparable diphthongs, because they cannot be separated into two distinct vowel sounds; oi and oy represent one sound, and are called separable diphthongs, because their sounds can be separated into broad a and short i.
To test the separable diphthongs, spell by sound the words oil and boy, using broad a and short i in each, and pronounce in quick succession.
51. A digraph is the union of two vowels in the same syllable, one of which is silent. A triphthong is the union
of three vowels in the same syllable, two of which are silent.
52. Articulation, syllabication, and accent.
53. A letter or combination of letters, uttered by one emission of the voice.
54. A syllable or combination of syllables representing some thought or idea.
55. Monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables.
56. A vowel.
57. By the vowel, except in unaccented syllables with e as the vowel sound.
This may be observed in the careless manner in which many pupils spell such words as table, label, center, etc. In these words the vowel is not as distinct as the consonant sounds.
58. Unless it is silent, every consonant in a word belongs to some vowel or diphthong.
59. When it precedes the vowel in the same syllable, it is antecedent to it; when it follows in the same syllable, it is consequent to it.
60. Dividing words into syllables.
61. They must be arranged exactly as they are heard in correct pronunciation.
62. Between the syllables.
63. To assist in the pronunciation of words.
64. Between compound words when first formed or when little used; between syllables and the ends of lines; and between syllables for the purpose of instruction.
65. Unless it should be a diphthong, two syllables must be formed, or they may be used together with one vowel silent.
66. When it has the sound that another letter usually represents.
67. Those of the letter which it represents.
68. By b, d, g, h, l, m, n, p, r, th, and wh.
69. When it begins a syllable and is immediately followed by a vowel sound; as in alien.
70. When it is preceded by g or s, and immediately followed by a vowel sound, it is a consonant and a substitute for w, as in language.
71. When it represents the sound of i. Formerly w was called a vowel when it represented the sound of u, but as it cannot form a syllable either alone or in connection with consonants, as all the other vowels do, it is proper to deny it the name of a vowel.
72. To modify the sounds of other letters.
73. F, j, q, r, x, v, z.
74. C, x, and q.
75. When another vowel precedes it in the same sylla-ble; as in made, grape, ice, bride.
76. Two syllables would be formed for one.
77. Before t or after m in the same syllable; as in comb, tomb, debt, subtle.
78. Before k in the same syllable; as in back, rack, luck. It is also silent in czar, indict, muscle, victuals, and a few others.
79. Before g in the same syllable; as in bridge, pledge.
80. Before m or n in the same syllable; as in phlegm, gnat, malign, design.
81. After g or r in the same syllable; as in ghost, rhyme, rheumatism; when it is final, following a vowel; as in oh, ah, Jehovah; when it is initial it is silent in a few words, as in herb, heir, honest, hour; in asthma, phthisis, isthmus, Thomas, Thames, it follows t and is silent.
82. Before n in the same syllable; as in knife, knee.
83. After a when followed by f, m, k, or v, in the same syllable (except valve); as in folks, half, palm, stalk, salve. L is also silent in could, would, and should.
84. After l and m; as in kiln, solemn.
85. When it is initial and before n, s, or t; as in psalm, pneumonia, psalter.
86. Before ch in the same syllable; as in notch, latch. It is also silent in Christmas, eclat, mortgage, and a few others.
87. Before r in the same syllable; as in wrap, wreck. In whole, sword, whoop, answer and two it is silent.
88. After i in the same syllable; as in fright, neigh; after au and ou; as in aught, ought, bought, slaughter, and through.
89. In yacht, schism, and drachm.
90. In corps, isle, island, puisne, viscount, and belles-lettres.
91. In the word mnemonic or mnemonics.
92. In two ways: first, as simple or compound; second, as primitive or derivative.
93. One that is not composed of two or more whole words; a compound word is composed of two or more sim-ple ones.
94. One that is derived from no other word.
95. One formed from a primitive by means of prefixes or suffixes.
96. A letter or letters joined to the beginning of a word is called a prefix; when added to the end of a word, a suffix; and the root is the chief word without prefix or suffix.
97. Whenever the meaning of the word is radically changed by the addition of prefixes or suffixes; as in re-proof, in which the meaning of neither re or proof is retained.
In forming derivatives by means of suffixes, something more is required than merely to write the parts together as one word. Thus, if we desire to affix the suffix ed to the word suffer, we have only to unite, without change, the suffix with the radical; as suffered. If we take prefer, a change must be made by doubling the final letter r; as preferred. This and other changes of like nature are made, for the most part, in strict accordance with known rules. These rules should be committed to memory by repeated illustrations in order to fully understand when and how to apply them.
98. RULES FOR SPELLING.
RULE I.—The final e of a radical word is rejected when the suffix commences with a vowel, except words ending in ce or ge. Moving, salable, pleasure, peaceable, courageous.
RULE II.—The final e of a radical word is generally retained when the suffix commences with a consonant; as, hopeless, movement.
In abridge, acknowledge, argue, awe, due, judge, lodge, true, and whole, silent e is not retained.
RULE III.—Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonants before a suffix that begins with a vowel; as, baggage, spotted, beginner.
RULE IV.—The final consonant, when not preceded by a single vowel, or when the word is not accented on the last syllable, remains single upon the addition of a suffix; as, spoiling, suffered, toiling, visiting.
RULE V.—The final y of a radical word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i upon the addition of a suffix; as happiness, trial, storied. In a few instances y is changed into e before ous and its compounds; as, beauteous, beauteously.
RULE VI.—The final i of a radical word is omitted when the suffix begins with i; as, alkali, alkalize. Rule VII.—The final *y* of a radical word when preceded by a vowel, or when the suffix begins with *i*, remains unchanged; as, buyer, glorying.
Rule VIII.—Words ending in *f* or *fe*, commonly change *f* into *v*, when a suffix is added beginning with a vowel; as, wives, mischievous.
Rule IX.—Words ending in *le*, preceded by a consonant, drop these letters upon receiving the suffix *ly*; as, ably, idly.
Rule X.—Words ending in *ble*, before the suffixes *ity* and *ities*, take *i* between the letters *b* and *l*; as, ability, abilities.
Rule XI.—Words ending in *er* or *or* often drop the *e* or *o* before a suffix commencing with a vowel; as, victrix, wondrous.
Rule XII.—Monosyllables ending in *f*, *l* or *s*, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant; as staff, spell, mill—except *if*, of, as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus.
Rule XIII.—Words ending in any other consonants than *f*, *l* or *s*, do not double the final letter—except add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, bun, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz.
The following is a list of prefixes, with their signifi-cations:
A signifies on, in, at, to; as, abroad, abed, avert.
AB signifies from; as, absolve, to free from.
AD, AC, AF, AG, AL, AN, AP, AR, AT, signify to; as, adjoin; to join to.
Accredit, to give credit to.
Affix, to fix to.
Agglutinate, sticking to.
Allure, entice to.
Annex, join to.
Append, hang to.
Arrange, range to.
Attune, tune to.
ALL, AL, signify WHOLLY; as, all-just, wholly just.
Already, wholly, or completely ready.
All, when not separated from the radical by a hyphen, rejects one *l*.
ANTI, ANT, signify against; as antipathy, a feeling against.
Antarctic, opposite to the *arctic*.
ANTE signifies before; as, antecedent, going before.
BE signifies near; as, beside, near, or by the side of.
BI signifies two; as, bifold, twofold.
CIRCUM signifies around; as, circumnavigate, to sail around.
CON, COM, CO, COL, COR, signify with; as, conjoin, to join with. Commix, to mix with. Coequal, equal with. Collect, to place with or together. Correlative, relating with.
CONTRA, COUNTER, signify opposite; as, Contradance, a dance opposite. Counterview, a view opposite.
DE signifies from; as, depart, to depart from.
DEMI signifies half; as, demi-wolf, half-wolf.
DIA signifies through; as, diameter, the measure through.
DI, DIS, signify two; as, Ditone, an interval of two tones. Dissyllable, a word of two syllables.
DIS also signifies not or un; as, dissimilar, not similar, disband, unband.
E, EX, EC, EF, signify out; as, Emigrate, to move out. Export, to carry out of port. Eccentric, out of, or deviating from the center. Effluent, flowing out.
EXTRA signifies beyond; as, extravagant, going beyond.
EQUI signifies equal; as, equidistance, at an equal dis-tance.
EN, EM, signify in; as, Enclose, to close in. Embroil, to put in a broil or tumult.
EU signifies well or agreeable; as, euphony, agreeable sound.
HEX signifies six; as, hexangular, six angles.
HYPER signifies over; as, hypercritical, over-critical.
IN, IM, IG, IL, IR, signify not or in; as, Incomplete, not complete. Imprudent, not prudent. Illegible, that can not be read. Ignoble, not noble. Irregular, not regular.
INTRO signifies within; as, introspection, looking within.
INTER signifies between; as, intervene, to come between.
JUXTA signifies next; as, juxtaposition, placed next.
MAL signifies bad; as, malpractice, bad practice.
MIS signifies wrong; as, misguide, to guide wrong.
MONO signifies one; as, monosyllable, one syllable.
MULTI signifies many; as, multiform, having many forms. NON signifies not ; as, non essential, not essential.
OCT signifies eight ; as, octangular, eight-angled.
OMNI signifies all ; as, omnipotent, all powerful.
OUT signifies beyond ; as, outrun, to run beyond.
OVER signifies above ; as, overshoot, to shoot over.
OVI signifies an egg ; as, oviform, egg-shaped.
PER signifies by ; as, perchance, by chance.
PERI signifies around; as, perimeter, the measure around.
PAR, PARA, signify from; as, parody, an ode or song which is an alteration from another. parasol, a small canopy to shield from the sun.
PEN signifies almost ; as, peninsula, almost an island.
PLENI signifies full ; as, plenipotent, full of power.
POLY signifies many ; as, polysyllable, many syllables.
POST signifies after ; as postpone, to place after or put off.
PRE signifies before ; as, prejudge, to judge beforehand.
PRETER signifies beyond ; as, preternatural, beyond the natural.
PRO signifies for ; as, pronoun, for a noun.
PROTO signifies first ; as, protomartyr, the first martyr.
QUAD signifies four ; as, quadrangle, four-angled.
RE signifies again ; as, review, to view again.
RECT, RECTI, signify right or straight ; as, rectangle, right angle. rectilinear, straight-lined.
RETRO signifies back ; as, retrograde, to go backwards.
SEMI, DEMI, HEMI, signify half, as, semicircle, half a circle. demitone, half a tone. hemisphere, half a sphere.
STEREO signifies solid ; as, stereotype, solid type.
SUB, SUC, SUF, SUG, SUP, SUBTER, signify under ; as, subcommittee, under committee. succeed, to follow after. suffix, to fix after. suggest, to put under notice. suppress, to press under. subterfluous, flowing under.
SUPER, SUR, signify over or more ; as, superhuman, more than human. surcharge, overcharge.
SUS signifies up ; as, sustain, to hold up.
SE signifies apart; as, secede, to go apart.
SINE signifies without; as, sine die, without a day.
SYM signifies with ; as, sympathy, with feeling.
TRANS signifies across ; as, transatlantic, across the At-lantic.
ULTRA signifies beyond ; as, ultramontane, beyond the mountains.
UN signifies not; as, unwise, not wise.
WITH signifies against; as, withstand, to stand against.
The following table contains the simple suffixes with their definitions, and words to illustrate them. For want of space a full analysis of the words cannot be given, but the student can supply the want by giving a complete definition of the suffixes and primitive words combined.
(a) Ize, tize, ze, ise, se, ish, fy, ify, en, e, ate, iate, uate, cate, icate, ite, signify to make, to give, to put upon or into; as civilize, stigmatize, glaze, criticise, cleanse, establish, satisfy, justify, soften, breathe, maturate, ampliate, actuate, impli-cate, duplicate, unite.
(b) Ing, ant, ent, ient, signify continuing to; as, watering, dormant, pendent, sufficient.
(c) ed signifies did; as, preferred, did prefer.
(d) Ate, ite, en, signify made, made of or like, possessed of; as, globate, erudite, silken.
(e) Ant, ent, ate, ite, ast, ist, ado, ard, on, oso, ar, ary, iary, er, ee, eer, ier, or, ive, ster, ner, yer, zen, isan, an, ian, tain, signify one, who, a person; as, servant, president, collegiate, favorite, encomiast, botanist, desperado, dotard, glutton, virtuoso, beggar, adversary, incendiary, payer, payee, charioteer, cannonier, executor, executive, teamster, part-ner, lawyer, citizen, artisan, veteran, grammarian, chief-tain.
(f) Ess, ix, ine, ago, signify a female; as, lioness, media-trix, heroine, virago.
(g) Ity, ety, ty, cy, ce, ice, ude, tude, itude, ness, t, th, mony, signify the quality or state of being, the thing which or that which; as, publicity, variety, novelty, privacy, opu-lence, justice, quietude, plentitude, exactitude, meekness, restraint, truth, sanctimony.
(h) Ion, ment, ament, iment, ure, iure, ature, iture, al, ade, signify the act of; that which; as, erection, ejectment, armam-nt, impediment, pressure, mixture, signature, expenditure, refusal, cannonade.
(i) Al, eal, ial, ual, ern, urn, iac, ic, tic, atic, etic, id, an, ean, ian, ane, ine, ile, eth, th, ar, ary, iary, uary, signify per-taining, belonging, or relating to; as, central, corporeal, dictatorial, habitual, southern, taciturn, demoniac, patriotic, dyspeptic, emblematic, dietetic, stupid, Roman, marmo-
rean, Newtonian, mundane, crystalline, infantile, fortieth, tenth, columnar, missionary, stipendiary, sumptuary.

(j) Ose, ous, eous, ious, uous, ceous, aceous, aneous, oneous, itious, ful, ey, y, signify full of; abounding in; having the nature or quality of; as, verbose, mountainous, righteous, robustious, tempestuous, cetaceous, lardaceous, instantaneous, erroneous, cementitious, hopeful, clayey, juicy.
(k) Kin, ling, ule, cule, cle, icle, ock, et, let, aster, signify little, small, minute, slight, petty; as lambkin, kingling, globule, animalcule, tubercle, particle, hillock, feveret, ringlet, poetaster.
(l) Ics signifies the doctrine, art or science of; as, optics.
(m) Ism signifies that which is peculiar to; a doctrine; a state, or condition; as, savagism, Calvinism.
(n) Er signifies more; as, wiser, more wise:
(o) Est signifies most; as, wisest, most wise.
(p) Dom, ric, ate, hood, ship, age, cy, ry, signify the state, rank, office of; the territory of jurisdiction of; as, Popedom, bishopric, electorate, childhood, township, peerage, captaincy, chieftainry.
(q) Y, ry, ary, ery, ory, signify the art, practice, or business of; the place where; as, gluttony, bigotry, statuary, cookery, armory.

99. To locate the accent.
100. The secondary nearly always precedes the primary.
101. Some very long words have two secondary accents.
102. Words of two syllables, excepting amen, never have more than one accent.
103. In compound words each part retains its own accent, the same as two distinct words.
104. When used as verbs the accent is usually on the last syllable, while when used as nouns or adjectives the accent is on the first syllable.
105. The accent is on the syllable next to the last.
106. They generally have the accent on the syllable next preceding it.
107. It is the last letter of a word.
108. The elementary sound which it represents.
109. It changes the meaning of the word; as, Au'gust, the eighth month; august', grand, majestic.
110. There are three kinds of spelling, viz., Phonic, oral, and written.
111. It is spelling by sound.

EXERCISES IN ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WRITING.

Write out in full. Abbreviate.
A. A. S. In the year of our Lord.
G. C. B. Member of Congress.
Id. i. e. Before Christ.
C. P. S. Keeper of the Seal.
Nom. No. Justice of the Peace
I. H. S. House of Representatives.
A. B. or B. A. As if he would say.
Col. Coll. Blessed Virgin.
Min. Plen. In the same place.
N. J. N. H. No one dissenting.
Q. E. F. Which was to be demonstrated
Qr. Qt. A sufficient quantity.
Rt. Rev. Right Honorable.
S. A. R. R. For the time being.
Sec. Leg. Doctor of Divinity.
V. P. vs. Superintendent.
Nov. N. S. New Testament.
Do. or Ditto. A hundred weight.
H. B. M. District of Columbia
M. B. M. D. Bachelor of Divinity.
Acct. A. B. S. And so forth.
E. J. e. g. See; refer to.
U. T. Vt. United States Navy.
C. S. A. Yd. The last, or last month.
S. E. N. W. West Indies.
Zool. Pwt. By the hundred.
N. T. N. Y. Attorney.
Ill. Ind. Unknown.
A. M. Md. Manuscripts.
M. P. Neb. Doctor of Laws.
Co. Am. Love of learning.
Com. Feb. Right Honorable.
Wm. Wt. Old Testament.
Wis. Vt. To-wit; namely.
O. S. Oct. Postmaster; afternoon.
P. O. Pop. Take notice.
U. S. A. Viz. Rhode Island.
P. pp. Oz. Parliament.
Va. V. Wed. Gentlemen; Sirs.
N. E. Ky. Kans. Fellow of the Royal Society.
Feb. Fahr. Cal. Professor, President.
G. B. N. C. Neh. Texas, Territory.

Write out in full.
Tim. Sp. Sam.
Rep. Rev. S.
La. lbs. Fem.
Id. i. e. Gen.
Mt. N. A. Miss.
Hhd. Hist. Gov.
Hdkf. Cr. Dft.
4to. L. L. D. 8vo.
Sat. S. C. W.
Inst. Int. Io.
Dist. Dict. Cyc.
Long. L. Lat.
Minn. Mad. Masc.
Gent. Fur. Ft.
Jam. Inter. Dr.
Conj. Agt. Al.
E. Deut. Dea.
Hon. Gr. U. S.
Cor. Adj. Anon.
Capt. Chron. C.
N. Myth. Mo.

Abbreviate.
Postscript, Regiment.
Mademoiselle, Major.
Italy, Hundred, Dozen.
Fellow of the Society of Arts.
Assistant, Junior.
Cash on delivery.
Thursday, Schooner.
Volume, Philadelphia.
Geology, Louisiana.
Place of the Seal.
Meridian, Thousand.
Legislature, Lieutenant.
Long Island, Matthew.
Executor, Barrel, Adverb.
Mistress, Servant, Democrat.
Alderman, Amount, Editor.
Esquire, Geometry, History.
Constable, Constitution.
Chapter, Capitals, Avenue.
Mexico, Michigan, Minnesota.
Memorandum, Maine.

QUESTIONS  ON  WRITTEN ARITHMETIC.

1. What is Mathematics ?
2. What is quantity ?
3. Define arithmetic as a Science and as an Art.
4. Upon what is arithmetic founded, and how are its operations carried on ?
5. What is arithmetical language ? How many kinds ?
6. What is a unit ?
7. What is a number? A power of a number? Root?
8. What is an integer ?
9. What is an abstract number ? Concrete number?
10. What is a sign? What is the sign of aggregation?
11. What is a rule? Problem? Axiom?
12. What is analysis in arithmetic ?
13. What is notation ? Numeration ?
14. How many systems of notation in general use ?
15. Upon what is the Roman notation founded ?
16. In how many ways may numbers be written ?
17. In the Arabic system of notation numbers are expressed according to what principle ?
18. Why is the Arabic system of notation also called the Decimal system?
19. What is the difference between the simple and local value of a figure ?
20. What are the fundamental principles of arithmetic ?
21. What is the effect of placing a bar over a letter?
22. What is the fundamental synthetic process of arithmetic ?
23. Give the principles of addition. 24. How many and what are the cases in addition ?
25. Why do we write the numbers as suggested by the arithmetics, and why do we begin at the right hand to add ?
26. What is the fundamental analytical process of arithmetic ?
27. Give the principles of subtraction.
28. Name and define the cases in subtraction.
29. Name the principles of multiplication.
30. Why are the multiplicand and multiplier taken together called factors ?
31. What are the terms of division ?
32. Upon what does the quotient depend ?
33. Show how the value of the quotient depends on the relation of dividend and divisor.
34. What principles of division are deduced from these relations ?
35. In division, what relation exists in regard to the quality of abstractness and concreteness ?
36. How are numbers classified ?
37. What is the minuend ? Subtrahend ?
38. What is a composite number ?
39. What is factoring?
40. What are the component factors of a number ?
41. What is the first power of a number ? Second ? Third ?
42. What is the reciprocal of a number ?
43. How find the true remainder by dividing by factors ?
44. What is a prime number ? When are numbers prime to each other ?
45. What is common divisor ? The greatest common divisor ?
46. What is a multiple ? Common multiple ? Least common multiple ?
47. What are fractions ?
48. What is the value of a fraction ?
49. What does the numerator show ? The denominator ?
50. What is a proper fraction ? Improper ? Mixed ? Complex ?
51. Is a fraction a number ?
52. Is a fraction a denominate number ?
53. Why invert the divisor in division of fractions ?
54. How find the greatest common divisor of fractions ?
55. How find the least common multiple of fractions ?
56. What are decimal fractions ?
57. What is the first thing to be considered in the treatment of decimals ?
58. What will the denominator of a decimal always be?
59. Upon what does the value of a decimal depend ?
60. How do decimals increase and decrease ?
61. What is a pure decimal ?
62. What is a mixed decimal?
63. What is a complex decimal ?
64. From what are the names of decimal orders derived ?
65. How find the product of two decimals by a contracted multiplication?
66. How find the quotient of one decimal divided by another by a contracted division ?
67. What are circulating decimals ?
68. What is a repetend ?
69. What are continued fractions ?
70. What is the difference between decimal fractions and common fractions ?
71. What is currency?
72. From what was the sign $ derived ?
73. What is an aliquot part of a number ?
74. What is a bill?
75. What is a compound number ?
76. What is a denominate number?
77. What is a simple denominate number?
78. What is a compound denominate number ?
79. What is a standard unit ?
80. Name the quantities of magnitude which give rise to denominate numbers ?
81. What is the standard unit of value?
82. What is the standard unit of weight ?
83. What is the standard unit of length ?
84. What is the standard unit of surface ?
85. What is the standard unit of volume ?
86. What is the standard unit of capacity ?
87. What is the standard unit of angles ?
88. What is the standard unit of time?
89. What is a measure ? How divided ?
90. How many dimensions have extension? A line? A surface ? A solid ?
91. Explain how distance is measured by time?
92. How do you find the difference in time, corresponding to any difference in longitude?
93. How do you find the difference in longitude, corresponding to any difference in time ?
94. How do you find the time at one place, when the time at another place and their difference of time are known ?
95. How do navigators determine their longitude at sea ?
96. What is a scale?
97. What is weight ?
98. Describe the Gunter's chain ?
99. What is the difference between a pound Troy and a pound Avoirdupois?
100. What is linear measure ?
101. What is a square ? A cube?
102. How many inches in a wine gallon ? In a beer gallon ? In a bushel?
103. What are duodecimals ?
104. What is percentage? What is its base ?
105. What do the words per cent. mean ?
106. Name and define the elements involved in percentage.
107. What is the difference between rate and rate per-cent.
108. Give the applications of percentage.
109. What is commission ? Brokerage ?
110. What is a commission merchant?
111. What is a consignee ? Consignor?
112. What is a company ? Corporation ?
113. What is a share? Stock? Stockholder?
114. What is the difference between a charter and a firm?
115. When is stock at par ? When below par ?
116. What is profit and loss ?
117. How find the gain or loss per cent. when the cost and selling price are given ?
118. How find the selling price when the cost and gain or loss per cent. are given ?
119. How find the cost when the selling price and the gain or loss per cent. are given ?
120. What is an installment? Assessment? Dividend?
121. What is insurance ? A policy? A premium?
122. Define underwriter.
123. Name and define the kinds of insurance.
124. What is a tax? Poll tax? Assessor?
125. What is an inventory ?
126. What is general average ? Jettison ?
127. What are duties or customs ? What is a custom-house ?
128. What is smuggling ?
129. How many kinds of duties ? Define them ?
130. What is interest ? Usury?
131. What is tariff ?
132. What is the difference between simple and compound interest ?
133. The time, rate per cent. and interest being given, how find the principal?
134. The time, rate per cent. and amount being given, how find the principal ?
135. The principal, time and interest being given, how find the rate per cent. ?
136. The principal, interest, and rate per cent. being given, how find the time ?
137. What is a partial payment ? Indorsement?
138. What is discount ? Present worth of a debt? How find it?
139. What is a bank? Bank discount ? Days of grace?
140. What is a promissory note ? Bank note ? Negotiable note ?
141. Name and define the kinds of notes.
142. What is a notary-public ? A protest?
143. What is a draft ? A check?
144. What is a bond ? What is a coupon ?
145. What do the terms five-twenties and ten-forties mean ?
146. What is exchange ? How many kinds ?
147. What is domestic exchange ? Foreign exchange?
148. What is a bill of exchange ?
149. How many parties to a transaction in exchange ?
150. What is a set of exchange ? Course of exchange ?
151. What is equation of payments ?
152. What is equated time?
153. What is the focal date?
154. What is partnership ? Partners ?
155. What is the difference between simple and compound partnership ?
156. What is an endorsement ?
157. What is an acceptance ?
158. How is this obligation acknowledged?
159. What is a bankrupt ?
160. What is the difference between a bankrupt and an insolvent ?
161. Define bankruptcy.
162. What is analysis? 163. What is ratio ? Define each kind.
164. What are the terms of a ratio ?
165. What is the antecedent ? Consequent ?
166. What is direct ratio ? Inverse or reciprocal ?
167. In how many ways may the ratio of two numbers be expressed ?
168. What is the difference between a simple ratio and a compound ratio ?
169. What is proportion ?
170. Which are the extremes ? The means ?
171. What is a continued proportion ?
172. How many antecedents in a proportion ? How many consequents ?
173. How are ratio and proportion distinguished ?
174. What is a simple proportion ?
175. What is a direct proportion ?
176. What is an inverse proportion ?
177. What is a compound proportion ?
178. Of what does allegation treat ?
179. How many kinds of allegation ? Define each.
180. Give the analysis of allegation.
181. What is an annuity ?
182. Name and define the kinds of annuity.
183. What is involution ?
184. What is a surd ?
185. What is the power of a number ?
186. What is a perfect power ? An imperfect power ?
187. What is the exponent of a power ?
188. Define evolution.
189. What is the root of a number ?
190. How are the roots of numbers indicated ?
191. What is the square root of a number ?
192. What is the cube root of a number ?
193. What is arithmetical progression ?
194. What is geometrical progression ?
195. What five things are to be considered in arithmetical progression ?
196. What things are to be considered in geometrical progression ?
197. What is a duodecimal ?
198. What is mensuration ?
199. What is magnitude ?
200. What is the measuring unit of surfaces ?
201. How do you find the area of a parallelogram and a square ?
202. How the area of a rhombus? Trapezium? Tri-angle ?
203. How do you find the area of a triangle when the three sides are given ?
204. How find the circumference of a circle when the diameter is given ? How find the diameter ?
205. How find the area of a circle ?
206. How find the side of the greatest square that can be inscribed in a circle of a given diameter ?
207. How find a mean proportional between two num-bers?
208. How find the solidity of bodies whose sides are perpendicular to each other ?
209. How find the solidity of a prism ?
210. How find the lateral surface of a right prism ?
211. How find the solidity of a pyramid or cone ?
212. How do you find the lateral or convex surface of a regular pyramid or cone ?
213. How find the solidity of a cylinder ?
214. How find the convex surface of a cylinder ?
215. How find the surface of a sphere or globe ?
216. How find the solidity of a sphere or globe ?
217. How find the side of a square equal in area to any given surface ?
218. How do we measure lumber ?
219. How find the solid contents of a stick of round timber ?
220. What is gauging ?
221. How find the contents of casks ?
222. Define the metric system of measurement ?
223. What is the measure of the meter in inches ?
224. From what was the meter obtained ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  WRITTEN ARITHMETIC.

1. The science of quantity.
2. Anything that can be increased, diminished or measured.
3. As a science, it logically investigates and philosophically classifies and arranges the principles and rules of the subject; as an art, it applies these principles to the practical affairs of life.
4. It is founded on notation, and its operations are carried on by means of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
5. The method of expressing numbers. It is of two kinds, Oral and Written. The former is called numeration and the latter notation.
6. One, or a single thing.
7. A unit or a collection of units. The power of a number is the product produced by repeating a number any number of times as a factor. A root is a factor repeated to produce power.
8. A whole number.
9. An abstract number is one used without reference to any particular thing. A concrete number is one that has reference to a particular thing.
10. A character indicating an operation to be performed. The sign of aggregation is a parenthesis, or bar, which shows that the numbers enclosed by it are to be considered together subject to the same operation.
11. A rule is a prescribed method of performing an operation. A problem is something to be done. An axiom is any truth that is self-evident.
12. The process of investigating principles, and solving problems, independently of set rules.
13. Notation is a method of writing or expressing numbers by characters. Numeration is a method of reading numbers expressed by characters.
14. Two: The Roman and Arabic.
15. Upon five principles: first, repeating a letter repeats its value; second, if a letter of any value is placed after one of greater value, it is added to the greater; third, if a letter of any value is placed before a greater, it is to be taken from the greater; fourth, if a letter of any value is placed between letters of higher value, it is to be taken from their united values; fifth, if a bar or dash is placed over a letter, it increases its value a thousandfold.
16. By words, letters, and figures.
17. By the position of the nine characters.
18. Because of its increase and decrease in a tenfold ratio. Decem is a Latin word, meaning ten.
19. The simple value of a figure is its value when taken alone, while the local value depends upon the place it occupies with other figures.
20. Notation and numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
21. It increases its value a thousandfold.
22. Addition, for by it we pass from unity to plurality; from the one to the many. This process, which gives rise to numbers, becomes the primary operation of arithmetic.
23. Only similar numbers can be added. The sum is a number similar to the numbers added. The sum is the same in whatever order the numbers are added.
24. They are represented by two modes of calculation: Mental Addition and Written Addition.
25. Merely for convenience.
26. Subtraction.
27. Similar numbers, only, can be subtracted. The difference is a number similar to the numbers subtracted. If the two numbers are equally increased or diminished the remainder will be the same. If the first number is equal to the sum of the second and the remainder, then the second must equal the difference between the first and the remainder.
28. Like the cases of addition, one is expressed in the Arabic system, the other by some mental calculation. or square, is the number multiplied by itself. The third power, or cube, of a number, is the product arising from using the number three times as a factor.
42. It is 1 divided by that number.
43. Multiply each partial remainder, except the first, by all the preceding divisors, and add these products to the first remainder. It will be noticed that after the first division, the remainder cannot be of the same denomination as the first number divided; and as each succeeding division increases the value of the remainders, therefore each remainder must be multiplied by all the preceding divisors to reduce it to its former denomination.
44. One that cannot be resolved into factors. Numbers are prime to each other when they have no common divisor.
45. One that will divide two or more numbers without a remainder. The greatest common divisor is the greatest number that will divide two or more numbers without a remainder.
46. A multiple is a number that is exactly divisible by a given number. A common multiple is one that is exactly divisible by two or more numbers. The least common multiple is the least number that is exactly divisible by two or more given numbers.
47. Parts of a unit.
48. The quotient of the numerator divided by the denominator.
49. The denominator shows into how many parts a number is divided; the numerator shows how many parts are taken.
50. A proper fraction is one whose numerator is smaller than its denominator. An improper fraction is one whose numerator is equal to or greater than its denominator. A mixed number is one expressed by an integer and fraction written together. A complex fraction is one that has a fraction in its numerator, or denominator, or both.
51. The usual expressions are that they are not numbers, but by an analysis of this question we find that a fraction is a number of equal parts of unity, and consequently must represent a subdivision of numbers; thus, five feet is a number, and the fraction five-twelfths of a foot represents equal numbers of a lower order, as five inches.
52. A fraction is not a denominate number.
53. For convenience; if not inverted they must be reduced to a common denominator, and one numerator divided by the other.
54. Find the greatest common divisor of the given numerators, and the least common multiple of the denominators.
55. Find the least common multiple of the numerators, and the greatest common divisor of the denominators.
56. Fractions whose denominators are increased or decreased in tenfold ratio.
57. The method of reading and writing them, or their numeration and notation.
58. The unit 1 with as many ciphers annexed as are equal to the number of figures in the decimal or numerator.
59. Its place from the decimal point.
60. They increase from right to left, and decrease from left to right, in a tenfold ratio.
61. A pure decimal consists of a decimal only thus, .35, which is read 35 hundredths.
62. One with an integer and a decimal; thus, 15.7.
63. One with a fraction annexed; thus, .005¼.
64. From the names of the orders of integers.
65. Write the multiplier with the order of its figures reversed, and with units' place under that figure of the multiplicand which is the lowest decimal to be retained in the product. Find the product of each figure of the multiplier by the one above in the multiplicand and those to the left, increasing this multiplication by as many units as would have been carried had the rejected part of the multiplicand been used. Write these partial products with the lowest figure in the same column and add together, pointing off the required number of decimal figures.
66. Compare the left hand figure of the divisor with the units of like order in the dividend, and determine how many figures will be required in the quotient. For the first contracted divisor, take as many figures from the left of the divisor as there are places required in the quotient, and in each following division reject one place from the right of the last preceding divisor, using the remainder for a new dividend.
67. A decimal in which a figure or set of figures are continually repeating.
68. The figure or set of figures continually repeated.
69. A fraction whose numerator is 1, and whose denominator is a whole number, plus a fraction whose numerator is also 1, and whose denominator is a similar fraction, etc.
70. The first has a denominator understood, showing that a unit is divided into ten equal parts, or subdivided in a tenfold ratio ; the second has a denominator showing that a unit is divided into any number of equal parts.
71. The medium of circulation.
72. From the initial letters of the United States, U. S. joined together as a monogram.
73. Such a part as will exactly divide that number.
74. A written statement of articles bought or sold, together with price of each and the whole cost.
75. A concrete number, whose value is expressed in two or more different denominations.
76. It is a concrete number in which the unit of meas-ure is established by law or custom.
77. It is a denominate number composed of units of the same denomination; as 3 feet.
78. When it is composed of two or more denominations which are related to each other; as 3 feet 4 inches.
79. A unit of measure from which the other units of the same kind may be derived.
80. They are value, weight, length, surface, volume, capacity, angles, time.
81. Money is the standard unit of value, and is of two kinds, coin and paper money. In the United States the standard unit is the dollar. In English money it is the pound.
82. It is the Troy pound.
83. The standard unit of length is the yard.
84. It is the square yard for ordinary measurement, and the acre for land.
85. It is the cubic yard for ordinary measurement, and the cord for wood.
86. The gallon for fluids, and the bushel for dry measure.
87. It is the right angle, or, in practice, one degree of a circle.
88. The standard unit of time is the day. This is determined by the revolution of the earth.
89. That by which extent, dimension, capacity, or amount is ascertained. Measures are of eight kinds: Length, surface or area, solidity, weight, time, angles, capacity and money.
90. Extension has three: Length, breadth, and thick-ness.
91. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts called degrees. As the earth makes its revolution once in 24 hours, the 24 hours must equal 360°, or one hour 15° of distance. Then by subdividing we find 1° would equal 4 minutes, and 1-60 of a degree would equal 4 seconds.
92. Divide the difference in longitude, expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds, by 15, and the respective quotients will be hours, minutes, and seconds.
93. Multiply the difference in time, expressed in hours, minutes and seconds, by 15, and its respective products will be degrees, minutes and seconds of longitude.
94. When the second place is east of the first, add their difference of time; when it is west of the first, subtract their difference of time.
95. Taking with them a chronometer (an accurate watch) set to mark the time at a given place (as Greenwich or Washington), they ascertain by observation of the sun with the sextant the time at the place they are in, reduce the difference of time to the difference of longitude, and thus they find they are so many degrees east or west of the meridian of the place for which their chronometer is set.
96. A series of numbers, descending or ascending, used in operations upon compound numbers.
97. A measure of the quantity of matter a body contains, according to some fixed standard.
98. It consists of 100 links, each link containing 7.92 inches, or the whole length 66 feet, or 4 rods.
99. Troy has 5,760 grains; avoirdupois has 7,000.
100. That which is used in measuring lines or distances.
101. A square is a figure having four equal sides and four equal angles; a cube is a figure having six equal sides.
102. In a wine gallon, 231 cubic inches; beer, 282; in a bushel, 2,150.4 cubic inches.
103. The division and subdivision of a unit, resulting by continually dividing by 12.
104. Such part of a number as is represented by the per cent. Its base is the number on which the percentage is reckoned.
105. By the hundred.
106. The elements are: Base, the number of which the per cent. is taken. Rate, the number of hundredths taken.
Percentage, the amount taken.
Amount, the sum of the base and percentage.
Difference, the base less the percentage.

107. The rate is the number of hundredths, and the rate per cent. is the fraction which denotes how many hundredths are taken. Thus, in 3 % , or 3/100, 3 is the rate and 3/100 the rate per cent.

108. The rules of percentage are applied to the computing of interest, discount, commission, taxes, insurance, duties, and especially profit and loss.

109. The percentage allowed an agent, factor or commission merchant, is commission. Brokerage is the fee paid to a dealer in money, stocks, etc., for the transaction of business.

110. An agent who buys and sells goods for another.

111. A person who receives goods to sell for another. A consignor is a person who sends goods to another to be sold.

112. Individuals united for the purpose of performing some business or undertaking. A corporation is a company formed and authorized by law to act as one person.

113. One of the equal parts into which capital stock is divided. Stock is the amount of capital invested. Stockholders are the owners of stock.

114. A charter defines the powers of an incorporated body, while firm is the name under which an unincorporated body transacts business.

115. Stock is at par when it sells for its first cost; below par, when it sells for less than first cost.

116. A commercial term, used to express the gain or loss in business transactions.

117. Divide the gain or loss by the purchase price.

118. Multiply the purchase price by $1, increased or diminished, as the case may be, by the gain or loss per cent.

119. Divide the selling price by $1, increased or diminished, as the case may be, by the gain or loss per cent.

120. A portion of the capital stock required of the stockholders as a payment on their subscription. An assessment is a sum required of the stockholders to meet the losses or the business expenses of the company. A dividend is a sum paid to the stockholders from the profits of the business.

121. Security on property guaranteed by one party to another, for a stipulated sum, against the loss of that prop-
property by any casualty. A policy is a written contract between the parties. Premium is the sum paid for insurance.

122. The underwriter is the insurer—the person who takes the risk.

123. There are six different kinds of insurance: Fire insurance, Marine insurance, Cyclone insurance, Accident insurance, Health insurance, Life insurance.

124. A tax is a sum of money assessed on the person or property of an individual for public purposes. Poll tax is a sum required of each male citizen liable to taxation, without regard to his property. An assessor is the person appointed to prepare the assessment roll, and apportion the taxes.

125. A written list of articles of property with their value.

126. A method of ascertaining the loss to be sustained by the proprietors of ships, freight, and cargo, where a portion of the property has been sacrificed or damaged for the common safety. Jetsam is the portion of goods thrown overboard.

127. Duties are taxes levied on imported goods. A custom-house is an office established by government for the transaction of business relating to duties.

128. Carrying on foreign commerce secretly, without paying the duties imposed by law.

129. There are two kinds: Ad valorem and Specific. Ad valorem duty is the sum computed on the cost of the goods in the country from which they were imported. Specific duty is a sum computed on the weight or measure of goods, without regard to their cost.

130. A sum paid for the use of money. Usury is illegal interest.

131. A list of the rates of duties to be collected.

132. Simple interest is the interest on the principal only. Compound interest is the interest on the principal and the previous interest added.

133. Divide the given interest by the interest on $1 for the given time at the given rate.

134. Divide the given amount by the amount of $1 for the given time at the given rate.

135. Divide the given interest by the interest on the principal at 1 per cent. for the time.

136. Divide the given interest by the interest on the principal for one year at the rate per cent.
137. Part payment of a note, bond, or other obligation. An endorsement is an acknowledgment written on the back of a note, or any obligation, stating the time and amount of a partial payment.

138. Discount is an allowance made for the payment of a debt before it is due. The present worth of a debt is such a sum which, being put at legal interest, would amount to the debt when due. It is found by dividing the given debt by the amount of $1 for the given time and rate.

139. A bank is a corporation chartered by law for the purpose of receiving and loaning money, and furnishing a paper circulation. Bank discount is an allowance made to a bank for the payment of a debt before it is due. Days of grace are three days allowed a bank to pay its notes after they become due.

140. A promissory note is a written agreement to pay a certain sum either on demand or at a specified time. Bank notes are paper circulation issued by banks as money. A negotiable note is one which may be bought and sold, or negotiated, and is made payable to the bearer or to the order of the payee.

141. They are classified as time notes, negotiable notes, joint notes, bank notes, drafts, stock, and bonds.

142. An officer authorized by law to attest documents or writings of any kind to make them lawful. A protest is a formal declaration in writing, made by a notary-public, at the request of the holder of a note, notifying the makers and the endorsers of its non-payment.

143. A draft is a note of exchange, issued by a bank payable on some other bank. A check is also a note of exchange, but issued by a person or company and made payable at some bank where the person has deposits or credit.

144. Bonds are interest-bearing notes issued by nations, states, cities, railroad companies, and other corporations as a means of borrowing money. The coupons are the due-bills for the interest, which, as they become due, are cut off and presented for payment.

145. They are applied to government bonds and indicate the time when due. The five-twenties are due twenty years after issue, although the government can pay them any time after five if they choose to do so. The same is applied to the ten-forties.

146. A method of remitting money from one person to another, or making payments by written orders. There are two kinds, domestic and foreign.

147. Domestic or inland exchange is the exchange between different places in the same country. Foreign exchange is the remittance made between different countries.

148. It is a written request or order upon one person to pay a certain sum to another person, or to his order, at a specified time. A draft or check is one kind of bill of exchange.

149. There are always three parties, and usually four, to a transaction in exchange.

150. It consists of three copies of the same, made in foreign exchanges, and sent by different conveyances to provide against a loss; when one has been paid the others are void. A course of exchange is the current price paid in one place for bills of exchange on another place.

151. The process of finding the mean time of the payment of several sums, due at different times, without interest.

152. The date at which several debts may be paid at one time.

153. The date by which all others are compared in averaging an account.

154. A relation established by two or more persons in trade. Partners are the individuals thus associated.

155. A simple partnership is one in which each of the partners has his capital invested for the same length of time. A compound partnership is that in which the capital of the partners is employed for different periods of time.

156. The endorsement of a bill is the writing upon its back, by which the payee relinquishes his title, and transfers the payment to another.

157. The acceptance of a bill is the promise which the drawee makes to pay it at maturity.

158. By writing the word "accepted," with his signature, across the face of the bill.

159. A bankrupt is a person who fails in business and has not property enough to pay his bills.

160. Bankrupt is strictly applicable only to a trader, while the term, insolvent, applies to any person who is unable to pay his debts.

161. It is the condition of the business of a bankrupt.
162. It is the process of arriving at a required result by following a course of reasoning, and not by formal rules.
163. The comparison of two numbers with each other. Arithmetical ratio is the difference between two numbers. Geometrical ratio is one divided by the other.
164. The two numbers compared.
165. The antecedent is the first term of a ratio; a consequent is the second term.
166. Direct ratio is dividing the consequent by the antecedent. Inverse ratio is dividing the antecedent by the consequent.
167. In two ways: By placing a colon between the terms, and by the form of a fraction, taking the antecedent for the numerator and the consequent for the denominator.
168. A simple ratio is the ratio of two numbers. A compound ratio is the product of two or more simple ratios.
169. An equality of the ratio.
170. The extremes are the first and fourth terms. The means are the other two.
171. A proportion with more than two equal ratios; as, 3:5::6:10::9:15.
172. As each ratio has an antecedent and consequent; then every proportion must have two antecedents and two consequents; the first and third terms being the antecedents, and the second and fourth the consequents.
173. Ratio is the relation between two numbers, while proportion is the relation between two ratios.
174. An equality between two simple ratios.
175. One in which each term increases or diminishes, as the one on which it depends increases or diminishes.
176. One in which each term increases as the term upon which it depends diminishes, or diminishes as it increases.
177. A proportion in which either ratio is compound.
178. Of mixing or compounding two or more ingredients of different values.
179. Two: Medial and Alternate. Medial is the process of finding the average price or quality of several ingredients whose prices or qualities are known. Alternate is the process of finding the proportional quantity to be taken of several ingredients whose prices are known.
180. Allegation is but a short way of performing an
analysis. To show the process we will unite 3, 4, 7, 10, to form a value worth 6.
It will be noticed that the difference between 10 and 6 is a loss of 4, and to make a loss of 1 will require 1/4, also there will be a gain of 1/3 in the opposite connection. The proportion, then, if the two terms 3 and 10, expressed in fractions, is 1/4 and 1/3, which, reduced to a common denominator, is 3/12 and 4/12, or expressed in whole numbers, 4 and 3, which, in allegation, is understood as an exchange of difference without the use of fractions and their reduction to whole numbers.
181. A sum of money payable at certain periods of time.
182. There are five kinds :
A Certain Annuity, which continues for a fixed period of time.
A Perpetual Annuity, continuing forever.
A Contingent Annuity, depending upon certain occurrences, as on the death of a person.
An Annuity in Reversion, one that begins at a specified future time or event.
An Annuity in Arrears, is one the payments of which have been allowed to accumulate instead of being paid.
183. Involution is the process of raising a number to a given power.
184. The indicated root of an imperfect power.
185. A power of a number is the result obtained by using it a certain number of times as a factor.
186. A perfect power is a number whose root can be found. An imperfect power is one whose root cannot be found exactly.
187. The exponent of a power is a number placed at the right of the root and just above it, to show the number of times the root is to be used, as 3^4 = 3x3x3x3.
188. Evolution is the process of extracting the root of any number considered a power. It is the opposite of involution.
189. The root of a number is one of the equal factors of that number.
190. By the sign called Radical Sign, √^2. The figure on the sign indicates the root.
191. One of two equal factors that produce that number. 192. One of three equal factors that produce that number.
193. A series of numbers increased or diminished by a common difference.
194. A series of numbers increased or diminished by a constant multiplier.
195. The first term, the last term, the number of terms, the common difference and the sum of the series. Three of these being given, the other two can be found.
196. They are the first term, the last term, the number of terms, the constant multiplier, and the sum of the series. Three of these being given, the other two can be found.
197. A denominate number in which twelve units of any denomination make a unit of the next higher denomination.
198. The art of measuring magnitudes.
199. Any substance which has length, breadth and thickness, or all of them.
200. It is customary to use a square as the measuring unit, as a square inch, foot, rod, etc.
201. By multiplying the length by the breadth.
202. By multiplying the length by the altitude.
By multiplying half the sums of the parallel sides by the altitude.
By multiplying the base by half the altitude.
203. From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side respectively ; then multiply together half the sum and the three remainders, and extract the square root of the product.
204. To find the circumference multiply the diameter by 3.14159 ; to find the diameter, divide the circumference by the same number.
205. By multiplying half the circumference by half the diameter ; or, by multiplying the circumference by a fourth of the diameter.
206. Divide the square of the given diameter by 2, and extract the square root of the quotient.
207. By multiplying the given numbers together, and extracting the square root of the product.
208. By multiplying the length, breadth and thickness.
209. By multiplying the area of the base by the height.
210. By multiplying the length by the perimeter of the base.
211. By multiplying the area of the base by ¼ of the altitude.
212. By multiplying the perimeter of the base by ½ the slant height.
213. By multiplying the area of the base by the height or length.
214. By multiplying the circumference of the base by the height.
215. By multiplying the circumference by the diameter.
216. By multiplying the surface by ⅓ of the diameter.
217. By extracting the square root of the given surface.
218. By multiplying the length, breadth and thickness. Boards are considered one inch in thickness, and are so reckoned, even if they are less.
219. By multiplying the length by ¼ the mean girt or circumference.
220. The process of finding the contents or capacity of casks, barrels, etc.
221. Multiply the square of the mean diameter into the length; then this product by .0034 to obtain the wine gallons. By using the decimal .0028 will give the beer gallons.
222. The Metric System is a decimal system of weights and measures, having the meter for the base or unit.
223. It measures 39.3708 inches.
224. It is one ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the earth's meridian.

TEST EXAMPLES.

[The following examples embody a great variety of practical principles, and have been selected especially to test the knowledge of the student.]

1. One gentleman meeting another, and inquiring the time past 12 o'clock, received for an answer, ⅓ of the time from now to midnight ; what o'clock in the afternoon was it? Ans. 5 h. 40 m.
2. Where shall a pole 60 feet high be broken, that the top may rest on the ground 20 feet from the stump? Ans. 26⅔
3. Suppose a man owes $1,000. What sum shall he pay yearly so as to cancel the debt, principal and interest, at the end of three years, reckoning it at 6 per cent. simple interest? Ans. $371¹¹⁄₁₀₀.
4. A gentleman has a garden 400 feet long and 300 feet wide which he would raise 9 inches higher by means of the earth to be dug out of a ditch that goes around it. To what depth must the ditch be dug, supposing its breadth to be everywhere 6 feet? Ans. 10 7/8.
5. Divide $1,000 among A, B and C, so that A may have $156 more than B, and B $62 less than C. Ans. A, $416 2/3; B, $260 2/3; C, $322 2/3.
6. If 21 cows eat up 8 acres of grass in 6 weeks, and 18 cows eat up the same in 9 weeks, how many cows will it maintain for 18 weeks, if the grass grow uniformly during that time? Ans. 15 cows.
7. Require the thickness of the lead of a pipe 1 1/4 inch bore, which weighs 16 lbs. a yard in length, a cubic foot of lead weighing 11,325 oz. avoirdupois. Ans. .2329 + in.
8. If a cubic foot of brass were drawn into wire 1/40 of an inch in diameter, required the length of the wire, supposing no loss in the metal. Ans. 55 m., 4 fur., 104 yds., 2 ft., 4 in. +.
9. Divide $25 between 2 boys in such a proportion that, after it is divided, A shall have 1/4 more than B. Ans. A, $15; B, $10.
10. A makes B a present of $100, on condition that he shall expend it in cows, sheep, and geese; cows at $10 each, sheep at $1, and geese at 16 2/3 cents, so as to have just 100 in the whole. How many must he purchase of each? Ans. 5 cows, 41 sheep, and 54 geese.
11. If 1/2 of 6 be 3, what will 1/4 of 20 be? Ans. 7 1/2.
12. How long must I keep $300 to balance the use of $500, which I lent a friend 4 months? Ans. 6 2/3 months.
13. If 800 men have provisions for 2 months, how many must leave that the remainder may subsist 5 months on the same? Ans. 480.
14. A hare, running 36 rods a minute, has 57 rods the start of a dog; how far must the dog run to overtake him, running 40 rods per minute? Ans. 570 rods.
15. The hour and minute hands of a watch are together at 12 o'clock; when are they next together? Ans. 1 h., 5 m., 27 3/11 s.
16. If a pole be 1/3 in the mud, 3/5 in the water, and 6 feet out of the water, what is its length? Ans. 90 feet.
17. A man being asked how many geese he had, replied: if I had 1/2 as many as I now have, and 2 1/2 geese more, I should have 100; how many had he? Ans. 65.
18. The head of a fish is 4 feet long, the tail as long as the head and 1/2 the length of the body, the body as long as the head and tail; what is the length of the fish? Ans. 32 feet.
19. A and B can build a wall in 4 days, B and C in 6 days, A and C in 5 days; require the time if they work together. Ans. 3 3/7.
20. A man left his two sons, one 14, the other 18 years old, $1,000, so divided that their shares, being put at 6 per cent, interest, should be equal when each should be 21 years old; what was the share of each? Ans. $546.153 +; $453.846 +.
21. A gentleman divided his fortune among his sons, giving A $9 as often as B $5, and C $3 as often as B $7: C received $7,442.10 2/3; what was the whole estate? Ans. $56,063.857 1/7.
22. Three horses, belonging to 3 men, do work to the amount of $26.45; A and B's horses are supposed to do 3/4 of the work, A and C's 7/10, B and C's 1/3, on which supposition the owners are paid proportionately; what does each receive? Ans. A, $11.50; B, $5.75; C, $9.20.
23. A gay fellow spent 2/5 of his fortune, after which he gave $7,260 for a commission, and continued his profusion till he had only $2,178 left, which was 3/8 of what he had after purchasing his commission; what was his fortune? Ans. $18,295.20.
24. A general, placing his army in a square, had 231 men left, which number was not enough by 44 to enable him to add another to each side; how many men in the army? Ans. 19,000.
25. Suppose that a man stands 80 feet from a steeple, that a line to him from the top of the steeple is 100 feet long, and that the spire is three times as high as the steeple; what is the length of a line reaching from the top of the spire to the man? Ans. 197 feet, nearly.
26. How many acres in a square field measuring 70.71 rods between the opposite corners? Ans. 15 1/2 acres.
27. How long does it take sound to travel 120 miles? Ans. 9 m. 14 sec. +
28. A laborer dug a cellar, the length of which was 2 1/2 times the width, and the width 3 times the depth; he removed 144 cubic yards of earth; what was the length? Ans. 36 feet.
29. A owes B $750, due in 8 months, but receiving $300 ready money, he extends the time of paying the remainder, so that B shall lose nothing; when was it paid? Ans. 1 yr. 1 mo. 10 days.
30. The sum of two numbers is 266 2/3, and the product of the greater multiplied by 3 equals the product of the less multiplied by 5 ; what are the numbers ? Ans. 100, and 166⅔.

31. A park 10 rods square is surrounded by a walk which occupies 1/10 of the whole park ; what is its width ? Ans. 8 ft. 3 in.

32. How many square inches of leather will cover a ball 3½ inches in diameter ? Ans. 38½ sq. inches.

33. How many solid inches in a globe 7 inches in diameter ? Ans. 179⅔ solid inches.

34. What are the solid contents of a pyramid, the base of which is 4 feet square and the perpendicular height 9 feet? Ans. 48 solid feet.

35. What are the solid contents of a stick of timber 18 feet long, one end of which is 9 inches square and the other end 4 inches square, uniformly diminishing throughout the whole length ? Ans. 5 solid feet 936 solid inches.

36. What are the solid contents of a round log of wood 36 feet long, 1.6 feet in diameter at one end, and diminishing gradually to a diameter of .9 of a foot at the other ? Ans. 45.333+ solid feet.

37. How many gallons of wine will a cask contain, the head diameter of which is 25 inches, and the bung diameter 31 inches, and the length 36 inches ? Ans. 102.93+ gallons.

38. Two men carry a kettle weighing 200 pounds ; the kettle is suspended on a pole, the bale being 2 feet 6 inches from the hands of one, and 3 feet 4 inches from the hands of the other ; how many pounds does each bear ? Ans. { 114⅔ pounds. { 85⅓ pounds.

39. If a triangular piece of land 30 rods in length, be 20 rods wide at one end and comes to a point at the other, what number of square rods does it contain ? Ans. 300.

40. There are two globes; one of them is 1 foot in diameter, and the other 40 feet in diameter; how many of the smaller globes would it take to make 1 of the larger? Ans. 64,000.

41. What is the area of a circle 1 mile in circumference? Ans. 50 a. 3 r. 28.7399 + r.

42. A conical stack of hay is 20 feet high, and its base 15 feet in diameter ; what is its weight, allowing 5 lbs. to a cubic foot? Ans. 5,890.5 lbs.

43. How many bushels will a cubical bin contain whose sides are 9 feet ? Ans. 585.80357 bushels.

44. How many hogsheads will a cylindrical cistern 10
feet deep and 6½ feet diameter contain? Ans. 39.401 hhds.
45. How far from the end of a stick of timber 30 feet long, of equal size from end to end, must a lever be placed so that 3 men, 2 at the lever and 1 at the end of the stick, may each carry ⅓ of its weight? Ans. 7½ feet.
46. If 100 eggs are placed in a straight line a rod apart, how many miles must a person travel to bring them one by one to a basket placed a rod from the first egg? Ans. 31 m. 180 r.
47. Said A to B: if I take one of your bags I shall have twice as many as you, and if I give you one of mine, we shall have an equal number? Ans. 5 and 7.
48. Divide $1,000 between A, B, and C, and give A $120 more than C, and C $95 more than B? Ans. $230 B's, $325 C's, $445 A's.
49. A man's desk was robbed three nights in succession: the first night half the number of dollars was taken and half a dollar more; the second, half the remainder was taken and half a dollar more; the third night, half of what was then left and half a dollar more, when it was found he had $50 left; how much had he at first? Ans. $407.
50. A owns ⅖ and B ⅗ of a ship; A's share is worth $10,000 more than B's; what is the value of the ship? Ans. $32,000.
51. A man gave his oldest son ¼ of his property less $50; to the second he gave ⅓; and to the youngest he gave the remainder, which was ⅙ less $10; what was the amount of his property? Ans. $360.
52. What number is that, ⅗ and ¼ of which being multiplied together, will produce the number itself? Ans. 20.
53. The difference of two numbers is 53 and the difference of their squares is 10,759; what are the numbers? Ans. 75 and 128.
54. The sum of two numbers is 120, and the difference of their squares is 4,800; what are the numbers? Ans. 40 and 80.
55. The diagonal of a square field is 120 rods; what is its area? Ans. 7,200 rods.
56. Find the side of the greatest square beam which can be hewn from a log 5 feet in diameter. Ans. 3.535519 feet.
57. A man wished to tie his horse by a rope so that he could feed on just an acre of ground; how long must the rope be? Ans. 7.13645 rods.
73. After spending 25 per cent. of my money, and 25 per cent. of the remainder, I had left $675; what had I at first? Ans. $1,200.
74. A man sold a house at 22 per cent. loss, losing $748; what did he receive for it? Ans. $2,652.
75. To carry 7 t. 10 cwt. 25 miles costs $18.75; how much can be carried 125 miles for $131.25? Ans. 10 t. 10 cwt.
76. The base of a right-angle triangle is 42 feet, its hypotenuse 58; find the area? Ans. 84 square feet.
77. At $1.47 a bushel, what cost 17 bushels, 3 pecks, 2 quarts, 1 pint of fruit? Ans. $26.21.
78. A boy hired to a mechanic for 20 weeks on condition that he should receive $20 and a coat. At the end of 12 weeks the boy quit work, when it was found that he was entitled to $9 and the coat; what was the value of the coat? Ans. $7.50.
79. A farmer sold 34 bushels of corn and 56 bushels of barley for $63.10, receiving 35 cents a bushel more for the barley than for the corn; what was the price of each per bushel? Ans. 48½, price of corn; 83½, price of barley.
80. Sold ⅔ of a lot of lumber for what ¾ of it cost; what per cent. was gained on the part sold? Ans. 25 per cent.
81. A, B and C can do a job of work in 12 days, C can do it in 24 days, and A in 34 days; in what time can B do it alone? Ans. 81⅓ days.
82. Of what principal is $150 the compound interest for 2 years at 7 per cent.? Ans. $1,035.196+.
83. A man in Buffalo purchased a draft on St. Paul, Minnesota, for $5,320, drawn at 60 days, paying $5,141.78; what was the course of exchange? Ans. 2½ per cent.
84. What is the difference between half a solid foot and a solid half foot? Ans. 648 cubic inches.
85. The bank discount of a certain sum for 6 months was $188.49; what would have been the true discount? Ans. $180.
86. The time since noon is ⁷⁄₁₇ of the time to 4 o'clock P. M.; what is the time? Ans. 10 minutes past 1 o'clock P. M.
87. A man gave ⅔ of an estate to A, ¼ of the remainder to B, and the balance to C, who received $685 less than A; require the value of the estate. Ans. $2,740.
88. Bought some lemons for $7.20; had I received 30 more, each would have cost ¾ as much, how many did I buy? Ans. 90. 89. The three sides of a triangle are 16, 63 and 65 ; find the area ? Ans. 504.
90. A man having oranges at 4 cents each and apples at 2 for 1 cent, gained 20 per cent, by selling 5 dozen for $2.04 ; how many of each did he sell ? Ans. 40 oranges, 20 apples.
91. Interest $67.50, amount $217.50, time 5 years 7 months 15 days ; require the rate. Ans. 8 per cent.
92. A horse was tied by a rope 52 feet long, fastened to the top of a stake 20 feet high; over what area can he graze? Ans. 26.586+P.
93. How many pencils must be bought for $1.00 so that 20 per cent, may be gained by selling them 4 for 1 cent? Ans. 480.
94. The square root of a certain number is 4,096; what is the cube root of the same number ? Ans. 256.
95. The first term of an arithmetical series is 17, the common diff'erence 6, the last term 161; how many terms are there ? Ans. 25.
96. A prism is 6 feet 4 inches high, on a base 3 feet 9 inches square; find the solidity. Ans. 89 cubic feet, 108 cubic inches.
97. For a note of $340, discounted at 6 per cent., a bank paid $336.43; how many days had the note to run? Ans. 60 days.
98. If to a certain number its half be added, and the sum subtracted from 1,000, the remainder will be ten greater than the number itself; what is the number ? Ans. 396.
99. What is the area of a circle whose diameter is 1 foot 1 inch ? Ans. 132.7326 square inches.
100. A's income is 16 per cent, of his capital; he is taxed 2½ per cent, of his income, and pays $26.04; what is his capital ? Ans. $6,510.
101. The expense of building a public bridge was $1,260.52, which was defrayed by a tax upon the property of the town. The rate of taxation was 3½ mills on $1, and the collector's commission was 3½ per cent.; what was the valuation of the property ? Ans. $401,920.
102. A man received $33.25 interest on a sum of money loaned 5 years previous at 7 per cent.; what was the sum lent? Ans. $95.
103. A house that cost $8,250, rents for $750 a year; the insurance is ⅛ per cent, and repairs ½ per cent, every year; what rate of interest does it pay ? Ans. 8 per cent.
104. Bought $860 bank stock at 4 per cent. advance; sold at a discount of 2½ per cent.; find the loss. Ans. $55.90.
105. What is the difference between the true and the bank discount of $1,375.50 for 60 days, at 6 per cent.? Ans. $.14.
106. What per cent. will be gained by buying apples at the rate of 3 for 1 cent, and selling them at 3 cents each? Ans. 800 per cent.
107. Find two numbers whose difference equals 1,427, and ⅛ of the first equal ⅞ of the second. Ans. 12,843 and 11,416.
108. Find the solid contents of a globe whose diam-eter is 1 foot 3 inches? Ans. 1 cubic foot, 39.15 cubic inches.
109. A, B and C bought a farm for $21,250, of which A paid $712 more than B, and $3,551 less than C; what sum did each pay? Ans. A, $6,137; B, $5,425; C, $9,688.
110. At what time between 5 and 6 o'clock is the minute hand 14 minutes behind the hour hand? Ans. 12 minutes after 5 o'clock.
111. What is the present worth of a debt due in 4 years 8 months 10 days, the true discount, at 6 per cent., being $169? Ans. $600.
112. Divide 2,331 among A, B, and C, in the ratio of ¼, ⅓, ⅙. Ans. A, 945; B, 756; C, 630.
113. From a piece of ground 30 rods wide and 50 rods long, a lot 25 feet wide and 100 feet long was sold for $275; find the value of the remainder at the same rate. Ans. $44,646.25.
114. A man bought copper at 27 cents a pound; it lost 2 per cent. in casting; at what price per pound must he sell the castings to gain 47 per cent.? Ans. 40½ cents per pound.
115. A man bought land at $30 an acre; how much must he ask an acre, that he may abate 25 per cent. from his former asking price and still make 20 per cent. on the purchase money? Ans. $48.
116. A machinist sold 24 grain drills for $125 each; on one-half of them he gained 25 per cent., and on the remain-der he lost 25 per cent.; did he gain or lose on the whole, and how much? Ans. $200 lost.
117. A cistern has three pipes; the first will empty it in 9 hours; the other two are equal to each other in size; if all three are left open the cistern will be filled in 6 hours; how long would it take the second or third alone to fill it. Ans. 7½ hours.
118. If 3 gallons of brandy, at $3 a gallon, and 5 quarts of alcohol, at 40 cents a gallon, be mixed with ½ gallon of water, for what must the mixture be sold a gallon to gain 37 per cent.? Ans. $2.74.
119. Area of a circle 19,635 square feet; find the radius. Ans. 2 feet 6 inches.
120. Debt $245, discount $105, rate 8 per cent.; find the time. Ans. 9 years, 4 months, 15 days.
121. The parallel sides of a trapezoid are 37½ feet and 38½ feet, and are 16½ feet apart; find the area. Ans. 627 square feet.
122. A horse costing $156.25 was sold for $256.25; what per cent. was gained? Ans. 64 per cent.
123. Principal $336, rate 10 per cent., amount $560; find the time. Ans. 6 years, 8 months.
124. A can do a piece of work in 6 days, A and B can do it in 3¾ days, and A, B and C in 2¼ days; how long would it take A and C to do it? Ans. 4 days.
125. To a certain number its fifth was added, and one-fifth of the result being added to the original number gave 6,076; find the number. Ans. 4,900.
126. Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 10, 10½ and 14½. Ans. 52½.
127. What number is that whose eighth exceeds its tenth by 14 less than its twelfth? Ans. 240.
128. What sum must I lend for 5 years 6 months, at 8 per cent., to receive on settlement $957.24. Ans. $664.75.
129. I gave A 1/5 of my money, and B 1/3 of the remainder; if B received 18 cents more than A, how much had I at first? Ans. $36.48.
130. Sold for a man 320 acres of land at $2.56¼ per acre, and sent him $779; what per cent. commission did I charge? Ans. 5 per cent.
131. A man can do a piece of work in 45 days; if his son can work 2/3 as fast, how long will it take both to do it? Ans. 27 days.
132. Divide $5,000 between A and B, so that A's share may be $400 less than twice B's. Ans. A's, $3,200; B's, $1,800.
133. Mix 2½ pints at 37 cents a pint, with 7 pints at 74 cents, and find the value of 1 pint of the mixture. Ans. 65 cents per pint.
134. A globe 6 inches in diameter weighs 64 pounds;
what will be the weight of another globe of the same material, the diameter being 1 foot 9 inches? Ans. 1 t., 7 cwt., 1 qr., 19 lbs.
135. Find the bank discount of a note of $825.50, payable in 3 months, rate 6 per cent. Ans. $12.79.
136. If ⅓ of a number be subtracted from ⅔ of the number, the remainder will be 6 less than ¼ of the number; what is the number? Ans. 180.
137. What must be paid for a draft on London for £256 10s., at 10 per cent. premium? Ans. $1,254.
138. What is the equated time on the following debts: $180 due in 4 months, $540 due in 7 months, and $280 due in 10 months? Ans. 7 months and 9 days.
139. If a certain number be diminished by its ⅓, and ⅔ of the remainder be added to the first number, the sum will be 18.24; require the number? Ans. 11.52.
140. If 2 ounces of silver, worth $1.10 an ounce, are melted with 2 ounces of gold worth 94 cents a pwt., what is the compound worth per ounce? Ans. $9.95.
141. Two men are 90 miles apart and travel towards each other, A starting 1 hour before B; A goes 9 miles in 2 hours, B 11 miles in 4 hours; how far will each travel before they meet? Ans. A 57 7/33 miles, B 32 2/33 miles.
142. What date is 7 months 15 days before July 15th, 1861? Ans. November 30, 1860.
143. By selling at 33 cents a pound twice as much is gained as by selling at 29 cents a pound; what per cent. is gained by selling at 32 cents a pound? Ans. 28 per cent.
144. What per cent. of ⅓ is ⅔? Ans. 88⅔?
145. In how many years will the error of the Julian Calendar involve the loss of a day? Ans. 128¼ years.
146. At what time between 12 and 1 o'clock do the hour and minute hands of a clock point in directions exactly opposite? Ans. 12 o'clock 32 8/11 minutes.
147. Suppose A, B and C to start from the same point and to travel in the same direction round a circular island 73 miles in distance, A at the rate of 6, B of 10, and C of 16 miles per day; in what time will they be next together? Ans. 36½ days.
148. A blacksmith agreed to shoe a horse for 1 mill for the first nail in his shoe, 2 mills for the second nail, and so on; the shoes contain 32 nails; how much was he to receive? Ans. $4,294,967,295.
149. Sold a horse for $37.05, losing 81 per cent.; what was the loss? Ans. $157.95. 150. The mainmast of a ship is 95 feet long, the diameter of the base is 3½ feet, that of the top 2½ feet; what is its solidity? Ans. 677.73475 feet.
151. A club spent £2 12s. 1d; on settling, each paid as many pence as there were individuals in the party; how many were there in the party? Ans. 25 persons.
152. A grocer divided a barrel of flour into two parts so that the smaller contained ⅔ as much as the other; how many pounds were there in each? Ans. 78⅔ pounds, 117⅔ pounds.
153. A man having spent ⅓ and ¼ of his money, had £48¾ left; how much had he at first? Ans. £292.
154. If ⅔ of a ton of chalk cost £¾, what will ⅚ of a ton cost? Ans. £1.
155. A man was hired 50 days, receiving 75 cents for every day he worked, and forfeiting 25 cents for every day he was idle; he received $27.50; how many days did he work? Ans. 40 days.
156. A gentleman paid $18.90 among his laborers; to each boy 6 cents, to each woman 8 cents, and to each man 16 cents; there were three women for each boy, and two men for each woman; how many men were there? Ans. 90.
157. A man paid $82.50 for a sheep, a cow, and a yoke of oxen; for the cow 8 times, for the oxen 24 times as much as for the sheep; what did he pay for each? Ans. $2.50, $20, and $60.
158. A, B and C commence trade with $3,053.25, and gain $610.65; A's stock + B's is to B's + C's, as 5 to 7; and C's stock — B's, is to C's + B's, as 1 to 7; what is each one's part of the gain? Ans. A's gain, $135.70; B's, $203.55; C's, $271.40.
159. There is a windlass, the wheel of which is 60 inches in diameter, and the axis, around which the rope coils, is 6 inches in diameter; how many pounds on the axle will be balanced by 240 pounds at the wheel? Ans. 2,400 pounds.

QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING.

1. What is it to educate a human being aright?
2. What is economy?
3. What is political economy?
4. What are some of the principles of a true political-economy?
5. Do individuals have instincts?
6. What should be the greatest accomplishment of all human beings?
7. How can these accomplishments be acquired?
8. How shall we judge a nation in the scale of civilization?
9. What does the theory of practice of teaching embrace?
10. Of what does school economy treat?
11. Define methods of instruction.
12. What do you understand by methods of culture?
13. Of what should we treat in the history of education?
14. To what must the American people give the praise for the wonderful development of the country's industries, and its arts and sciences?
15. What should we take into consideration in making preparations for the school?
16. What would embrace a suitable location?
17. What should be adopted as a proper arrangement for school-grounds?
18. What care should you exercise over the school house, the furniture, the apparatus, the grounds?
19. Should the teacher go to his boarding place for dinner?
20. State the objects of graded schools.
21. How are schools graded?
22. What branches are taught in the higher department of these graded schools?
23. Upon what should the size of a school-house depend?
24. Describe a suitable school-house for rural districts.
25. How should a school-house be warmed?
26. How should a school-room be ventilated?
27. What should be the furniture of a school-room?
28. How should the teacher's desk be arranged?
29. With what apparatus should schools be supplied?
30. What should be the temperature of a school-room?
31. Of what use are school-records?
32. What should be the first step in the organization of a school?
33. Give an outline of work preliminary to the organization of a school?
34. What benefits will arise by forming these acquaintances?
35. What should be the programme for the first day at school?
36. How prepare a programme for every day's work?
37. What are the employments of a school?
38. What are the objects of study?
39. By what principles should incentives to study be tested?
40. What incentives are often used to create ambition and interest?
41. Should these artificial stimulations be employed?
42. What are the proper incentives to study?
43. What are the objects of education?
44. What are the objects of recitations?
45. How should the recitation be conducted?
46. What is necessary for a good recitation?
47. What preparation should the teacher make for the recitation?
48. How would you teach grammar?
49. How would you teach geography?
50. What is a good plan for studying history?
51. Why is it necessary to take exercise?
52. Define school government.
53. Under what heads may school government be embraced?
54. Define ethics.
55. Define school ethics.
56. Who are the important factors in the school ?
57. What may be considered as some of the most important qualifications of the teacher ?
58. What may be considered as the school-duties of pupils ?
59. What is discipline ?
60. What are the general species of school government ?
61. What may be considered as proper penalties ?
62. What may be considered improper penalties?
63. What actions of the teacher should be specially denounced ?
64. What things should every teacher perform ?
65. What things should the teacher avoid ?
66. What is good education ?
67. What is teaching?
68. What is learning ?
69. Who will be successful in teaching ?
70. Who will fail as a successful teacher ?
71. In what divisions are the faculties of the mind comprised?
72. What faculty comes first in the natural order of development ?
73. How is the intellect developed ?
74. What are the sources of knowledge ?
75. What is empirical knowledge ?
76. What is that knowledge called which is derived through reason ?
77. What does this knowledge include ?
78. What is the difference between teaching and talking ?
79. What is a remedy for whispering ?
80. What benefits arise from the practice of music ?
81. What are the purposes of examinations ?
82. What relation does the school hold to the state ?
83. What conditions does teaching presuppose ?
84. What are the practical points to be attained by an education ?
85. What does education do for a people ?
86. How should pupils be dealt with at the beginning of their school experience ?
87. How secure a full, prompt and regular attendance?
88. What benefits arise by reciting in concert ?
89. How pronounce a word for spelling ?
90. What are some of the most common evils of our schools ?
91. What should form the foundation for a system of teaching ?
92. What is meant by Language Lessons ?
93. What is method ?
94. How many methods are there in teaching ?
95. What is the Socratic method of instruction ?
96. When should a pupil commit to memory ?
97. What is the great end of school training ?
98. Should a teacher confine himself to the text-book during recitation ?
99. How much review work is necessary ?
100. How do you wish to have your class located when reciting ?
101. What should a person do who contemplates teaching for the first time ?
102. How do you classify the elements of Pedagogics ?
103. What other names are sometimes applied to these elements ?
104. Of what does gymnastics treat ?
105. Of what does didactics treat?
106. Of what does pragmatics treat ?
107. Into what divisions is intelligence divided?
108. What is the preceptive faculty ?
109. What is the conceptive faculty ?
110. What is thinking ?
111. What are the elements of success in teaching?
112. Should a pupil be required to report on his own conduct? Why?
113. What important branch of study is often neglected in our schools ?
114. What common branches should receive special attention ?
115. What constitutes good reading ?
116. Why would you place mental arithmetic as of special attention ?
117. How should primary instruction be given ?
118. How should parents talk to their children in infancy ?
119. What is Kindergarten instruction?
120. What does the Theory and Practice of Teaching embrace?
121. Give the names of some of the most important educational reformers.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING.

1. It is to direct the mind, the thoughts, the feelings, the instincts, into the channel of truth, morality, enterprise, determination and economy.
2. It is the careful utilization of one's forces, and may relate to mind, strength, money, or any of the departments of mind or nature by which the greatest attainments can be acquired with the least expense of those forces.
3. It is the utilization of the forces of government, the revenues, and the establishing of those laws of economy by which the greatest good will be distributed among the people.
4. To administer the laws without fear or favor, to prevent monopoly, to encourage thrift, to destroy the weeds of indolence and vice, to teach the principles of self-reliance, of co-operation, of manliness, and the grand and noble elements of truth and virtue.
5. We are taught that reason is the great faculty by which man becomes the image of his Creator, and that instinct is nature's gift to the lower orders of creation. To us this teaching, although grand and noble in thought and purpose, does not make the true distinction between man and the brute.
Man, although endowed with the power of reason, often displays another element of his being. He in-
stinctively laughs, he crys, he mistrusts, he is warned by some influence, and in many ways receives impressions which, like the instincts of animals, work without knowledge or reason. The same may be applied to the power of reason with the ape, the dog, the horse, and other animals by which the dividing line between reason and instinct cannot be measured.
6. To strive to control his passions; to speak like a lady or gentleman; to rise above the vulgar and indifferent, and to be a Christian in thought, deed and purpose.
7. By the right cultivation of the mind while young. "As the twig is bent so the tree is inclined."
8. We can judge them by the history of their schools, the universal distribution of the same general knowledge. Knowledge is the lever that controls the progress of the world. It is the sword of success, the armor of defense, and the power that prevails.
9. It embraces: School Economy, Methods of Instruction, Methods of Culture, The History of Education.
10. It treats of the best modes of the organization of the school, and of utilizing the means of instruction.
11. The best means of imparting knowledge.
12. The study of the physical and mental character of man by which his faculties may be developed and strengthened.
13. We should compare the past with the present; show the growth, the advancement and advantages which now mark the progress of that education.
14. To the free gift of a national education.
15. There should be a suitable location, properly graded, drained and shaded. The house should be built for comfort, health and pleasure. The furniture, apparatus, records and studies should be carefully arranged and selected. The whole should be homelike and attractive.
16. A spot that is convenient of access. Suitability of the grounds and surroundings. Healthiness of the neighborhood. Beauty of the location.
17. They should be thoroughly drained, dry, level, sodded, ornamented with shade trees, house for fuel, neatly fenced and supplied with pure water.
18. The teacher should consider the whole as his own; he should be thoughtful and vigilant; he should caution when necessary, and always feel the deep responsibility which has been placed upon him.
19. Under no consideration should he leave the school
grounds, as his presence is required to keep peace, order, prevent teasing, protect property and strive to impress upon all the value of being ladies and gentlemen.
20. They economize the labor of instruction; lessen the cost; make teachers more effective; promote good order in school; prompt the ambition of pupils; provide instruction in the higher branches of learning; and remove the necessity of children's leaving home to obtain a good education.
21. Into the Primary, the Grammar and the High School.
22. The High School Course embraces algebra and higher mathematics, rhetoric, political economy, history, physiology, and the studies of nature, business and language.
23. Upon the number of pupils in attendance. An ungraded school, to be taught by one teacher, should contain at least nine hundred square feet. A house designed for fifty to eighty scholars and one recitation room, fifteen hundred square feet. One for eighty to one hundred and twenty scholars and two recitation rooms, two thousand square feet.
24. It should be rectangular in form, the door entering at the south end, while the north end should be without entrance or windows. The room should be from twelve to sixteen feet high. It should contain an apartment for clothing and necessaries. It should be well lighted, warmed and ventilated.
25. In rural districts it would be useless to recommend the modern appliances for heating, but we can improve the stove often in use. Provide a good stove, pipe and chimney. Surround the stove with a tin casing made to extend from the floor to about one foot above the top. There should be a door in the casing for putting in fuel; and a trunk for the conveyance of fresh air should start outside of the building, run under the floor and communicate directly with the door. The object of a tin casing and trunk for conveying fresh air must be apparent to all, as one will prevent the burning of clothing and the other to supply a pure current of air upon which combustion depends.
26. Ventilation should be regulated by the lowering of the windows from the top instead of raising the bottom sash, especially in cool weather. This will prevent a direct draft upon the heads of the scholars. Openings in
the ceiling and doors will also be a means of relieving the heated pressure.
27. The desks should be of modern approval and set so as to enable all pupils to pass to and from their seats without creating confusion. There should be a library of reference books; a complete dictionary; a geographical gazetteer; a biographical dictionary; a popular encyclopedia; sets of historical and physiological charts; outline maps.
28. It should embody a plain business office desk, with drawers, shelves, closets and book-rack.
29. The most approved are: A set of cards for teaching the alphabet, pronunciation, spelling, and elementary reading, with a stand to hang them upon; letter-blocks, and a chart of elementary sounds; writing charts; drawing cards and material; a numerical frame, and sets of square and cube root blocks; a globe, a set of outline maps, and a Tellurian; charts of history; a case of minerals and curiosities; engravings; a thermometer.
30. In our estimation it should be 72° Fahr., although many claim this temperature is too high, but we must remember that the moving teacher cannot judge by his feelings what would please his scholars.
31. To aid the teacher in his work; to give information to parents and school officers; to furnish educational statistics; to exert a beneficial influence upon the pupils.
32. To produce a good impression. The language should be mild, but interesting. There should be no show of superiority in power or knowledge. You should arrange so as to obtain the confidence and respect, holding at the same time a deep interest for the instruction of those placed in your charge.
33. The young teacher should consider well his adaptation to a particular school before engaging it. He should study the difficulties which he might encounter; he should lay his plans before the school officers and ask their advice; the contract should be made in writing, and if possible, the teacher should make the acquaintance of parents before opening of school.
34. It will convince the people of an interest in the school, and draw out their sympathies and general interest. It will assist in forming calculations and how to organize. It will reflect the characters of those who are most foremost in mischief and good behavior, and it will give a better chance for the study of human character. 44. It is to test the knowledge, the power of speech, of explanation and the development of expressions. It gives confidence and demands a careful study of the subject under discussion. It induces thought and quickens perception.
45. It should cover the general points in the lesson by brief and comprehensive statements. The lesson preceding should be carefully reviewed, and in carrying this preceding action to the point of commencement a new examination of to-day's lesson should again be given and this carried into the study of to-morrow.
46. A live, intelligent teacher; recitation seats; blackboards; apparatus; reference books; call bell; ventilation and proper temperature.
47. He should have a thorough knowledge of the subject, and depend upon a general discussion rather than quote the words of the book.
48. Of all studies grammar is open to general explanations more than others. Books should be used only as a source from which to draw knowledge. No fixed plan of recitation should be followed. The elements of grammar should be given first and carefully illustrated. Definitions should be learned only as applied. There should be no rotation, no fixed laws of advancement. Analyzing should be introduced as soon as we have asked the first question. We should teach from observations, simple at first, or until the main principles are thoroughly comprehended. Do not commence too young, as grammar requires such comparisons that the mind must be able to see them.
49. Quite similar to that of grammar. Give lessons which will compare one section with another. It is not necessary to be confined to one book, as the same principles are embodied in all of them. Have a variation of topics. Call for the various productions of South America and where produced. This is enough for one lesson, unless you prove its climate and position. Better have a full knowledge of a little than fail in big attempts. Follow with other questions of interest of the same country. The author once conducted a large class without a book for his reference, but in the class there were eight different geographies. The plan worked admirably, although a case of necessity. Please bear this in mind; do not give long and difficult lessons. Do not forget the apparatus.
50. On this subject the teacher should be well posted. He should map out the points of greatest interest, and as
the class advances, give the subdivisions. Do not be afraid to call up a subject at the beginning, the middle, or the end. Review is the great secret of success.
51. Because it is necessary to health, strength and study.
52. It is a proper organization of order, thought and action. It is the means of developing a love for study and improvement.
53. As School Ethics, Retributions, Legislation and Administration.
54. The science which treats of human rights and duties.
55. It relates to the rights and duties of persons connected with the school.
56. The teacher. The general school-officers. The communities that found and support schools. The pupils.
57. He should have common sense, knowledge, teaching power, government, and love of the work.
58. It is given as duties to themselves, to one another, to the school property, to the teacher, to the school-officers, to visitors, to society, and to God.
59. A close or thorough application to some particular subject or subjects. In school life it is often applied to the correction of particular errors and faults.
60. They are considered as force, authority, and love.
61. Privation of recitations, of recess, of position in class, reproof, reports to parents, suspension, expulsion, punishment, withholding favors, special penalties.
62. Threatening, scolding, asking for excuses, whipping in anger, compulsory study as a punishment, physical or mental torture beyond the absolute demand of the case.
63. Any sudden or violent action, as throwing rulers or slapping the head. Care should be taken not to punish for offenses done beyond the jurisdiction of the school-yard.
64. Convince your scholars by your conduct that you are their friend; take special care that the school-house and appendages are kept in good order; be accurate; punctual; cheerful; study the art of aptly illustrating a difficult subject; teach honesty and morality, and strive at all times to win the esteem of your pupils.
65. He should guard against prejudices; he should ride no "hobbies;" never lose his patience while reason- ing with parents; avoid wounding the feelings of a dull scholar; never compare one child with another; avoid making excuses to visitors; have nothing to do with other business in school hours; do not attempt to teach too many things; do not allow pupils to direct their own studies.

66. It is the cultivation of the nobler sentiments of man. It is the art that commands understanding, that subdues his passions, that extends the power of reason and begets a pure conscience.

67. It is to communicate knowledge—to give instruction.

68. It is to acquire knowledge—to be instructed.

69. Those who can comprehend human character, who can control their passions, and who have a love for the business.

70. Those who teach because of the wages, and at the same time have their mind on other matters of business. A teacher cannot divide his thoughts and feelings. It is a business, or profession, that requires the whole response of the faculties and will admit of no delays or thoughtless acts.

71. They comprise three general divisions—the Intellect, the Sensibility and the Will.

72. The development of the intellect.

73. By the acquisition of knowledge.

74. They are the Senses and the Reason.

75. The knowledge of experience, derived through the senses, which includes all that we know through the senses of seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling, and through the emotional feelings.

76. It is called rational knowledge.

77. All that comes from the power of study and thought. It is the development of the mind and understanding.

78. One communicates knowledge by a course of reasoning, while talking is familiar or unrestrained conversation.

79. Whispering usually originates from a lack of interest. Produce a love for school and its advancement and whispering will be easily controlled.

80. Music feeds upon the chords of love and builds up a course of friendship and respect. It softens the thoughts and inspires deeper and more sacred feelings.

81. To test the knowledge of the pupil and determine if he has made real progress in his studies. It is a review.

82. It is the agent appointed by the state for the purpose of preventing ignorance, raising the standard of moral and literary culture, and increasing the general prosperity.

83. A certain degree of capacity on the part of the pupil, a degree of knowledge and skill on the part of the teacher, and a knowledge to be acquired.

84. It should induce each individual to be more industrious ; more ambitious ; more trustworthy ; more active and systematic ; more cheerful ; more far-sighted ; more economical as producers or preservers of property.

85. It tends to make them more orderly ; more submissive to good laws ; more independent in political thoughts ; more charitable ; more refined, and creates a higher plane of civilization.

86. They should be received kindly, and every effort possible should be made to obtain their confidence.

87. By making the school-room pleasant and attractive ; by preserving good order ; by genuine interest on the part of the teacher.

88. It stimulates the timid to overcome their diffidence ; it cultivates the voice, and produces uniformity of expression.

89. Exactly as it should be pronounced in reading.

90. A want of interest on the part of parents and others ; frequent change of teachers ; diversity of class-books ; teachers not qualified ; defective supervision.

91. It should be the capability of the pupil ; the educational means to be employed, and the manner of performing the work.

92. A simple means of expressing the fundamental principles of some line of knowledge.

93. It is the way of performing an act.

94. Six: The Text Book, Oral, Socratic, Topical, Discussion, and Lecture.

95. A system of questioning.

96. Not until the subject is thoroughly understood. If it cannot be understood it will be folly to commit to memory.

97. It is mental development ; the training of thought towards the practical pursuits of life ; to disperse ignorance and superstition, and to encourage a better mode of living.
98. The book should be used as a guide for conducting the recitation, but under no consideration should he depend upon it for the interest which should be given. As a general rule, a book teacher is an uninteresting individual, a telephone that only communicates what the sentence reads.

99. This branch of study cannot be measured. It is too important to be limited, and should be continued in as much as circumstances will allow.

100. They should be brought as closely together as possible, and in as convenient a position to the apparatus of the school-room as is practicable.

101. He should lay out plans in accordance with the best efforts which he can recall in his experience as a scholar, or from other observations.

102. The special elements are classified as: The Physical, the Intellectual, and the Practical.

103. They are known as Gymnastics, Didactics, and Pragmatics.

104. Of athletic exercises. The training of the muscular system.

105. It is the art or science of teaching.

106. It is the science of business.

107. We may divide it into Preception, Conception, and Thinking.

108. It is the directing of the moral conduct, and is most sensitive to its teachings in the youth.

109. The faculty of comprehending an idea.

110. It is the faculty of thought, of calculation, of plans and of reasoning.

111. It is the executive power, self-control, thorough knowledge, and the faculty of imparting that knowledge.

112. He should not; it is a strong incentive to report incorrectly and might lead to untruthfulness.

113. It is spelling.

114. Reading, spelling, mental arithmetic and writing.

115. A clear, distinct utterance, interspersed with proper emphasis and expression.
116. Because it requires the use of language to demonstrate; it is a mental education; it cultivates memory and is one of the necessary business principles of life.
117. Largely by oral explanations.

118. Their language should be as simple and as correctly spoken as possible. They should not exaggerate nor be deceiving. Whatever is said, let it be the truth.
119. It is the teaching of young children by the use of objects, solids, surfaces and outlines. It is a study by which the eye conveys the idea, rather than the thought. It is much practiced in cities, and considered a fine mode of instruction.
120. It embraces the whole science of education. It trains the mind, develops thought, induces activity and builds up strength and harmony.
121. Aschan, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton, Locke, Rousseau Pestalozzi, Arnold, Mann, Huxley, Spencer and others.

QUESTIONS ON ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO,
And Their Effects Upon the Human System.

1. How and by whom was alcohol discovered?
2. What is alcohol?
3. What must be the condition of fruits or grains to produce alcohol?
4. What are the chemical properties of alcohol?
5. How does alcohol preserve meats, insects or animals?
6. What are the various names of liquids which are largely composed of alcohol?
7. What are some of the liquids not so largely composed of this fluid?
8. What is the difference between alcohol and whisky?
9. What is intoxication?
10. What is the difference between food and alcohol?
11. What is the difference between fermentation and distillation?
12. What is a still?
13. What is the worm of the still?
14. What are malt liquors?
15. How is malt made?
16. What parts of the body are affected by the use of alcohol?
17. Give the circulation of alcohol in the body?
18. Is there any nourishment in alcohol?
19. How does this fluid assist in restoring the low pulsation of an invalid?
20. What does alcohol do to the stomach?
21. What experiment will prove this assertion?
22. How is this proved by actual experience in man?
23. Why do some people take a glass of liquor before eating?
24. What disease is liable to attack the person who continues in drinking? 25. What effect do contagious diseases have upon habitual drinkers ? Why ?
26. What causes the redness of the nose and skin ?
27. What does alcohol do to the heart ?
28. What does it do to the blood-vessels ?
29. How does it act upon the lungs ?
30. Describe how it affects the brain ?
31. Why does a drunken man have imperfect vision ?
32. How does alcohol injure the liver ?
33. How does it affect the kidneys ?
34. How does it injure the mind ?
35. How do we know that alcohol is a poison ?
36. Do habitual drinkers crave for the taste of liquors ?
37. Does alcohol protect from cold ?
38. What is the experience of sailors in cases of ship-wreck and great exposure ?
39. How could alcohol be used under such circumstances and become a benefit to those thus exposed ?
40. Knowing the evil effects of drink, why do people continue to harbor its presence, protect its sale and defend its influence ?
41. When was tobacco discovered and when introduced to the people of civilization ?
42. What is the difference in effect between alcohol and tobacco ?
43. What poisonous elements are found in tobacco smoke ?
44. What is the effect of the carbonic acid ?
45. What are the effects from carbonic oxide ?
46. What does the ammonia produce ?
47. What is nicotine ?
48. What does nicotine produce ?
49. Give some of the actions of tobacco on the human body ?
50. Give some of its actions on the mind ?
51. What forms of smoking are most injurious ?
52. What is opium ?
53. Is it dangerous to use ?
54. What is laudanum and morphine ?
55. What is hashish ?
56. What is the areca nut ? Where found ?
57. What caution should be observed in regard to the use of these liquids and drugs ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO,
And Their Effects Upon the Human System.

1. It is claimed that Paracelsus, a chemist of the fourteenth century, accidentally discovered alcohol, and upon testing its power boasted of having found the essence of life, the power to cure the weak and the great benefactor of mankind.
2. A liquid obtained from the fermentation and distillation of fruits and grains.
3. They must pass into a stage of decomposition or rot. It occurs only where sugar or starch is one of the ingredients.
4. It will not freeze; it burns without smoke; it readily dissolves gums, oils and forms various mixtures; it is used in preserving meats, in perfumery, in thermometers, in varnishes, in spirit lamps, and in various forms of the arts and medicines.
5. It absorbs the water in the meat and prevents decay.
6. Whisky, brandy, rum and gin. These are the principal forms of distillations, although scores of mixtures are formed.
7. They are wine, beer, ale and cider.
8. Alcohol is the pure spirit and too strong for human drink, while whisky is doctored alcohol to meet the taste.
9. It is drunkenness, a loss of brain power, a condition of mental stupor, a momentary fool.
10. Food nourishes and sustains the body; alcohol excites the nervous system, clouds the intellect, poisons the blood and injures the body.
11. Fermentation is the simple process of nature on the juices of fruits and grains. Distillation is the process of taking out the alcohol found in fermentation and is much stronger.
sciousness they were very sick, and an emetic was given to them which brought up their Saturday's dinner just as it had gone into their stomach. The food had been preserved by the alcohol and relief could only come by taking an emetic.
23. Simply to gratify their taste. The idea that it is beneficial to the appetite is absurd and ridiculous. The plea is an excuse to cover up a practice they know to be not only dangerous morally, but a crime against the physical system.
24. It is the terrible affliction, dyspepsia.
25. The mortality is very great in cases of cholera and yellow fever. The reason is that the body is not in condition to battle with disease. The stomach, kidneys, liver, and lungs are weak, the blood is poisoned and the strength of the constitution wrecked.
26. The skin is called into greater action to throw off a part of the alcohol taken into the system. The pores and blood-vessels of the skin become larger in this exertion, and the quantity of blood gives the color which is hung outside the body as a danger-signal against the use of the fiery poison which burns within.
27. It overworks it, makes it tired, loads it with fat and weakens the power of action.
28. It stimulates the circulation, hurries the blood in its course, stretches the small arteries and makes them unfit for work.
29. It causes them to work too fast, it heats and inflames them, it hardens the walls of the air-cells, it prevents the air from purifying the blood and like all other parts of the body this organ is polluted with the presence of this slow but deadly poison.
30. Portions of the nerves, spinal cord and brains are composed of a white substance called albumen (the white of an egg); when alcohol comes in contact with this substance it absorbs the water and thickens the albumen, which action paralyzes these organs and they lose their power of action, the limbs cannot carry the body, the brain refuses to understand, and he who was created in the image of his Creator sinks into a drunken stupor.
31. The nerves of the eye are strained by the excitement and stupor and do not report to the brain a correct vision.
32. By hardening and preventing its action in removing the waste matters that should be carried off.
33. The kidneys become fatty in structure, wax-like in condition, and other conditions leading to dropsy.
34. Whatever injures the brain, weakens the power of thought and destroys the intellect.
35. If taken in sufficient quantities it almost immediately produces death. In such cases the animal has all of the appearance of poison. Nature declares that it is a poison, although by slow and constant use the system becomes used to its presence, holding in check the slow fire that is impairing the constitution, producing a poisoned blood, diseased kidneys, indigestion and the slow destruction of the mind, the brain, the heart, the nerves and the very soul of man.
36. It is often the case that the first glass in the morning is hard to swallow; it is nauseating to the stomach, and the old toper braces his physical powers and with a gulp it is gone. Why, you may ask, does he seek to do that which his system loathes and often rejects? It is for the effect; no longer is it a question of the palate and taste. There is a demand to rouse the sinking forces, to stimulate, to overcome the deadness of the heart and to produce a new excitement.
37. It imparts a warmth only by imagination. No new heat is infused into the system, but by quickened pulsation the blood rushes over the body and whatever heat is imparted to the outer surface is at the general expense of the internal heat and when this quickened pulsation returns to its normal condition the body has lost more heat and has become weaker in condition than it would have been if the excitement had not been given.
38. It is the universal verdict that those who take liquor under these circumstances do not withstand the cold equal to those who refuse to drink.
39. By turning it into their boots or against the parts liable to freeze. This would be a means of outward protection by which the internal was not disturbed.
40. It is a mystery which remains to be explained, but whatever view may be taken in regard to this evil, the fact remains that its influence is increasing, its effects are more dangerous, and its power more grasping. It is insolent in character, selfish in desires and damning in its touch. It is a curse that follows, more blighting than fire and more terrible than disease. It breathes desolation, misery and despair. It is without love, home or friendship. Its aim is to destroy the soul of man and to mock at virtue, truth and manhood. It smiles to deceive, and its deceit is but the sting of death. It is robed in the blood-money of all the crimes of the earth. It spares none who yield to its embrace, and it seeks to embrace all. It is the hell of all hells, the monster of all monsters and the fire of all fires. Its curse cannot be comprehended, nor the innocent tears of its victims be measured. But, however sad may be the picture of its pathway, man, the being it brings to the lowest depths of degradation, still gives its infamy license, and as his pen signs the right to scatter woe, misery and destruction, he lifts his eyes and cries unto his Maker, "O Lord, thy will be done!" Such mockery! Such sacrilege to the Good of all Goodness! Why, oh why, does not the wrath of God blot it from the face of the earth?
41. It was discovered by Columbus in 1492. It was taken to Spain in 1496; to France in 1560; to England in 1586.
42. One excites, while the other soothes the nerves and often produces sleep.
43. They are carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, ammonia and nicotine.
44. It causes sleepiness and headache.
45. It causes trembling of the muscles and heart.
46. It bites the tongue and makes too much work for the salivary glands.
47. It is a very poisonous element, strong in odor, bitter, and is the principal pain-soothing and sleep-producing portion of tobacco. It is a narcotic.
48. It produces weakness, nervousness, dizziness, nausea, faintness, loss of strength, stupor, and if taken in large quantities it produces convulsions and death.
49. It poisons the saliva. Injures the sense of smell, taste, sight and hearing. Causes "smokers' sore-throat." Injures the stomach, causing dyspepsia, etc. Often takes away the appetite for wholesome food. Irritates the air-cells of the lungs. Causes palpitation of the heart. Weakens the muscles, causing trembling. Injures the eyes. Stupefies the brain and nerves.
50. It makes the memory poor. Lessens the power to think. Weakens the will.
Makes people grow in selfishness and impoliteness.
Often leads to bad company.
Sometimes causes insanity.
51. The habit of smoking cigarettes. The reason for this is that they contain more nicotine and often opium.
52. It is the juice obtained from the seed-vessel of the white poppy before they are ripe. When dried, it is somewhat dark in color and bitter to the taste.
53. It is the most dangerous of drugs when used as a habit, as few can resist its influence when once the system has become accustomed to it. Its first effects are pleasant and exhilarating but the after work is one of wretched misery and can be relieved only by another portion; thus the habit becomes a cruel and unrelenting slavery.
54. They are made from opium, and should be used only under the care of a physician.
55. It is a very powerful narcotic, prepared from the hemp plant grown in hot countries. It is used quite extensively among the people of warm climates, and is a terribly exciting poison.
56. It is the seed from a kind of palm, and resembles a nutmeg. It is mixed with quick-lime and wrapped in a betel-leaf, which grows on a vine belonging to the pepper family. This mixture reddens the saliva and lips and blackens the teeth. It is chewed by millions of people in India.
57. Touch not, taste not, handle not. They are all poisonous and mean the same thing— A little pleasure, disease, and DEATH.

QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

1. What is a constitution ?
2. What is a preamble ?
3. What are legislative powers, and in what are they vested ?
4. What is Congress ?
5. What is the Senate ? House of Representatives?
6. How are senators and representatives elected, and for how long a term of office ?
7. How old must a representative be, and how long a citizen of the United States?
8. What is an elector ?
9. How are representatives apportioned among the states ?
10. What is census ? How often taken ?
11. If vacancies happen in the representation of any state, how is that vacancy filled ?
12. What are writs of election ?
13. What officers does the House of Representatives choose ?
14. What sole power has this branch of Congress ?
15. What is impeachment ?
16. Into how many classes are the senators divided ?
17. Who is president of the Senate? Can he vote?
18. Should a vacancy occur in the Senate, what is to be done ?
19. How old must a senator be, and how long a citizen of the United States ?
20. Who becomes president of the Senate when the Vice-President is absent ?
21. What sole power belongs to the Senate?
22. How may the President of the United States be punished for crime in office?
23. What judgment can the Senate declare against a convicted President?
24. If an officer is removed from office by an impeachment trial, is he subject to the common law?
25. What is a judgment? Indictment?
26. What is an oath? An affirmation?
27. What officers does the Senate choose?
28. What is the meaning of pro tempore?
29. Who appoints the times, places, and manner of holding elections of senators and representatives? What may Congress do?
30. If disputes arise in election returns, how are they to be decided?
31. How many does it require to do business? What may a smaller number do?
32. What power has each House over its members?
33. Can either House adjourn at pleasure?
34. Shall each House keep a journal of its proceedings?
35. When shall the yeas and noes be entered on the journal?
36. When shall Congress assemble? Can it assemble at any other time?
37. How do members receive compensation?
38. Can a member be arrested while Congress is in session?
39. For what shall they not be questioned in any other place?
40. Can a person hold an office under the United States and be a member of Congress?
41. Where shall bills for raising revenue originate?
42. What is revenue? What is a bill?
43. When does a bill become a law?
44. What question does not require the sanction of the President?
45. What are the powers of Congress?
46. What is meant by high seas? By law of nations?
47. What are letters of marque and reprisals?
48. What are duties, imports, and excises?
49. What is the militia?
50. Over what district may Congress exercise exclusive legislation?
51. What are forts? Magazines? Arsenals? Dock-yards?
52. What is the writ of habeas corpus? When can it be suspended?
53. What is a bill of attainder? Is it allowed?
54. What is an ex post facto law?
55. Can a tax or duty be laid on articles exported from any state?
56. What is prohibited in regard to nobility and the receiving of presents?
57. Can any state enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation?
58. Can a state engage in war?
59. What are the states forbidden to do in regard to imposts or duties on imports or exports?
60. In whom is the executive power of the United States vested?
61. Who are eligible to this office?
62. How are the President and Vice-President elected?
63. Supposing the House of Representatives fail to elect a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, who shall act as President?
64. What may Congress determine in regard to the time of choosing the electors?
65. When does the Vice-President act as the chief magistrate?
66. How is the President compensated for his services?
67. What oath must he take before he enters upon the execution of his office?
68. Who is commander-in-chief of the army and navy?
69. What offense is he not permitted to pardon?
70. Does he have a right to make treaties, appoint ambassadors, judges of the Supreme Court, and officers of the United States?
71. If a vacancy occurs during a recess of Congress, how is it filled?
72. What is the President's message?
73. For what crimes can the President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States be impeached?
74. What is treason? Bribery?
75. In what is the judicial power of the United States vested?
76. How long do the judges of the Supreme Court hold office?
77. To what cases does their power extend?
78. In what cases has the Supreme Court original jurisdiction ?
79. Where shall a criminal be tried ?
80. If the crime is not committed in the United States, where must the trial be held ?
81. What crimes are not tried by jury ?
82. What power declares the punishment of treason ? How shall a person be convicted ?
83. What is meant by, "but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted" ?
84. What faith and credit shall be given each state ?
85. Can a person charged with crime be taken from another state ?
86. How are new states admitted into the Union ?
87. How can new states be formed ?
88. What power has Congress in regard to the territory and other property belonging to the United States ?
89. What shall the United States guarantee to every state in the Union ?
90. What is the supreme law of the land ? Who are bound by oath to support it ?
91. Is a religious test required as a qualification to any office or public trust ?
92. How may the constitution be amended ?
93. How many amendments to the constitution ? When were the first ten adopted ?
94. What did Congress grant in the first amendment to the constitution ?
95. What privilege was given the states in the second amendment?
96. What is the law respecting the quartering of soldiers in any house in the time of peace ?
97. What rights are secured to the people in the fourth amendment?
98. Can a person be twice put in jeopardy of life ?
99. Can a person be compelled to be a witness against himself?
100. What is the law respecting the taking of private property ?
101. In the sixth amendment, what right shall the accused enjoy in all criminal prosecutions ?
102. When shall the right of trial by jury be preserved ?
103. What shall not be required, nor imposed, nor inflicted, in the eighth amendment?
104. In the tenth amendment, what powers are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people ?
105. What is the thirteenth amendment ?
106. In the fourteenth amendment, who is forbidden from holding certain offices ? How may the disability be removed?
107. What is said of the public debt ? What shall be held as illegal and void ?
108. What is the fifteenth amendment ?
109. What two important measures have been passed by the 48th and 49th Congress to fill a possible deficiency in the constitution ?
110. How is the electoral vote counted ?
111. What is the law in regard to the Presidential succession ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

1. The established form of government in a state, kingdom or country.
2. A formal and explanatory introduction.
3. The right to make and enforce laws, and are vested in a Congress of the United States.
4. An assemblage, especially applied to the two houses of legislative power in the United States.
5. The Senate is the upper house of a legislature, or Congress. The House of Representatives is the lower branch of a legislature, or Congress.
6. Senators are elected by the legislatures of the states for a term of six years, each state being entitled to two; representatives are elected by the people for a term of two years, each state being represented according to its population.
7. Twenty-five years, and seven years a citizen.
8. One entitled to vote.
9. According to the population of the states.
10. An official enumeration of the people, with the statement of their property, pursuits, age, etc. It is to be taken once in ten years, which forms a new basis of apportioning the number of representatives to the several states.
11. By the executive authority of the state.
12. A writing issued to an officer or officers to give notice of some election to be held.
13. The speaker, chief clerk, and sergeant-at-arms.
14. The sole power of impeachment.
15. An accusation or charge brought against a public officer for misconduct in office.
16. Three: One class being elected every two years.
17. The Vice-President of the United States, and is entitled to the casting vote.
18. The executive of the state may make a temporary appointment, until the next meeting of the legislature.
19. Thirty years of age, and nine years a citizen.
20. The Senate elects one pro tem.
21. The sole power to try all impeachments.
22. He shall be impeached by the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, sitting for that purpose, on oath or affirmation, and the Chief Justice shall preside. The conviction shall be by the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present.
23. It shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States.
24. He is liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.
25. Judgment is the sentence pronounced by the judge or court by which the person is tried. Indictment is a written accusation of crime made by a grand jury.
26. An oath is a solemn declaration, made with an appeal to God for the truth of what is affirmed. An affirmation is a solemn declaration, made by one who is unwilling to take an oath.
27. They choose all of their officers except the president of the Senate, but when absent or exercising the office of President of the United States, one shall be chosen pro tempore.
28. For the time being.
29. It is prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.
30. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members.
31. A majority; but a smaller number may compel the attendance of absent members, in such a manner and under such penalties as each House may provide.
32. It may punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.
33. Not for more than three days, without the consent of the other House.
34. It shall, and print the same, unless secrecy is required.
35. When one-fifth of those present shall require it.
36. The first Monday in December; but it may be convened by the President, when necessary, or Congress may adjourn from time to time.

37. By law; and are paid out of the treasury of the United States.

38. Only for felony, treason, or breach of the peace.
39. For any speech or debate in Congress.
40. He cannot.

41. In the House of Representatives.
42. Revenue is the income of government, arising from taxes, duties, etc. A bill is a formal writing presented to the legislature for enactment.

43. By passing both Houses of Congress, and receiving the sanction of the President; but if returned within ten days, Sundays excepted, with his objections, it does not become a law, unless reconsidered and passed by a two-thirds vote of both Houses.

44. The question of adjournment, except in case of disagreement between the two Houses with respect to the time of adjournment, when the President can adjourn them to such a time as he shall think proper.

45. Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States, but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; to borrow money on the credit of the United States; to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; to establish post-offices and post-roads; to promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; to constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; to raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be made for a longer term than two years; to provide and maintain a navy; to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;—and to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers and all others vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or any department or officer thereof.

46. The law of nations, the accepted or universal laws of all nations.

47. Written authority from government to seize the property of an enemy, especially vessels and cargoes.

48. Duty, a tax levied on imports. Imports, goods brought from other countries. Excise, a tax on anything made, used, or sold.

49. The citizens of a state liable to military duty enrolled for service.

50. The District of Columbia.

51. Fort, a place of defense. Magazine, a store where ammunition is kept. Arsenal, a repository for arms and military stores. Dockyard, a place for containing all kinds of naval stores and timber.

52. A writ for delivering a person from false imprisonment, and can only be suspended in cases of treason, or when the public safety requires it.

53. A special act of the legislature inflicting capital punishment upon persons supposed to be guilty of high crimes, without the process of law. It is not allowed by the constitution of the United States.
54. A law making an act criminal which was not so when done. It is not allowed.
55. It cannot.
56. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding an office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince or foreign state.
57. It cannot.
58. Not unless in imminent danger from invasion.
59. No state shall, without an act of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws.
60. In a President.
61. Any citizen born in the United States, thirty-five years of age, and fourteen years a resident.
62. By electors chosen by the people.
The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by distinct ballots for President and Vice-President. These votes are sealed and transmitted to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest number, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President.
63. The Vice-President shall act as President in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
64. Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their vote; which day shall be the same throughout the United States.
65. In case of the removal of the President from office,
or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office.

66. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them.

67. "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States."

68. The President.

69. Cases of impeachment.

70. He has the right, with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur, and with the advice and consent of the Senate he shall appoint ambassadors, ministers, judges, and officers of the United States, and all appointments which shall be established by law.

71. By an appointment by the President.

72. An article directed to Congress, stating the condition of the country, and proposing such measures as he may judge necessary and expedient.

73. For treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors.

74. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. Bribery is giving money or some other consideration to procure desired legislation, a judicial decision, or other official action.

75. In one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time establish.

76. During good behavior, or life.

77. In all cases arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United States, and cases that cannot be settled in the Supreme Court of any state.

78. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party. In other cases, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, or jurisdiction by an appeal from lower courts.
79. In the state where the crime is committed.
80. At such a place or places as Congress may by law have directed.
81. Crimes subject to impeachment.
82. Congress. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.
83. That no postity or person shall be denied any rights because of the punishment or conviction of another.
84. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.
85. On demand of the executive authority of the state where the crime was committed.
86. By consent of Congress.
87. From territories having 30,000 inhabitants, or from states or parts of states with the consent of the states concerned.
88. Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting it.
89. A republican form of government and protection.
90. The constitution and laws of the United States. All government officers and representatives are bound by oath to support it.
91. No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.
92. By two-thirds vote of both Houses of Congress, or by the action of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states, ratified in either case by three-fourths of all the states.
93. Fifteen; the first ten were adopted at the first session of Congress.
94. Freedom of religion, of speech, of the press, the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
95. The right of the people to keep and bear arms.
96. No soldier shall, in the time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
97. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures.
98. Nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.
99. He cannot.
100. If taken for public use, he shall have just compensation.
101. A speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.
102. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars.
103. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted.
104. The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.
105. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
106. Persons who have held office under the United States, or of any state, and shall have been engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
107. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, shall not be questioned. Any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave, shall be held illegal and void.
108. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
109. A bill for counting the electoral vote, and the Presidential succession bill.
111. "In case of removal, death, resignation, or inability of both the President and Vice-President, a member of the Cabinet shall, in the following order, act as President until the disability is removed or a President elected: The Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney General, Postmaster General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior; provided, that whenever the powers or duties of the office of President of the United States shall devolve upon any of the persons named therein, if Congress be not then in session, or if it would not meet in accordance with law
within twenty days thereafter, it shall be the duty of the person upon whom the said powers and duties shall devolve, to issue a proclamation convening Congress in extraordinary session, giving twenty days' notice of the time of meeting." (Approved January 19, 1886.)

QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY AND HYGIENE.

1. What is Physiology?
2. Illustrate the value of understanding the knowledge of physiology.
3. Into what two bodies is nature divided?
4. Define organic bodies.
5. Define inorganic bodies.
6. What is Anatomy?
7. What is Hygiene?
8. What law is impressed on all animal beings?
9. What is the difference between food and living flesh?
10. How are plants nourished?
11. How are animals nourished?
12. What do animals always possess?
13. What functions are peculiar to animals alone?
14. What organs constitute the digestive apparatus?
15. What difference in the teeth of the carnivorous and herbivorous animals?
16. How many teeth has man, and how divided?
17. Of what are teeth composed?
18. How are the teeth set in the jaw?
19. What are salivary glands? What is their function?
20. Where are the salivary glands situated?
21. Describe the pharynx, or second chamber of the mouth.
22. What is the epiglottis? 23. Describe the oesophagus.
24. How does food find its way to the stomach ?
25. Describe the stomach.
26. By what is the food dissolved in the stomach ?
27. Describe the process of digestion in the stomach ?
28. Of what is gastric juice composed?
29. Name the fluids of the body.
30. Name the solids of the body.
31. Give the list of chemical elements in the human body.
32. Into what substances are these elements divided ?
33. Name the metallic substances.
34. Name the non-metallic substances.
35. Give the arrangement of the parts of the body.
36. Define a fibre.
37. Define a fasciculus.
38. Define a tissue.
39. Define an organ.
40. What is the action of an organ called ?
41. Give an example of an organ and its functions.
42. Define an apparatus.
43. Define a system.
44. To what can every organ of the body be reduced?
45. What tissue is the primary form of all others ?
46. How is the cellular tissue formed?
47. Where is the cellular tissue formed ?
48. What is the chief use of this tissue ?
49. What different names have been given to cellular tissue ?
50. Describe the osseous tissue.
51. Describe the muscular tissue.
52. Describe the nervous tissue.
53. Into what divisions may the human system be divided ?
54. What is hunger?
55. What is the relative position of the stomach, lungs, liver and diaphragm ?
56. To what substance is all food reduced in the stomach ?
57. Does the stomach digest fatty articles of food?
58. What is the temperature of the stomach ?
59. Can food be digested artificially ?
60. What three kinds of food do we need ?
61. What is nitrogenous food ?
62. What is carbonaceous food ?
63. Name the mineral matters which should be contained in our food?
64. Could a person live on one kind of food alone?
65. State the five evil results of rapid eating.
66. Why should care be banished from the table?
67. Will a regular routine of food be beneficial?
68. What are the principal causes of dyspepsia?
69. What is the best remedy for a bilious man?
70. What is the pyloric valve?
71. How long does it take our chief articles of food to digest?
72. What does organic food comprise?
73. What does inorganic food comprise?
74. What is the first work of the stomach in digestion?
75. Into what organ does the chyme pass from the stomach?
76. Describe the intestinal canal.
77. What is the pancreas?
78. What is the office of the pancreas?
79. What are the lacteal absorbments?
80. What is the lacteal duct?
81. What is called the lacteal system?
82. How is the digested food disposed of?
83. What is chyle?
84. When is a new supply of nutriment needed?
85. Will the stomach bear sudden changes in the time of eating?
86. When does the body sustain labor and exposure best?
87. Why do growing persons or convalescents require more food than adults or persons in health?
88. What is the common error in regard to eating?
89. When any organ of the body is in action, what changes occur?
90. What is the office of the liver?
91. Where is the bile emptied?
92. Where is the spleen?
93. What is the office of the spleen?
94. What is fatigue?
95. What is rest?
96. What terms are applied to the difference in the temperament of men?
97. Describe the nervous temperament.
98. Describe the sanguine temperament.
99. Describe the bilious temperament. 100. Describe the lymphatic temperament.
101. How does childhood differ from old age?
102. Does this difference require a modification of diet?
103. What two things are to be considered in all kinds of food?
104. What are the natural effects of stimulation?
105. What is the effect of alcohol?
106. What becomes of the chyle?
107. What is the apparatus of the circulation of the blood?
108. Describe the heart.
109. What is the beating of the heart?
110. What are the valves of the heart?
111. How do these valves act?
112. How many sets of blood-vessels?
113. Describe the arteries.
114. Describe the veins.
115. Describe the capillaries.
116. What is the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circulation?
117. Give the circulation of the blood.
118. What is the aorta?
119. Where are the carotids?
120. Where are the subclavians?
121. What arteries supply the stomach with blood?
122. How is the liver supplied?
123. How are the kidneys supplied?
124. How is the spleen supplied?
125. How is the intestinal canal supplied?
126. How is the heart supplied?
127. What are the chief divisions of the aorta?
128. What is the vena cava?
129. What are the names of the larger branches of the vena cava?
130. How are the arteries or veins arranged in respect to each other?
131. How does the blood pass through the heart?
132. How do the pulmonary arteries and pulmonary veins differ?
133. Where are the largest arteries situated?
134. Where are the largest veins situated?
135. What prevents the blood in the veins from flowing backwards?
136. How does arterial blood differ from venous?
137. What action have the lungs upon the blood?
138. What causes the blood to circulate in the veins ?
139. How much blood in a man of average size?
140. In what time does it circulate through the system ?
141. What circumstances will affect the rate of circulation ?
142. How do mental states affect the circulation ?
143. Where is the living flesh made ?
144. What materials of the body are obtained from the blood ?
145. For what purpose is the circulation of the blood ?
146. Give the elements of the blood.
147. Give the use of the corpuscles of the blood.
148. What law must be observed in regard to eating, if health is preserved ?
149. How are the wasted particles of the body disposed of?
150. What elements are selected by the nutritive organs to form fat ?
151. What elements are required to form hair ?
152. What to form muscle ?
153. Describe the lungs.
154. Describe the air-cells.
155. What is the organ of voice ? How is voice produced ?
156. Compare the lungs and heart, giving three points in common and three points of difference.
157. Describe the spine.
158. Describe a vertebra.
159. How are the bones of the spinal column divided ?
160. What is the pelvis?
161. What is the sternum ?
162. What is the coccyx?
163. Describe the ribs.
164. Describe the skull.
165. What are the bones of the arm and forearm ?
166. What are the bones of the wrist ?
167. What are the bones of the hands?
168. Name the bones of the lower extremities.
169. How many different kinds of joints ?
170. How are the joints held together ?
171. Where is the clavicle?
172. Where is the scapula ?
173. What peculiarity about the joints of the neck ?
174. How is the femur joined to the pelvis? 175. What peculiarity about the elbow and wrist joints ?
176. Describe the hip joint ?
177. Describe the shoulder joint.
178. How many bones in the human body ?
179. What three uses have the bones ?
180. Of what is a bone made ?
181. What is the structure of a bone ?
182. What are the rickets ?
183. What is a felon ?
184. What is the cause of bow legs ?
185. What is a dislocation ?
186. Describe the three classes of levers.
187. In what state do bones exist at first ?
188. How are they converted into bone ?
189. What is the strength of the human bone ?
190. Define ossification of the bone.
191. What is the only bone in the body which is completely ossified, or hardened at birth ?
192. What are the chief uses of cartilage ?
193. What is the membrane called that invests the bones ?
194. Into how many parts are the bones of the body divided ?
195. Where are the synoval membranes situated ?
196. What is the function of the synoval membrane ?
197. When is a joint said to be sprained ?
198. What is a muscle ?
199. How many kinds of muscles ?
200. What is the use of muscles ?
201. How many muscles ?
202. How are the muscles under the control of the will ?
203. What is the St. Vitus' Dance ?
204. What is the locked jaw ?
205. Is the heart a muscle ? Voluntary or organic ?
206. How do we breathe ?
207. Describe the diaphragm ?
208. Explain the process of inspiration ?
209. Explain the process of expiration ?
210. What is the cause of squinting ?
211. What is coughing ?
212. What is sneezing ?
213. What is sighing ? Snoring ?
214. What is laughing ? Crying ?
215. What is yawning? Hiccoughing?
216. What is the effect of breathing the same air sev-eral times ?
217. In how many ways is the air unfit for respira-tion?
218. How much fresh air ought to be supplied to each person per minute ?
219. How much air will the lungs hold ?
220. What effect has an ill-ventilated school-room upon children ?
221. How should we ventilate our bed-rooms and school-houses ?
222. What is the average number of respirations per minute ?
223. What animals are most active ? What most sluggish ?
224. How does consumption waste the flesh and strength ?
225. What is bronchitis ? Pleurisy ? Pneumonia ?
226. How may a constitutional tendency to consump-tion be warded off in youth ?
227. What is the rule for prevention and cure of a cold ?
228. What is the first step to be taken in the cure of a disease ?
229. Why does sleep sometimes fail to refresh ?
230. What is carbonic acid ?
231. What is a common source of danger from car-bonic acid ?
232. How does drowning produce death ?
233. What necessity is imposed on all animals ?
234. What reciprocal offices do animals and vegetables perform ?
235. What is the temperature of the human body ?
236. What is the origin of heat in living bodies ?
237. Into what classes are animals divided in relation to heat ?
238. What prevents an increase of temperature in the body ?
239. What is insensible perspiration ?
240. What is sensible perspiration ?
241. Which protects from cold best, alcohol or food ?
242. Which warms most, flesh or bread ?
243. Why is more fat required for food in a cold cli-mate than in a warm ?
244. Of what use is fat to the body ?
245. What is noticeable of the fat ?
246. What are the oil glands ?
247. Describe the skin.
248. Name the three uses of the skin.
249. What is the cuticle?
250. What part of the blood flows through the skin ?
251. Describe the hair.
252. Describe the nails.
253. Where is the seat of color in the skin ?
254. What proportion of the waste of the body passes through the skin ?
255. What connection exists between the internal organs and the skin?
256. What is the office of the skin ?
257. Name those organs which carry off waste matter from the body.
258. Name those organs which bring fresh material to the body.
259. Describe the minute structure of the perspiratory organs.
260. Of what does the nervous system consist ?
261. Describe the general outline of the brain.
262. How is the brain protected ?
263. What peculiarity of the brain in regard to the sense of feeling?
264. Describe the sense of feeling.
265. Describe the sense of taste.
266. Describe the organ of smell.
267. What large nervous trunks have their origin in the brain ?
268. What is the spinal cord, and its position ?
269. How many kinds of nerves ?
270. What three things are necessary for sensation ?
271. Is the action of the different organs modified by the nerves ?
272. Do the arteries have nerves ?
273. If the nerve which governs the action of the heart should be severed, what would the heart do?
274. When will motion be lost and feeling remain ?
275. When will feeling be lost and motion remain ?
276. What is reflex action?
277. What is day-dreaming?
278. Describe the eye.
279. What is the sclerotic coat? Cornea?
280. What is the choroid coat ?
281. Where is the retina? Its office ?
282. Where is the iris ? Its office ?
283. Describe the lids.
284. Where is the fluid prepared which moistens the eyes?
285. What are the lachrymal glands? What is the nasal duct ?
286. What moves the eye ?
287. Describe the optic nerve ?
288. How is vision produced ?
289. What care should be taken in regard to the direction of the light when we are at work ?
290. How does the eye change as one grows old?
291. What is the difference between a short-sighted man and one who is long-sighted?
292. Why are some persons cross-eyed ?
293. What does the organ of hearing include?
294. Describe the external ear.
295. Describe the internal ear.
296. What is the eustachian tube?
297. How is sound produced?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON
PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY AND HYGIENE.

1. The science of the organic functions of animals or plants.
2. By a proper knowledge of this subject lives may be saved, strength preserved, and life lengthened. In case of accidents, as of poison, drowning or bodily injuries, this knowledge may be of great value to us in relieving sickness and distress.
3. Into organic and inorganic bodies.
4. They are those bodies which possess organs, on whose actions depend their growth and perfection. It includes minerals and plants.
5. They are devoid of organs, or instruments of life, as the earth's minerals, etc.
6. The science of the structure of animal bodies.
7. That branch of medicine which treats of the preservation of health.
8. The law of constant change.
9. Food is the material we eat, changed by the action of the system into living flesh.
10. They are nourished by the inorganic elements found in the earth and air around them. This material is received in the form of liquid or a gas, already prepared for their use.
11. They are nourished by the organic materials of vegetables or of other animals.
12. They possess a stomach or digestive cavity, in which the food is prepared before it can be absorbed by the machinery of the body.
13. Sensation and voluntary motion, and are, therefore, called animal functions.
14. The mouth, pharynx, œsophagus, stomach, pancreas, and intestinal canal.
15. The carnivorous have sharp front teeth, and long, sharp and pointed canine teeth, and grinders with high and sharpened points. The herbivorous have short, blunt, and strong front teeth, small canine teeth, but their molars are very large, broad and flat, with slightly raised lines on their surface.
16. Sixteen in each jaw : four incisors in the center ; one canine next to the incisors, on each side ; then two bicuspids, and three molars.
17. They are composed of soft bone within, but are covered on the outside with an enamel of very hard texture, which admits of an exquisitely fine polish.
18. With long fangs, so they are not easily started from their places.
19. They are glands which empty their fluids into the mouth. Their function is to secrete fluid which moistens the food during mastication, and assists, in a measure, in digestion.
20. The two larger ones, situated between the ear and upper part of the jaw, are called parotid glands. Two smaller ones, situated about half way between the symphysis, or center, are called submaxillary. Smaller ones still, underneath the tongue, are called sublingual.
21. It is separated from the mouth by the palate. Four passages open out of it : one leads forward to the mouth ; a second, upward to the nose ; a third, downward to the lungs ; and a fourth, backward to the stomach.
22. A small valve placed over the mouth of the trachea, admitting air, but excluding all foreign substances.
23. It is a soft muscular tube, extending from the pharynx to the stomach, and is about nine inches in length, and some less than one inch in diameter. It is composed principally of two muscular coats ; the fibers of one run lengthwise of the tube, and the fibers of the other passing around it in a circular manner.
24. Upon being forced back in the mouth to the pharynx it causes, by its presence, the muscles of the pharynx to contract upon it. This is the act of swallowing, and is beyond the control of the will. The circular fibers of the
muscles of the oesophagus seize upon the morsel of food, and contracting, force it downward until it reaches the stomach.

25. It is an oval-shaped sac, situated below the dia-phragm on the same plane with the liver, and lies mostly on the left side of the spine. It has two openings; an up-per, or cardiac orifice, where the oesophagus enters; and a lower, or pyloric orifice, which enters into the duodenum. It is composed of three coats: an outer or serous coat, which is the same as that which lines the whole abdomen; a middle, or muscular coat, composed of two layers of fibers, longitudinal and circular, the contraction of which move the food about the stomach during digestion; and an inner, or mucous coat, containing the gastric tubules, which secrete the gastric juice.

26. A powerful fluid called the gastric juice.

27. The presence of food in the stomach causes the gastric juice to be thrown out. The muscles of the stomach move the food about, which causes the gastric juice to be thoroughly intermingled with it. The gastric juice re-duces the food to a pulpy mass, which occurs usually in three or four hours, and is then passed out of the stomach at the pyloric orifice.

28. It is composed of an acid, supposed to be lactic or hydrochloric acid, and an organic substance called pepsin.

29. They are the blood, chyle, lymph, saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, synovia, mucus, and serum. Bile, sweat, and urine are excretions.

30. The solids are the bones, teeth, cartilages, ligaments, muscles, nerves, vessels, viscera, membranes, skin, hair, and nails.

31. They are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, sodium, potas-sium, chlorine, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, fluorine, silicon, iron, manganese.

32. Into metallic and non-metallic substances.

33. They are potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese.

34. They are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sili-cium, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine.

35. They are arranged into fibers, fasciculi, tissues, organs, apparatuses, and systems.

36. It is a thread of exceeding fineness, and may be round or flattened.

37. It is the term applied to several fibres united. 38. A tissue is a term applied to several different solids of the body.
39. An organ is an instrument composed of tissues, and designed for action.
40. It is called its function or use.
41. The liver is an organ, and the secretion of bile its function.
42. An apparatus consists of a number of different organs for the performance of some office. The teeth, mouth, stomach, intestines, etc., belong to the digestive apparatus.
43. It is a connected series of similar parts, such as the muscular or nervous system.
44. They are supposed to be reduced to a few tissues, as the cellular, osseous, muscular, mucous, and nervous.
45. The cellular or areolar tissue is regarded as the primary form of all others.
46. It is formed by the crossing or interlacing of minute fibers, interwoven in every direction, so as to form a web-like membrane with innumerable small spaces, which communicate with each other.
47. It is formed in every part of the system, except in compact portions of bone, teeth and cartilage.
48. Its chief use seems to be to connect together organs and parts of organs which require a certain degree of motion on each other. It possesses great power of elasticity.
49. It differs according to its position in the body. Where it is not exposed to the air it is called the serous membrane, from a fluid secreted in it, called serum. In the lining of the respiratory passages and of the alimentary canal, it is called mucous membrane. Where it forms a covering for the body, it is called the dermoid membrane, or skin.
50. This tissue, in composition and arrangement of matter, varies at different periods of life, and in different bones. In some instances the bony matter is disposed in plates, while in other instances the arrangement is cylindrical, and again it is spongy, or porous.
51. This tissue is composed of many fibers that unite to form fasciculi, each of which is enclosed in a delicate layer of cellular tissue.
52. The nervous tissue consists of soft, pulpy matter, enclosed in a sheath, called neurilema, and consists of two substances, the one a pulpy matter, gray in color, and is called
cineritious (ash-colored), while the other is of a fibrous character and white and called medullary (marrow-like).

53. Though the body is harmoniously united into a single system, it can be dissected and the parts described separately. The following order is here adopted :
Osteology, or an account of the bones or frame-work of the system.
Myology, an account of the muscles or the mov-ing power of the system.
Splanchnology, or the nutritive organs.
Angiology, an account of the circulating system of the arteries and veins.
Pneumonology, an account of the respiratory, vocal, and calorific organs.
Chorology, the secreting system.
Neurology, the history of the nervous system.
The Inlets of the Soul, the senses.

54. A sensation of want of more nutriment in the body, and is caused by the action of the blood on the terminal branches of the nerves in the mucous coat of the stomach.

55. The lungs lie within the walls of the thorax, sep-arated from the abdomen by a broad muscle, the dia-phragm. Under the right lung, below the diaphragm, lies the liver, and to the left is the stomach.

56. A pulpy substance, called chyme.

57. It does not; they are digested by the pancreatic and intestinal juices.

58. About 100° F.

59. It can. If food be thoroughly mixed with hydro-chloric acid and pepsin, and kept at an equal temperature of 100°, it will be reduced in a few hours to a homogeneous mass somewhat resembling chyme.

60. Nitrogenous, carbonaceous, and mineral food.

61. It is the food which contains much nitrogen. The most common forms are whites of eggs, lean meat, gluten, and caseine.

62. Those kinds which contain much carbon, and con-sist of two kinds, viz.: the sugars and the fats.

63. There should be limited quantities of iron, sulphur, magnesia, phosphorus, salt and potash.

64. He could not. A person fed on starch would have nothing to make muscle of and if continued would die of nitrogen starvation.

65. The evil results of rapid eating are :
A lack of saliva with the food.
The coarse pieces resist the action of the digestive fluids.
Drinking too freely, which dilutes the gastric juice, and hinders digestion.
Overcrowding the stomach by this rapidity.
The use of condiments to give taste to the food, which over-stimulates the digestive organs.

66. Care or grief restrain digestion and should not occupy the mind at such times. It is a nervous action and the nourishing organs of the system are held back, but with merriment and pleasant thoughts the opposite is the result.
67. By a regular routine of food the appetite becomes insipid, and if continued in will generally produce a sickness to reject the food which has become disgusting to the stomach. The apparent simple feat of eating one quail a day for thirty successive days, at a stated hour of the day, has never been accomplished but once. It is this sameness of taste which cannot be endured beyond a certain time, and although a great variety of food is taken, yet the little quail finally upsets the whole system and the individual cannot retain it on his stomach.
68. By overtaxing the digestive organs. This may be done by too much food, irregularity of eating, drinking strong drinks, etc.
69. Work, work, work. Not to a degree of physical prostration, but to such an extent that the body demands nourishment and the muscles to be recruited. Nature will then build herself up to supply this demand.
70. It is no valve, but simply a narrowing or contraction of the pyloric end of the stomach.

71.
ARTICLES.                     PREPARATION.   TIME.
                                             Hrs. Min.
Apples, hard, sour........... Raw.           2    50
Apples, sweet, mellow........ Raw.           1    30
Barley..................... Boiled.          2    ..
Beef, fresh, rare............ Roasted.       3    ..
Beef, steak.................. Fried.         4    ..
Bread, wheat, fresh.......... Baked.         3    30
Cake, sponge................ Baked.          2    30
Cheese, old.................. Raw.           3    30
Codfish, salt, dry........... Boiled.        2    ..
Ducks, wild.................. Roasted.       4    30
Eggs, fresh.................. Boiled, hard   3    30
Eggs, fresh.................. Roasted.       2    20

ARTICLES. PREPARATION.         TIME.
                               Hrs.  Min.
Eggs, fresh, whipped... Raw.   1 30
Milk, new... Raw.              2 15
Mutton, fresh... Roasted.      3 15
Oysters, fresh... Raw.         3 ..
Oysters, fresh... Stewed.      3 30
Pigs' feet, soused... Boiled.  1 30
Pork, fat and lean... Roasted. 5 15
Pork, salted... Raw.           3 ..
Potatoes, Irish... Boiled.     3 30
Potatoes, Irish... Roasted.    2 30
Rice... Boiled.                1 ..
Sausage... Broiled.            3 20
Soup, barley... Boiled.        1 30
Soup, oyster... Boiled.        3 30
Tripe, soused... Boiled.       1 ..
Trout, fresh... Fried.         1 30
Veal, fresh... Fried.          4 30
Venison, steak... Broiled.     1 35

72. Organic food comprises nitrogenous substances; fats; compounds of carbon and hydrogen, such as sugar or starch.

73. Inorganic food comprises water and alkalies, such as salt, phosphates, etc.

74. To get rid of the greater part of the fluid which has been swallowed with the food.

75. Into the duodenum.

76. It is composed of three coats, arranged in a manner similar to the stomach, and for similar purposes. The mucous coat secretes the intestinal juice, which aids digestion. It is divided into the large and small intestines; the small intestine is subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum; between the ileum and the large intestine is a perfect valve, which allows nothing to pass back that has once entered the large intestine from the ileum.

77. A long, narrow gland, situated immediately below and behind the stomach.

78. It secretes the pancreatic juice, which is emptied into the duodenum, and digests the fatty parts of food.

79. Numberless minute tubules in the intestinal mucous membrane, which take up by absorption the nutriment, and convey them to the blood. These tubules join together, forming other tubules, which again join, and continue to do so until all are united in the thoracic duct.

80. The duct into which all the lacteal absorbents empty, and is sometimes called the thoracic duct.
passes upward along the spine, and empties into the left subclavian vein.
81. The lacteal absorbents, the tubes which they form by joining together, and the lacteal duct—all together form the lacteal system.
82. In the duodenum the digested food is divided into two kinds; that which is to enter the blood-vessels, and the waste.
83. Food reduced to a whitish-colored fluid, and ready to be absorbed by the lacteals.
84. When the lacteal absorbents have consumed the chyle and carried it into the veins, and the blood can no longer meet the demands of the wasting flesh.
85. Not without some complaint. One's appetite returns at established periods; then his stomach craves food, and the gastric juice is ready to flow and dissolve it.
86. When it is best nourished.
87. In order to meet the new conditions, and supply the new wants of the system.
88. That to please the palate, food that is not easily digested is eaten, and more than the system requires.
89. The nervous force of the part is increased, and the circulation of the blood quickened, to supply the waste and support its powers.
90. To form the bile, the elements of which are separated from the blood.
91. It is emptied through a duct into the duodenum, and serves to keep the intestinal contents in a healthy condition.
92. On the left side of the spine.
93. It is a ductless gland, and its office is not for a certainty known.
94. A waste of the particles of the system, by exercise greater than the new materials supplied by the blood.
95. The restoration of the materials wasted by fatigue.
96. The general classes are the nervous, sanguine, bilious, and lymphatic temperaments.
97. Those in whom the nervous system predominates, who are easily elated or depressed, whose mental actions are performed with rapidity.
98. Those in whom the circulatory system predominates; who are strong, but at the same time active; who are bold and resolute, and always hopeful.
99. Those in whom the physical system predominates;
who are strong in mind and body, but not quick; who are calm, steady and persevering.

100. Those in whom the lymphatic system predominates; who are indisposed to exertion and unexcitable.

101. In childhood the blood flows rapidly, the muscles are easily stimulated to action, the nervous system is irritable, and the feelings and passions are readily quickened. In old age, all the powers, feelings, and passions are in an opposite direction.

102. It does. The elastic period requires a mild and soothing diet, while the inactive period needs more stimulating food.

103. First—The digestibility. Second—The quantity of nutriment contained in them.

104. When any part of the body is rubbed with pepper, mustard, or spirits, it creates an irritation; the blood flows to the place more abundantly; there is greater action and quicker life; but these effects soon cease, and then the skin is pale, the circulation is more languid, for unusual action of the muscles causes fatigue.

105. It is quick in action, both in excitement and exhaustion. To a healthy stomach it must be injurious, for it gives only temporary strength; it only quickens the action and expenditure of power already existing, leaving the stomach to fall below its natural standard.

106. It is taken up by the lacteal absorbents, carried through the lacteal tubes to the thoracic duct, and from that emptied into the left subclavian vein near the heart.

107. The heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins.

108. It is a hollow, muscular organ of a conical form, placed between the lungs, lying more in the left than right cavity of the chest. It is about five inches in length, three inches and a half in breadth, and two inches and a half in thickness; and weighs from eight to twelve ounces. It is divided by a septum into two lateral halves; and a transverse constriction divides each half into two cavities, the upper cavity on each side being called the auricle, and the lower the ventricle.

109. When the heart contracts, to send the blood out, the apex is thrown forward and strikes against the ribs of the left side, near the breast bone, where the beating is very easily felt.

110. In the passage-ways of the heart valves are placed, which open to allow the blood to pass downward, but they close, and prevent its passing upward. 111. They act on the same principle as the valve in the common pump-box.
112. Three: The arteries, veins and capillaries.
113. They are tubular vessels, which serve to convey the blood from both ventricles of the heart to every part of the body. They are composed of three coats: internal, middle and external. The middle coat consists of muscular and elastic fibers principally, which make the larger arteries very elastic. The arteries are supplied with nutrient arteries and nerves.
114. The veins return the blood from the capillaries to the heart, communicating very freely with one another.
115. They are minute terminal branches of the arteries, and pervade nearly every tissue of the body in a vast network.
116. In the pulmonary circulation the blood is conveyed to the lungs to be purified, and then brought back to the heart; in the systemic circulation the blood is carried to every part of the system, and returned by the veins to the heart.
117. By a contraction of the heart the blood is forced from the left ventricle through the aortic valves into the aorta, and through all the arteries of the body, to the upper and lower extremities, and the internal organs. From these various points it enters the capillaries, where all the changes in the system are produced; and is then taken up by the veins, and returned as venous blood to the right auricle of the heart. From the right auricle it passes through a valvular constriction into the right ventricle; from the right ventricle it is forced through valves into the pulmonary arteries, which carry it to the lungs; and from the lungs returned again to the heart through the pulmonary veins, entering the left auricle of the heart, and passing to the left ventricle, the point of commencement.
118. The largest artery in the systemic circulation. It passes upward from the heart at first, describes a curve, and goes downward, passing through the diaphragm and along the spinal column. The curved portion is called the arch of the aorta; between the arch and the diaphragm it is called the thoracic aorta; below the diaphragm, the abdominal aorta.
119. The carotids are arteries carrying blood upwards along the neck; the left carotid arises from the arch of the aorta; the right from the arteria innominata, a large vessel springing from the aorta.
120. The subclavians carry blood to the arms. The left arises from the arch of the aorta; the right from the arteria nominata.

121. The gastric artery, arising from the coelic, which arises from the abdominal aorta; also a branch from the splenic artery, and one from the hepatic.

122. The liver is supplied by the hepatic artery, a branch of the coelic axis.

123. The kidneys are supplied by the renal arteries.

124. By the splenic artery, the third branch of the coelic axis.

125. By the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries.

126. By the coronary arteries, small branches from the aorta.

127. The subclavian, carotid, coelic, hepatic, renal, splenic, and where the aorta branches off to go to the extremities, it is then called (the two branches that pass through the groins) the inguinal arteries, and where they enter the thighs, the femoral arteries.

128. There are two vessels by this name—one called the superior, and the other the inferior vena cava. The superior vena cava is formed by the junction of the two innominate veins, which in turn are formed from the subclavian and jugular veins. The inferior vena cava is formed from the junction of the two iliac veins, which are supplied by the femoral and other veins. Both vessels empty into the right auricle of the heart.

129. The jugular, subclavian, and inguinal veins.

130. The arteries begin at the heart, and end in all the parts of the body, in minute tubes. The veins, on the contrary, begin in the flesh of all parts of the body at the connecting link (the capillaries), and end in one large trunk, the vena cava, at the heart.

131. By the contraction of the heart, which forces the blood from one chamber to another; first, from the right auricle to the right ventricle, then to the lungs, and back to the heart, passing through the left auricle and left ventricle.

132. The pulmonary arteries convey venous blood from the heart to the lungs, where it is purified, and then returned to the heart by the pulmonary veins as arterial blood.

133. They are placed deeply within the flesh, where they are protected from injury. Some of them approach
the surface, and their pulsation can be felt at the wrist, at the sides of the neck and on the temple.

134. Their great trunks are placed near the great arteries, but being less liable to injury, their branches are situated nearer to, and more of them on, the surface, than the arterial branches.

135. Valves placed at proper intervals on the inner coat of the veins. The long veins are the best supplied; some veins have no valves.

136. Venous blood is of a dark purple color, loaded with the waste particles of the system. The arterial blood is of a bright scarlet color, purified of all waste matter, rich in oxygen and nutritious elements.

137. It purifies the venous blood by means of the air in the lungs, which gives up its oxygen, and absorbs the carbon and other impurities.

138. The action of the heart, which is like a pump; for when the arterial blood is forced out, it leaves a vacuum for the venous blood to flow in; also the pressure of the muscles on the veins by contraction; and perhaps a power from behind, or capillary force, in the capillaries.

139. It is estimated to be twenty-eight pounds.

140. The left ventricle of the heart, in a man of average size, will contain about two ounces. Every time the heart beats this cavity is filled and emptied. In ordinary health the heart will beat about seventy-two times in a minute; therefore, in three minutes, an amount of blood equal to the whole will pass through the heart, or system.

141. The heart will beat faster when we are standing than when we are sitting, and faster when sitting than when lying down. The pulsation is more rapid in the morning than in the evening. All exercise increases the force of the circulation.

142. When the mind is excited with anger, hope, cheerfulness and love, the blood flows more freely, and he is capable of greater exertions. The depressing passions have the opposite effect.

143. In the capillaries.

144. All the tissues of the body—the bone, muscle, brain, skin, fat, the hair and nails, the tears, saliva, and the perspiration.

145. To carry nutrition to the body, and absorb the dead particles of the flesh.

146. The elements of animal blood contain the following: Red and white corpuscles; animal fibrine; water;
albumen. The first two form the clot, the remaining two the serum. The blood contains dissolved within it three gases: Carbonic acid, oxygen, and a small quantity of nitrogen.

147. The red corpuscles are supposed to convey oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, while the white are the agents which repair the body. This is shown in the healing of a large wound, as the presence of the white are then most numerous.

148. When exercise is light, eat but little, and at no time eat to excess.

149. They are thrown out of the system by the lungs, by the skin, by the kidneys, and by the liver and intestines.

150. Seventy-nine parts of carbon, 11½ parts of hydrogen, and 9½ parts of oxygen.

151. Fifty parts of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, 17 of nitrogen, and 26 parts oxygen and sulphur.

152. Fifty-one parts of carbon, 7 of hydrogen, 15 of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 4 parts of other matters.

153. The lungs are placed, one in each of the lateral cavities of the chest, separated from each other by the heart, and are conical in shape. The right lung is larger than the other, and has three lobes ; the left lung has two. The weight of both lungs is about forty-two ounces ; the color, in young persons, is of a pinkish white, but mottled with dark spots as age advances. The substance of the lungs is of a light, spongy texture. Passing through it in every direction from the trachea are numerous tubes, called bronchial tubes, growing smaller as they subdivide. Each tube ends in a minute cell, or vesicle, the air-cell.

154. The air tubes commence at the back part of the mouth and nostrils with a single cylinder, which leads through the neck to the chest ; but in the lungs they are divided and subdivided into smaller and smaller tubes, and at the minute termination of these tubes are found the air-cells. These cells are separated from the myriads of minute arteries only by an exceedingly thin membrane, so thin that gases can pass through it, and the blood itself is almost in contact with the air, whereby it becomes purified and in condition to nourish the system.

155. The larynx is the organ of voice, and is the upper part of the trachea, where small cords, called vocal cords,
stretch across it. Voice is produced by the air rushing over the vocal cords.

156. The three points in common are :
Both operate by expansion and contraction.
Both are involuntary organs ; that is, on ordinary occasions they act independently of the will.
Both are indispensable to the maintenance of life.
Three points of difference:
The lungs contain air; the heart blood.
The lungs contain air cells ; the heart is divided into compartments.
The lungs purify the blood ; the heart propels it through the body.

157. The spinal column is composed of twenty-four vertebrae—the sacrum and the coccyx; and is a little over two feet in length. The vertebrae are separated from one another by a thick piece of elastic cartilage, which saves the body from jars. Twelve of the vertebrae in the thoracic region support the twelve ribs on each side.

158. It is somewhat circular and flattened on the sides, with tooth-like projections, which match one with another. They each have spinous processes extending backward. Through the center of each vertebra the spinal cord passes.

159. They are divided into cervical (neck), seven bones ; dorsal (back), twelve bones ; lumbar (loin), five bones.

160. It is a bony cavity at the lower part of the spine, composed of the sacrum, coccyx, and the two innominate bones, or hip-bones.

161. A flat, sword-shaped bone, consisting of three pieces, which forms the front part of the thorax, and supports the ribs by means of their cartilages.

162. A small bone at the lower extremity of the sacrum.

163. The ribs are curved, and join the spine behind and the sternum in front. The lower five are called false ribs, because their connection with the sternum is not so close as that of the others.

164. The skull is divided into the cranium and face; the cranium is composed of eight bones, the face of fourteen.

165. The humerus of the arm, and the radius and ulna of the forearm.

166. In the wrist are eight small bones arranged in two layers.

167. In the hands are five metacarpal bones and fourteen phalanges.

168. In the thigh, the femur ; in the leg, the tibia and fibula; in the ankle, seven small bones; in the foot, five metacarpal bones and fourteen phalanges ; also, the patella, or knee-pan.

169. Four : The hinge joint, as in the elbow ; the ball and socket joint, as in the shoulder and thigh ; a combination of the hinge joint with a rotary movement, as in the neck ; and a joint with a sliding movement, as between the clavicle and sternum.

170. They are held together by ligaments.

171. It is the collar bone, extending between the sternum and shoulders.

172. The scapula is a broad, flat, triangular bone, called the shoulder-blade ; it forms part of the shoulder joint.

173. Between the head and the first vertebra is a hinge joint ; and between the first and second vertebræ is a joint with a rotary movement, formed by a tooth-like projection from the second vertebra, which serves as an axis for the first to play upon. The two joints combined give the various movements to the head.

174. By a ball and socket joint.

175. That a rotary movement is given to the hand by the radius rotating in a fibrous socket at the elbow, and corresponding movement at the wrist between the ulna and hand.

176. The femur, or thigh bone, has almost a globular head at its upper extremity, which is fitted into a very deep socket in the side bone of the pelvis. The socket is called the acetabulum.

177. The head of the bone of the upper arm is less than half a ball, and is fitted into a very shallow socket in the upper corner of the scapula or shoulder-blade.

178. Two hundred and four, besides the teeth and the patellæ, or knee-caps.

179. To protect the delicate organs ; to serve as levers on which the muscles may act to produce motion ; to preserve the shape of the body.

180. Of animal and earthy matter ; two-thirds earthy and one-third animal. The earthy matter is principally carbonate and phosphate of lime.

181. Bone is made of two kinds of tissue : A dense, hard tissue, like ivory, which is on the outside, and forms
the shell; and a porous or cancellated tissue, always found on the inside of the bone.

182. The rickets are caused by a lack of mineral matter in the bones, which become soft and under the weight of the body become distorted, and of course are weaker.

183. A felon is a swelling of the finger or thumb, generally of the last joint. It is caused by the accumulation of matter beneath the periosteum and next to the bone.

184. By children standing on their feet before the bones of the lower limbs are strong enough to bear their weight.

185. It is the forcing of a joint from its socket. This is done by breaking or straining the tissues of the joint.

186. The movements of the head; raising the body on tiptoe; lifting the hands from the elbow.

187. They first exist in a state of cartilage.

188. By nature's deposit of phosphates and carbonate of lime.

189. Human bones, when used as levers, are twenty-two times as strong as sandstone; three and one-half the strength of lead; twice as strong as oak timber.

190. It is the growth of bone from the cartilage.

191. It is that bone which is called the petrous, which contains the organs of hearing.

192. Their chief uses are the following:
To give smooth surfaces to the joints, by which there is an easy friction, and to serve as a cushion in shocks.
To fasten bones together without destroying freedom of movement, as between its vertebræ.
To serve as a firm yet not unyielding framework, as in the larynx and trachea.
To adapt itself to all purposes where firmness, toughness, elasticity and strength are required.

193. It is called the periosteum, a firm, whitish-yellow membrane, and encloses the vessels which convey nutriment into the bones. It is this membrane to which the ligaments and tendons are attached, as they cannot be fastened to the bone itself.

194. For convenience of study they are divided into four parts:
The bones of the head.
The bones of the trunk.
The bones of the upper extremities.
The bones of the lower extremities.

195. In joints.
196. To secrete a liquid which lubricates the joint.
197. When, by an accident, a ligament or some fibers of a ligament are torn or much stretched.
198. The active organs of locomotion. They are formed of bundles of reddish fibers endowed with the property of contractility.
199. Two: those under control of the will, called the muscles of animal life; and those over which the will has no control, called muscles of organic life.
200. To produce all the motions of the body.
201. About 527; the number varies.
202. Through the nervous system. Every muscle of animal life is supplied with nerves through which the mind operates.
203. A disease of the voluntary muscles, by which they obtain spasmodic motions.
204. Lockjaw is a disease in which there are spasms and a contraction of the muscles, usually beginning in the lower jaw. It is sometimes caused by a very trivial injury, as a cut on the foot, a fish-hook in the finger, a bruise, etc.
205. It is a muscle of organic life.
206. Principally by the aid of the diaphragm, which contracting, produces a vacuum in the lungs, and air rushes in to fill the space.
207. It is a flat muscle, and is a flexible partition that divides the chest from the abdomen, and separates the respiratory from the digestive organs. Its edges are attached to the back-bone, to the lower edge of the lower ribs, to the breast-bone, and to the lower part of the chest. It forms an arch, upon the upper surface of which the lungs rest; and in the hollow below, the liver and stomach. When the diaphragm is at rest its upper point reaches as high as the fourth rib; but when it is in action it is drawn down to below the seventh rib.
208. The muscles on the sides of the chest raise the ribs and extend their circle forward and outward. The diaphragm draws down its arch and thus enlarges the chest, and the lungs having room for expansion, the air is pressed into them to fill the vacuum left by the enlarging chest. This is the mechanical part of the process of inspiration.
209. After the chest is thus sufficiently expanded, the muscles of the ribs and the diaphragm relax and lose their firmness. Then the action of other muscles carries the
ribs downward; and at the same time, the muscles that cover the abdomen press upon its contents, and force them against the diaphragm. This yields to the pressure and rises upward and presses upon the lungs, which retreat before it, and the air is expelled. This is the process of expiration.
210. Most cases of squinting are caused by long-sightedness, the muscles being strained in the effort to obtain distinct vision.
211. A spasmodic action of the muscles of expiration forcing the air out violently through the mouth.
212. It is the same action as coughing, only the mouth is closed, and the air rushes through the nose.
213. Sighing is a prolonged inspiration, followed by an audible expiration. Snoring is caused by the air passing through both nose and mouth, the palate in the meantime produces a vibration of the air.
214. Laughing and crying are very much alike in regard to the action of the muscles to produce it. The sounds are produced by short, rapid contractions of the diaphragm.
215. Yawning, or gaping, is like sighing, only the mouth is open wide to take in the deep inspiration. Hiccoughing is caused by a contraction of the diaphragm and a constriction of the glottis.
216. It poisons the system, the expired air being loaded with waste matter and carbonic acid.
217. Three: By being deprived of oxygen; by being loaded with carbonic acid; by being filled with waste matter from the lungs, skin, etc., or other poisonous materials.
218. About four cubic feet.
219. About 384 cubic inches.
220. They grow dull and sleepy from the action of the poisonous matter in the air.
221. The windows should be opened in such a manner as to give fresh air and not blow directly on the sleeper or student. This is usually accomplished best by lowering the top sash and at the same time lowering the curtain, otherwise the obstruction would throw the current downward. Ventilation through the ceiling is advisable, and can easily be arranged at time of building.
222. Eighteen.
223. Those which breathe most are the most vigorous, lively, and active, while those which breathe least are the most sluggish, stupid and feeble.

224. In this disease the lungs are more or less filled with tubercles and abscesses; the air-vessels are, to some extent, closed, so that the air cannot penetrate them and reach the blood, to purify it; therefore, for want of pure blood, the system is not well nourished, the muscles grow thin and weak, and the body gradually wastes away.

225. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. This inflammation causes a secretion of a mucus, and consequent coughing.
Pleurisy is an inflammation of the pleura.
Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs, affecting chiefly the air-cells.

226. By plenty of pure air, exercise, and a careful diet. Rich pastry, unripe fruit, salted meat, and acid drinks should be avoided. A certain quantity of fat should be eaten at each meal.

227. The rule for prevention and cure of a cold is to keep the blood upon the surface.

228. The first step in the cure of any disease is to obey the laws of health which have been violated. Medicine is not taken to destroy the disease, but to hold it in check while nature repairs the injury, and again brings the system into harmonious movement.

229. For want of sufficient air.

230. This gas is known by many as damps, dead air, and is often found in wells and vats. It is heavier than air, and, therefore, falls to the bottom of a vessel or room, like water.

231. A pan of coals is sometimes left burning in a bedroom which has no fire-place, while some one sleeps on the bed. The gas given out falls to the floor, and fills the bottom of the room, rising as fast as it is produced, until, like water, it reaches the sleeper's head, and suffocation is the result.

232. It produces death, not, as is commonly supposed, by filling the lungs with water, but because the water prevents the access of air to the respiratory organs, and the sufferer dies of suffocation.

233. The necessity of good air, though in an unequal degree. Yet every animal, the highest and the lowest, the man and the worm, must sustain life by their breath.

234. The animal uses oxygen and gives out carbonic
acid; while, on the other hand, the plant uses carbonic acid, and gives out oxygen.
235. 98° to 100° F.
236. The carbon of the food and the oxygen of the air. These two unite and produce heat similar to the way in which heat is produced by sensible combustion.
237. Into two grand classes: the warm-blooded, and includes man, birds, quadrupeds, etc. Their heat is ever of the same degree. The other class is called cold-blooded, and includes snakes, oysters, fishes, worms, toads, turtles, etc. Their heat is but little higher than that of the medium in which they live.
238. Perspiration.
239. That moisture which is absorbed by the air as fast as formed.
240. When the moisture is exuded too fast to be immediately absorbed, and is left in small drops upon the skin.
241. Alcohol stimulates the stomach, and excites the nervous system. It supplies to the flame carbon and hydrogen; but these soon burn out, and the body is afterward cooler than it otherwise would have been. Food, alone, can sustain a permanent fire.
242. Flesh, containing more carbon and hydrogen, supplies more fuel to the fire than vegetable matter.
243. Because it supplies more carbon, and gives more heat.
244. It gives form to the body, and acts as a powerful non-conductor of heat. It collects around the joints and between the muscles and prevents an irritation by friction.
245. It does not accumulate within the cranium, the lungs, or the eye-lids.
246. The oil glands are clusters of tiny sacs which secrete an oil that flows along the duct to the root of the hair, and thence oozes out on the cuticle.
247. It is composed of two layers; the derma, or true skin, and the epidermis, or cuticle. On the surface of the former are the sensitive papillæ; and within or beneath it are the sweat glands, hair follicles and sebaceous glands. This layer is a dense and thick membrane, and composed of firm and strong fibers, and is almost filled with minute blood-vessels.
248. The skin is used to protect, to exhale, and to absorb.
249. The cuticle, or scarf skin, is a thin layer for the purpose of protecting the derma.
250. A large proportion.
251. It is an outgrowth from the skin. It has a root which is bulbous, and a shaft which is hollow. The hollow ceases near the point.
252. The nails are also outgrowths from the skin. They are flattened, elastic structures of a horny nature, and are firmly connected with the cutis.
253. In the pigment cells, or the rete mucosum, which are situated in the innermost and last formed layer of the cuticle. The contents of these cells give the different shades to the various races of mankind.
254. About five-eighths.
255. A most intimate connection. As the blood finds its way freely through it, it serves to relieve internal organs when the circulation is disturbed.
256. It protects the body; it regulates the heat of the body by means of its sweat follicles; and it throws out much waste matter.
257. The skin, lungs, kidneys, liver and intestines.
258. The stomach and intestines particularly; and sometimes the skin. The lungs bring oxygen.
259. The perspired fluid is formed by the inner skin and conveyed to the surface through minute tubes which are attached to the glands. There are three thousand five hundred and twenty-eight of these little tubes on each square inch in the palm of the hand, and twenty-eight hundred on each square inch throughout the whole body, making seven millions of perspiratory tubes on a man of average size.
260. The brain, spinal cord and the nerves.
261. It is divided into two principal parts, the cerebrum and cerebellum. The first is divided by a deep fissure into two lateral halves, called hemispheres. The under part of the cerebellum is divided in the same way. The cerebrum is much the larger part of the brain, and occupies the anterior portion of the skull. Its surface is indented with numerous convolutions. The outer portion, of gray color, is called the cortical substance. The inner portion, of light color, is called the medullary substance. The cerebrum is separated from the cerebellum by a strong fibrous tissue.
262. By three membranes which cover it. The inner and middle of these membranes are very delicate, and give the brain a soft cushion to lie between it and its bony enclosure. The outer membrane is thick and very strong.
and would hold the brain in its position, even when removed from the skull.

263. Of itself there is no feeling, although capable of recognizing the sensations of all other parts of the body.

264. In the sense of feeling the nerves are spread over the whole body. It is most delicate in the point of the tongue and the tips of the fingers. The surface of the cutis is covered with minute conical projections called papillæ. Each of these contains its tiny nerve, which receives the impression and conveys it to the brain, where perception is produced.

265. The sense of taste is located in the papillæ of the tongue or palate. The papillæ starts up when tasting, as you can see by placing a drop of vinegar on another person's tongue, or your own, before a mirror. These small hair-like projections absorb the liquid to be tasted and convey it to the nerves.

266. The nose, the seat of this sense, is composed of cartilage covered with muscles and skin, and joined to the skull by small bones. The nostrils open at the back into the pharynx, and are lined by a continuation of the mucous membrane of the throat. The olfactory nerves enter through a sieve-like bony plate at the roof of the nose, and are distributed over the inner surface of the two olfactory chambers.

267. The olfactory nerve, the optic, the facial and auditory, the pneumogastric, and others, nine in all. Some authors divide the seventh and eighth pair, and make three more nerves.

268. It extends from the brain, through the whole length of the spinal column. It gives off thirty pairs of nerves, which divide and subdivide until they reach every part of the body.

269. Two: motor and sensory.

270. The nerves upon which the impression is made, the trunk which conveys the impression, and the brain which receives it and perceives it.

271. They are. The amount of blood they receive is regulated by the nerves.

272. They do.

273. The heart would cease beating.

274. When the motory nerve is cut, motion will be lost while feeling remains.

275. When the sensory nerve leading to any part is cut, sensation in that spot is lost, while motion remains.
276. It is a sudden action given without thought or meditation; as, we start at a sound, jump from sudden danger, wink at a flash of light or threatened blow.

277. Drawing beautiful imaginations of the future where all things which are unpleasant and disagreeable are excluded; where wealth, honor, fame, love and pleasure are begging at the dreamer's feet. It is but one delightful revery, where all is beautiful and satisfactory. It is more commonly known as "building air-castles."

278. It is placed in a deep, bony socket. It contains two humors: the aqueous humor, a transparent fluid in the anterior portion of the eye; and the vitreous humor, transparent and jelly-like, in the posterior portion, and forms the greater part of the eye. Between these two humors is the crystalline lens, a double convex lens.

279. It is a dense, fibrous coat, covering the whole eye except in front, in which the cornea is placed, a transparent and strong tissue.

280. It is the middle coat, and contains a black pigment, which absorbs such rays of light as are not needed for vision.

281. A delicate nervous membrane, lining the inner surface of the choroid coat. The images of external objects are received upon it. Behind, it is continuous with the optic nerve.

282. It is a thin, circular-shaped curtain suspended behind the cornea, in the aqueous humor, and connected at its circumference with the choroid coat. A small opening in its center admits the rays of light, and is called the pupil.

283. They are composed of cartilages adapted to the shape of the eye, the skin without, and the lining membrane within. One circular muscle surrounds the open part of the eye, and closes the lids when it contracts. Another muscle, attached to the upper eyelid by one end, and to the bone of the socket by the other, opens the eye.

284. In the lining membrane of the lids.

285. The lachrymal glands secrete the tears, and are in the upper and outer part of the orbit. The tears clean the eye of any particles of foreign matter; and upon reaching the inner corner of the eye pass into the lachrymal canal and nasal duct into the nose. The nasal duct is a membranous canal, about three-quarters of an inch in length, extending from the inner corner of the eye into the nose.

286. The eye is rolled by a set of muscles peculiar to itself. These are attached by one end to the bony socket, and by the other to the eyeball. By their contractions they roll the eye in every direction; and by their co-operation, both eyes are directed to a single object.
287. It passes from the base of the brain forward through the socket and into the eyeball. After passing the outer and middle coats, it is spread out on their inner surface, and forms the retina, which receives the rays of light.
288. The light is reflected from objects, and passes through the transparent cornea and the pupil into the ball. The humors and the lens refract these rays, and give them such a direction that they fall upon the retina, where they form the image of the object. This impression is carried along the optic nerve to the brain, and there perception takes place and the object is seen.
289. Care should be taken that the light should not reflect directly in our face, and if possible to come from behind.
290. The lens loses its convexity in some degree, and the rays of light are not concentrated at short distances upon the retina; the person becomes far-sighted.
291. In one who is near-sighted the lenses are too convex; in one who is long-sighted the lenses are not convex enough.
292. Because the muscles that govern the movement of the eyeball do not act in harmony; one muscle is more powerful than another, and draws the eye to one side.
293. The external ear, the internal ear, and the passage between them.
294. It is composed principally of stiff cartilage; and its shape is that which is best adapted to catch sounds, and transmit them to the internal ear. The canal leading inwards is about an inch in length, and is covered with hair and wax to protect it from insects. A thin membrane, the covering of the drum of the ear, is stretched across the canal, and separates it from the internal ear.
295. It consists of a cavity filled with air behind the membrane of the drum, and three small bones, which reach from the membrane to the labyrinth, where the auditory nerve is spread out in numerous filaments to receive impressions of sound.
296. A canal passing from the internal ear to the back part of the mouth, and serves as vent to the air in the drum of the ear.
297. The pulsations of air pass along the external canal, cause the membrane of the drum to vibrate, which transmits the vibrations by the air and three small bones to the labyrinth, where, in some unexplained manner, the filaments of the auditory nerve receive the impression, which is conveyed to the brain, and we hear.

QUESTIONS  ON  NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

1. What is Philosophy? Chemistry?
2. Define matter. A body. A substance.
3. What are the two kinds of properties which belong to each substance?
4. Define a general property. A specific property.
5. Name the general properties of matter.
6. Define magnitude. Size.
7. Define impenetrability.
8. What is the principle of driving a nail?
9. What is divisibility?
10. What is the limit of divisibility?
11. What is the Atomic Theory?
12. What are molecules? Atoms?
13. Define porosity.
14. Define inertia.
15. Give examples of the inertia of a substance.
16. What is indestructibility?
17. Name the specific properties of matter.
18. Define ductility. Mention some of the most ductile substances.
19. Define malleability.
20. Is copper malleable?
21. What is tenacity? Elasticity?
22. How many kinds of elasticity? Describe them.
23. What is hardness? Brittleness?
24. What is motion? Force? Velocity?
25. What are the resistances to motion?
26. What is friction? Momentum?
27. What are the three laws of motion? 28. What is compound motion ?
29. What produces circular motion ?
30. Define centripetal force. Centrifugal.
31. What is the Gyroscope?
32. What is reflected motion?
33. What is the angle of incident ? Of reflection ?
34. Define energy. How many forms of energy?
35. What is meant by the term, conservation of energy ?
36. What is attraction ? What are its forces ?
37. How are the molecular forces divided ?
38. What is cohesion ? Explain how it acts by uniting two pieces of iron by heat.
39. What is nature's law in regard to liquids and solids ? Explain why the drop of water is round.
40. Why is melted iron suddenly cooled brittle?
41. What is annealing and tempering?
42. Define adhesion. Give examples.
43. What is capillary attraction ?
44. What is the osmose of liquids ?
45. What is the law of gravitation ?
46. What is gravitation ? Gravity ? Weight ?
47. What would be the weight of a body at the center of the earth ? Why ?
48. Give the laws of weight.
49. How do you reckon the velocity of falling bodies ?
50. How find the depth of a well by the use of this knowledge of falling bodies?
51. Where is the center of gravity of any substance?
52. Give some examples of the use of this principle of the center of gravity in our every-day life.
53. Describe the pendulum.
54. How find the time for the vibration of any pendulum ?
55. Does a clock gain or lose time in winter ?
56. What is the length of a pendulum that beats a second of time ?
57. What is a machine ?
58. What are the mechanical powers ?
59. What is the law of mechanics ?
60. What is the lever? Power? Weight? Fulcrum? The arms ?
61. How many classes of levers are there?
62. Describe the compound lever.
63. What is the difference between the wheel and axle and the common lever ?
64. What is the difference between the inclined plane and the screw ?
65. What is the wedge ? Give examples.
66. Describe the pulley. How are they classified ?
67. How many principles are represented in the six mechanical powers ?
68. Define Hydrostatics.
69. What is the law of the pressure of liquids ?
70. Describe why water flows from an artesian well.
71. Describe the Hydraulic Press.
72. How reckon the power of the hydraulic press ?
73. Describe the Hydrostatic Bellows.
74. How find the pressure on the bottom of a vessel ?
75. What would be the pressure on a square foot of a cask which was connected with a perpendicular pipe with an area of 1/10 of a square inch and to hold ½ lb. of water?
76. What is specific gravity ?
77. How find the specific gravity of a solid ?
78. How find the weight of a given bulk of any substance ?

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Iridium...........21.80 | Silver...........10.50 | Pine Wood........ .66
Platinum.........21.53 | Copper........... 8.90 | Cork............. .24
Gold.............19.34 | Cast-iron........ 7.21 | Milk............. 1.03
Mercury..........13.59 | Diamond.......... 3.50 | Sea-water........ 1.03
Lead.............11.36 | Ice.............. .93 | Alcohol.......... .79

79. How much heavier is gold than water? What will a cubic foot of this metal weigh ?
80. How find the volume of a body ?
81. Define Hydraulics ?
82. What fall is required in a river to give it a current? What would be the flow of a river with a fall of 3 feet to a mile ?
83. Define Pneumatics ?
84. What is the pressure of the atmosphere ?
85. How high will this weight cause water to rise in a vacuum ? Mercury ?
86. Where do we use this power of atmospheric pressure to great advantage ?
87. Describe the barometer.
88. What are its uses ?
89. How does the barometer foretell the weather?
90. What opposing forces act upon the air?
91. Describe the siphon.
92. At what height in the atmosphere will mercury stand at 15 inches ?
93. Why can a fly walk upon the ceiling of a room ?
94. Define Acoustics.
95. How is sound transmitted ?
96. How do we prove that air is necessary to transmit sound ?
97. Upon what does the velocity of sound depend ?
98. Explain why an elastic medium will carry the sound waves faster than one not so elastic.
99. How fast does sound travel ?
100. How fast does sound travel in water?
101. Why does it travel so much faster in water?
102. What is refraction of sound ?
103. What is the reflection of sound?
104. What are echoes ?
105. How can two sounds produce silence?
106. How is the sound produced in wind instruments ?
107. What are Harmonics ?
108. What is the Phonograph ?
109. What is the limit of vibrations for musical sounds ?
110. Define Optics.
111. What is a luminous body ? A non-luminous?
112. Define a medium. A transparent body.
113. Give three laws of light.
114. What is the velocity of light ?
115. Define a translucent body. An opaque body.
116. Explain the undulatory theory of light.
117. Name and define the three kinds of mirrors.
118. What is the general principle of mirrors ?
119. What is the effect of looking through a concave mirror ?
120. What is mirage ? Give the cause of mirage.
121. Name the seven primary colors of the solar spectrum.
122. What is the spectroscope?
123. How is the rainbow formed?
124. How are halos formed ?
125. Explain spherical aberration.
126. Explain chromatic aberration.
127. What is the remedy?
128. Describe the microscope.
129. Describe the telescope.
130. Describe the opera glass.
131. Describe the camera.
132. Why does a blow on the head make one "see stars?"
133. Define luminous heat. Obscure heat.
134. Define diathermanous body. What is cold?
135. What are the sources of heat?
136. Can force be destroyed?
137. Give the theory of vaporization.
138. Why does it require a higher temperature to boil salt water than it does fresh?
139. Define evaporation.
140. What is a vacuum-pan?
141. What is the relation between absorption and reflection?
142. Why does ice sometime form at night on the Desert of Sahara?
143. Describe the steam-engine.
144. Describe the governor.
145. What is the object of a fly-wheel?
146. What is meteorology?
147. What is the difference between fogs and clouds?
148. What form of cloud precipitates rain?
149. At what temperature does water expand, either by heat or cold?
150. What causes the singing of a tea-kettle?
151. What causes the snapping of wood when laid on the fire?
152. What gives the blue color to the air?
153. Define electricity.
154. In what forms does this electric force manifest itself?
155. Define magnetism. A magnet.
156. Define magnetic induction.
157. Describe the compass.
158. Is the needle true to the pole?
159. Why are portions of country, especially Missouri, difficult to survey?
160. Define frictional electricity.
161. Define the electroscope.
162. What is the theory of electricity?
163. Is it a polar force?
164. Define a conductor. An insulator.
165. What is the best conductor? Best insulator?
166. Can electricity be collected from an iron rod?
167. Define electrical induction.
168. Describe the Leyden jar.
169. How is the jar charged ?
170. What is the cause of lightning ?
171. What is the cause of thunder?
172. Is there any relation between the aurora borealis and magnetism ?
173. What is the value of lightning rods ?
174. Does the lightning ever pass upward from the earth ?
175. Has nature provided any lightning rods ?
176. What is the velocity of electricity?
177. What are the marked differences between frictional and galvanic electricity ?
178. What is the effect of a voltaic current on a magnetic needle ?
179. What is a galvanometer ?
180. What animals have a large amount of electricity ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

1. Philosophy is a knowledge of nature and nature's laws. Chemistry treats of the chemical changes of matter.
2. Matter is anything that occupies space. A body is a separate portion of matter. A substance is any one of the various kinds of matter.
3. General and Specific.
4. General property is that which belongs to all substances, as weight, divisibility. Specific property relates to the quality of a substance, as its color, its sweetness, its toughness.
5. They are magnitude, impenetrability, divisibility, porosity, inertia, and indestructibility.
6. Magnitude is the property of occupying space. Size is the amount of space a body fills.
7. The property of occupying space so as to exclude all other bodies, for no two bodies can occupy the same space at the same time.
8. The nail does not penetrate the wood but pushes aside the fibres and thus presses them close together.
9. That property of a body which allows it to be separated into parts.
10. Practically it is limited only by the incompleteness of our means to make a division.
11. That the smallest particle of matter one can see is composed of still smaller particles, and these particles divided into other divisions, each minute portion being called an atom.
12. Molecules are tiny masses of any substance which contain the same properties of the substance. Atoms are still smaller divisions. 13. The property of a substance to have pores.
14. Inertia is the lack of power, as a body put in motion gradually comes to a point of rest, there being no power to go or to stop.
15. A wagon at rest requires more power to start, as its inertia is to be overcome. Jumping from a train of cars while in motion proves that a body under motion cannot overcome the inertia by the simple jump.
16. The property which renders matter incapable of being destroyed.
17. They are ductility, malleability, tenacity, elasticity, hardness, and brittleness.
18. The property of being drawn into a wire. Gold, silver, and platinum.
19. The property which admits of hammering, or rolled into sheets. Gold is one of the most malleable substances known.
20. It is said that a workman with his hammer can beat out a kettle from a solid block of this metal.
21. The property of a body which resists separation. Elasticity is the property of stretching, bending, compressing or twisting a substance.
22. They are of four kinds:
Elasticity of compression.
Elasticity of expansion.
Elasticity of torsion.
Elasticity of flexure.
23. Hardness is that property which does not depend upon density, but upon the character of the substance. Brittleness is the property which admits of an easy separation of its parts, or easily broken.
24. Motion is a change of place. Force, the power to move or stop a substance. Velocity, the rate a body moves.
25. Friction and the resistance of air or water.
26. Friction is the resistance a body meets in moving over another body. Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body.
27. First—A body set in motion will move forever in a straight line, unless acted upon by some external force.
Second—A force acting upon a body in motion or at rest, produces the same effect whether it acts alone or with other forces.
Third—Action and reaction are equal.
28. The action of two different kinds of motion at the same time, as throwing a ball from a moving train will
have two motions, the forward movement of the train and the projecting force.

29. There must be a projecting force and a restraining force; the one seeks to throw the object in a straight line, the other to draw it back, while the combination of the two forces produces a curve.

30. A ball suspended from a string and revolved around the head will illustrate these two forces. The centripetal is the force which holds the ball down, while the centrifugal is the power that would throw it off.

31. An instrument to illustrate the composition of forces in rotary motion. To those who do not see the acting influences of these motions the instrument is astonishing. (See a Philosophy for diagram.)

32. It is the reaction given to an elastic body thrown against another body.

33. The angle of incident is the angle at which a body strikes another body. The angle of reflection is the angle made in its rebound.

34. Energy is the power to work or accomplish an object. It is divided into active and latent.

35. It means the changing of one form of energy into another without loss.

36. The force which holds particles together. The forces of attraction are the Molecular Forces and Attraction of Gravitation.

37. Into cohesion and adhesion.

38. It is the force which holds together the molecules of the same kind. In uniting two pieces of iron the parts are heated to a white heat, and by placing them together and pounding the molecules are brought near enough for cohesion to grasp them.

39. Liquids tend to form spheres and solids to form crystals. The drop of water is round because the center of the drop is the center of attraction, and all particles of the water on the outside must be the same distance from the center.

40. Because nature has not had time to arrange the crystals as it is natural for them to be.

41. It is the process of rendering metals hard, brittle, or flexible. This is done by heating and cooling. In iron a high heat suddenly cooled becomes brittle and hard, while with copper it is the opposite.

42. Adhesion is the force which holds together mole- cules of different kinds. The action of glue, mortar, solder, etc., are examples of adhesion.
43. It is a variety of adhesion in which the molecules of a substance lose a portion of its cohesion and adhere to another substance.
44. It is the process of the exchange of liquids, that is, if two kinds of liquids are separated by a thin, porous substance, as that of a bladder, there will be an exchange, a portion of one going out and the other going in.
45. Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle of matter with a force directly pro- portional to its mass, and decreasing as the square of the distance increases.
46. Gravitation is the general term applied to the at- traction that exists between all bodies in the universe. Gravity is applied to the attraction of the substances of the earth. Weight is the measure of the force of gravity.
47. It is probable that a substance would have no weight, as the center of the earth would be a point where gravitation would be equal in all directions.
48. A body weighs nothing at the center of the earth. The weight of a body above the earth decreases as the square of the distance from the center of the earth in- creases. The weight of a body varies on different portions of the surface of the earth.
49. In the first second, a body gains a velocity of 32 feet and falls 16 feet. At the end of any given second, the velocity is 16 feet multiplied by twice the number of the second minus one. In any number of seconds a body falls 16 feet multiplied by the square of the number of seconds.
50. Let a stone fall into the well and count the seconds that it takes to go to the bottom. Square the number of seconds and multiply 16 by the result.
51. It is that point on which, if supported, the body will balance itself.
52. In walking, we lean forward to create a balance, or in rising from a chair we do the same thing in order to as- sist the muscles; in carrying a pail of water we lean to one side; in running we lean still farther forward.
53. The pendulum consists of a weight so suspended as to swing freely. Its movements to and fro are termed vibrations or oscillations. The path through which it passes is called the arc, and the extent to which it goes in either direction is styled its amplitude.
54. The times of the vibrations of different pendulums are proportional to the square roots of their respective lengths. By comparing any length with a known length, as that of the vibration of one second, and we have the time required.
55. As heat expands and cold contracts, a pendulum increases in length in summer and decreases in winter, therefore a clock loses time in the winter.
56. At New York it is 39 1/5 inches in length. It varies according to its place on the earth's surface, or rather according to the force of gravity.
57. It is a combination of powers designed to accomplish some object. Some are intricate and some are simple.
58. They are the lever, wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw, wedge, and pulley.
59. The power multiplied by the distance through which it moves, is equal to the weight multiplied by the distance through which it moves.
60. The lever is the bar turning on a pivot. The power is the force used. The weight is the object to be lifted. The fulcrum is the pivot on which the lever rests. The arms are the parts of the lever each side of the fulcrum.
61. There are three classes:
First class—The power is pressed against the end of the bar, the weight at the other end, and fulcrum between.
Second class—The weight is between the fulcrum and power, and the power pulls upwards.
Third class—The power is between the weight and fulcrum, and pulls upward, the fulcrum being above the bar.
62. It consists of several levers so connected that the short arm of the first acts upon the long arm of the second, and so on.
63. The principle is the same, the wheel and axle being a perpetual lever.
64. The screw is an inclined plane wound around a cylinder. The principle is the same.
65. The wedge is a double inclined plane, used in splitting wood. Nails, needles, knives, and axes are made on this principle.
66. The pulley consists of a wheel, within the grooved edge of which runs a cord. They are classified as fixed, movable, and combinations.
67. Three : the lever, inclined plane, and pulley. These could also be reduced as the pulley is but another form of the lever.
68. Hydrostatics treat of liquids at rest.
69. The pressure is equal in all directions.
70. It is because the strata in which the water is found leads to a water supply higher than the surface where the well is bored. It is the principle of pressure, and is confined by a strata of clay above the current of water.
71. It is a machine for pressing cotton, or any substance desired. The substance to be pressed is placed above a large piston in a cylinder containing water. At the bottom of the cylinder a small tube runs to another cylinder with piston and lever purchase, by which power water is forced through the tube into the large cylinder and the piston rises against the substance and a great pressure obtained.
72. The pressure will be in proportion to the area of the tube and large cylinder. If the area of the tube is 1, and the cylinder 100, then the power will be 100. Then, by the use of a lever in the small cylinder, we can increase this force in proportion to the power of the lever.
73. The principle is the same as in the hydraulic press, only placed in a different form.
74. Multiply the area of the base by the perpendicular height, and that product by the weight of a cubic foot of liquid.
75. The pressure would be 2,880 pounds to the square foot.
76. Specific gravity is the weight of a substance compared with the weight of the same bulk of another substance. Water is taken as the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gases.
77. Weigh the body in air, and in water; the difference is the weight of its bulk of water; divide its weight, in air by its loss of weight in water; the quotient is the specific gravity.
78. Multiply the weight of one cubic foot of water by the specific gravity of the substance, and that product by the number of cubic feet.
79. By looking at the table we see that gold is 19.34 times heavier than water. As a cubic foot of water weighs 1,000 ounces, then a cubic foot of gold must weigh 1,000 times 19.34, or 19,340 oz.—1,208¾ pounds.
80. Weigh the substance in the water, and the loss in weight will be the weight of the displaced water. This
loss will be that part of a cubic foot that it is of 1,000 oz.
81. Hydraulics treat of liquids in motion. In this, as in hydrostatics, water is taken as the type. In theory, its principles are those of falling bodies, but they are so modified by various causes that in practice they cannot be relied upon, except as verified by experiment. The discrepancy arises from changes of temperature, which vary the fluidity of the liquid, from friction, the shape of the orifice, etc.
82. Three inches per mile will produce a current three miles per hour. Three feet will make a mountain current.
83. Pneumatics treat of the general properties and the pressure of gases.
84. It is about 15 pounds per square inch.
85. Water will rise about 34 feet. Mercury 30 inches.
86. It is used in our common well-pumps.
87. The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere, and is so arranged that the weight of the air will cause the mercury to rise in the tube. According to this weight, or pressure of the air, so does the mercury rise or fall in the tube.
88. It is used to indicate the weather, and to measure the height of mountains.
89. When the air is light the barometer falls, as the pressure is less. It is by a "falling barometer" that we predict a storm. One cause of a light atmosphere is the presence of a large amount of vapor, and it is due to this moisture that rains occur.
90. There are three forces: the centrifugal and heat forces, which tend to throw the air away from the earth, and gravity, which holds it down.
91. It is a U-shaped tube, having one arm longer than the other. Insert the short arm in the water and then exhaust the air from the long arm and water will flow until it is lowered to the bottom of the short arm.
92. It will stand at 15 inches, 3.4 miles above the earth.
93. The feet of the fly are so arranged as to produce a vacuum by which the pressure holds the foot until another step is taken.
94. Acoustics treat of the philosophy of sound.
95. It is transmitted by the vibrations of the air.
96. A bell rung in a vacuum will make no noise.
97. It depends upon the elasticity and density of the medium through which it passes.
98. The higher the elasticity the more promptly and
rapidly do the wave sounds transmit its motion from one set of molecules to another.
99. At the freezing point sound travels at the rate of 1,090 feet per second. In a rise of temperature it travels a little faster.
100. It travels through water at the rate of 4,700 feet per second.
101. Because of the greater elasticity of water.
102. When a sound-wave goes obliquely from one medium to another it is bent out of its course, or refracted.
103. Sound is reflected when the sound-waves strike against the surface of another medium, and a portion goes on while the rest is reflected.
104. They are simply reflected sounds.
105. If two sounds meet in exactly opposite phases, and the two forces are equal, they will balance each other, and silence will ensue. Thus, a sound added to a sound will produce silence, and in the same way, two motions may produce rest; two lights may cause darkness; and two heats may produce cold.
106. In wind instruments the sound-waves run backward and forward through the tube, and act upon the surrounding air like the vibrations of a cord.
107. Whenever a cord vibrates it separates into segments at the same time. Thus, we have the full or fundamental note of the entire string, and superposed upon it the higher notes produced by the vibrating parts. These are called overtones or harmonics.
108. It is an instrument for recording sound vibrations.
109. It is fixed at 38,000 vibrations per second for the highest, and 16 for the lowest. Below this the sounds are separate.
110. Optics is that science which treats of light and visions.
111. A luminous body is one that sends forth light. A non-luminous body is one that reflects light, but is visible only in the presence of a luminous body.
112. A medium is any substance through which light passes. A transparent body is so clear that it does not obstruct much of the light which passes through it.
113. Light passes off from a luminous body equally in every direction. Light passes through a uniform medium in a straight line.
The intensity of light decreases as the square of the distance increases.
114. It is estimated at 186,000 miles per second.
115. A translucent body is one that lets some light pass through it.
116. There is supposed to be a fluid termed ether, constituting a kind of universal atmosphere, diffused through all space. It is so subtle that it fills the pores of all bodies, eludes all chemical tests, passes through the glass receiver, and remains even in a vacuum.
117. They are plane, concave, and convex. The first has a flat surface ; the second is raised on the inside ; the third is raised on the outside, like a watch crystal.
118. The general principle is that the image is always seen in the direction of the reflected ray as it enters the eye.
119. If standing near the glass the face or object is magnified, but walk backwards and the size decreases until we reach the focus, when it disappears ; but still receding from the focus, the image again appears, but inverted.
120. Mirage is an optical delusion, by which the mind really believes certain objects, as water, trees, vessels, etc., are in sight, when in reality the refraction and reflection of the rays of light traversing layers of air of unequal density, bring a reflection of these objects before our vision, although many miles away. This phenomena has often been observed by mariners and travelers on large plains or deserts, and because of the delusion which it brings forth it is pronounced an optical delusion, when it is only an image reflected from beyond.
121. They are violet, indigo blue, green, yellow, orange red.
122. It is an instrument for examining a ray of light. The ray of light passes through a tube striking a prism, which in turn is taken up by an object glass, and being thus largely magnified, is easily analyzed by our vision.
123. It is formed by the refraction and reflection of the sunbeam in drops of falling water. The water is a prism which gives out the reflection.
124. Halos, coronas, sundogs, circles about the moon, the display of the reflection of sunrise and sunset, are produced by the refraction and reflection of the sun's rays by the clouds. The familiar phenomenon of the " sun's drawing water" consists merely of the long shadows of broken clouds.

125. Rays which pass through a lens near the edge are brought to a focus sooner than those nearer the center ; therefore, when an image is clear around the edge, it will be indistinct at the center, and vice versa. This wandering of the rays from the focus is termed spherical aberration.

126. Chromatic aberration is caused by the different refrangibility of the several colors which compose white light. The violet being bent most, tends to come to a focus sooner than the red, which is bent least. This causes the play of colors seen around the image produced by an ordinary glass.

127. It is remedied by using a second lens of different dispersive power, which counteracts the effects of the first.

128. Microscopes are of two kinds—simple and compound. The former consists of a double convex lens; the latter contains at least two lenses.

129. Telescopes are of two kinds—reflecting and refracting. The former contains a large metallic mirror which reflects the rays of light to a focus ; the latter, like the telescope, contains an object-lens, which forms an image.

130. The opera-glass contains an optic-glass and an eye-piece. The latter is a double concave lens ; this increases the visual angle by diverging the rays of light, which would otherwise come to a focus beyond the eye-piece.

131. The camera used by photographers contains a double convex lens which throws an inverted image of the object upon the ground-glass screen.

132. Because the blow excites the optic nerve, and so produces the sensation of light.

133. Luminous heat is that which radiates from a luminous body. Obscure heat is that from a non-luminous source.

134. A diathermanous body is one which allows the heat to pass through it readily. Cold is a term indicating the absence of heat in a greater or less degree.

135. They are the sun, stars, mechanical and chemical forces.

136. It cannot. If destroyed in one form it reappears in another without loss.

137. If heat be applied to a liquid, the temperature rises until the boiling point is reached, when it stops. The
expansion, however, continues until the motion is so violent as to overcome the cohesive force and to throw off particles of the liquid.

138. Anything which adds to the cohesive power of water elevates the boiling point.

139. Evaporation is a slow formation of vapor, which takes place at all ordinary temperatures. It is hastened by an increase of surface and heat. This principle is made useful in the arts for separating a solid from the liquid which holds it in solution.

140. It is a mode of boiling liquids at a low temperature. The pan is made with an air-tight cover and the air is exhausted above the liquid, by which means, the pressure being taken from off the liquid, it commences to boil at a low temperature, and but little danger of burning. This is used in making sugar, etc.

141. Absorption and reflection are intimately connected with radiation. A good absorber is also a good radiator, but a good reflector can be neither. Snow is a good reflector, but a poor absorber or radiator. Light colors absorb less and reflect more than dark colors. White is the best reflector, and black the best absorber and radiator.

142. The extreme dryness of the air allows the heat to escape so fast that cold is produced. This principle is known to chemists, and is one of the agents to produce artificial ice in our ice-machines.

143. There are two classes of engines—the high pressure and the low pressure. In the first mentioned the steam, after being used as a direct power, escapes to the open air; in the low pressure the steam is condensed by a spray of cold water and a vacuum formed behind the piston. Engines of the high pressure are used on railroads and wherever there is a plentiful supply of water. The other is used where it is economy to condense the steam and save the water for using again.

144. The governor is an apparatus for regulating the supply of steam. When the machine goes too fast, the balls fly out by centrifugal force and shut off a portion of the steam; when too slowly, they fall back, and, opening the valve, let on the steam again.

145. It serves to give a uniform motion to the machinery.

146. It is that department of philosophy which treats of the atmosphere and its phenomena, particularly in its relation to heat and moisture. 147. They differ only in their elevation in the atmosphere.
148. It is the nimbus.
149. At 39° Fah. water commences to expand until it reaches 32°, when it freezes, or if we apply heat it will also expand. Water cooled from any considerable heat contracts until it reaches 39°, when it then expands, as first stated.
150. The escaping steam is thrown into vibrations by the peculiar shape of the spout.
151. It is caused by the expansion of the air in the cells of the wood.
152. It is the vapor which it contains, reflecting the blue light of the sunbeam.
153. Electricity is a force of nature, termed the electric fluid. As a science, it unfolds the phenomena and laws of that fluid.
154. In the form of magnets, frictional, galvanic, thermal and animal electricity.
155. Magnetism is that branch of science which treats of the properties of the magnet. A magnet is a term applied to certain specimens of iron ore, which have the property of attracting other portions of iron, and, when freely suspended, point to the poles.
156. It is the power which a magnet possesses to develop magnetism in iron. If a piece of soft iron be brought near a magnet, it immediately assumes the magnetic state, which, however, it loses on being removed.
157. It is a magnetic needle, resting upon a pivot, enclosed in a circular box, and points nearly north.
158. It is; although it shifts thus every hour in the day, and does so only in obedience to the laws which control its action.
159. It is because of great bodies of iron ore which nature has stored in the ground.
160. Frictional electricity is developed by friction. This is often seen by combing the hair, by rubbing the back of a cat, etc. It is said that a person, in cold, frosty weather, by shuffling about in his stocking-feet upon the carpet, can develop so much electricity in his body that he can ignite a jet of gas by simply applying his finger to it.
161. The electroscope is an instrument to detect changes in the electric state of bodies.
162. It is a power of nature which contains a positive and negative force, and exists in every body in a state of
equilibrium, but when disturbed by friction, chemical action, etc., these forces are set free, but we cannot develop one without the other.

163. They are called a polar force, but the slightest cause disturbs the electric equilibrium.
164. A conductor is a body which allows the electric force to pass freely through it. An insulator is a non-conductor.
165. Copper is the best conductor, and is used in all electrical experiments. Glass is one of the best insulators.
166. It can be collected only by means of insulation. It can be developed by rubbing an iron rod, but is lost as fast as formed by passing off through the metal to the hand. A glass rod does not conduct it to the body, so it is retained until it gradually dissipates in the air.
167. It is the influence of an electrified body over other bodies.
168. It consists of a glass jar, coated inside and outside, nearly to the top, with tin-foil, which is fitted with a cover of baked wood, through which passes a wire with a knob at the top and below, a chain extending to the inner coating.
169. The jar is discharged by holding one knob of the discharger upon the outer coating, and the other upon the knob of the jar. The equilibrium will be restored with a sharp snap and a brilliant flash, while minute particles are detached from the solid conductors and, burning, give color and brilliancy to the spark.
170. Lightning is only the discharge of a Leyden jar on the grand scale upon which nature performs her operations. Two clouds charged with opposite electricities, and separated by the non-conducting air, approach each other. When the tension becomes sufficient to overcome the resistance, the two forces rush together with a blinding flash and terrific peal.
171. Thunder is the clashing of the atoms of displaced air, caused by its sudden separation as the lightning passes through it. The same principle exists in the firing of a gun.
172. As the magnetic needle is disturbed while the aurora is visible, there seems to be an intimate relation between them.
173. Outside of the possibility of saving a building from a stroke of lightning, it restores the equilibrium between the earth and the clouds by quietly conducting the fluid from the overcharged atmosphere to the earth.
174. It does, both quietly and by sudden discharges.
175. It has. In the laws of nature we find that every leaf, twig and spire of grass is a harmless conductor. A common blade of grass, pointed by nature's exquisite workmanship, is three times more effectual than the finest cambric needle, and a single pointed twig than the metallic point of the best constructed rod.
176. It is estimated that through a copper wire its velocity is 288,000 miles per second.
177. Frictional electricity is noisy, sudden and convulsive; galvanic is silent, constant and powerful.
178. If a current of electricity be passed over a magnetic needle, the needle will turn and tend to place itself at right angles to the wire. If the wire be brought over and beneath the needle, it doubles the effect, and the play of the needle becomes a very delicate test of the presence and direction of the electric force.
179. It is an instrument for measuring the force, or detecting the presence of minute quantities of galvanic electricity.
180. Electric fish are the most common, and among these the most noted are the torpedo and electric eel. These are so powerful that their shock is a means of defense.

PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES
MADE EASY.  QUESTIONS.

1. What construction have Infinitives and Participles ?
2. When has an infinitive the construction of a noun ?
3. Illustrate by example.
4. When has the infinitive the construction of an adjective?
5. Give examples.
6. When has the infinitive the construction of an adverb ?
7. Give examples.
8. Have infinitives case ?
9. Has the infinitive always a subject ?
10. What is the subject of "to go," in "I wished to go home?"
11. In what case is the subject of the infinitive?
12. Has the participle always a subject?
13. In what case is the subject of the participle?
14. What is the rule for the construction of participles ?
15. In the sentence, "To be honest with you, I was in error," parse "to be."
16. In what manner do we determine whether the infinitive has the construction of the noun, or the adjective, or the adverb ?
17. How do we determine what is the subject of the infinitive, when that is not apparent, as in "He was eager to depart?"
18. In the sentence, "To die is gain," what is the subject of "to die?"

PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES
MADE EASY.  ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS.

1. All Infinitives and Participles have the construction and use of the noun, or the adjective, or the adverb.
2. When used as subject of a verb, or in apposition with a noun; as a noun in the absolute case; as the object of a verb or preposition.
3. To play is natural. Real labor, to do good, is conducive to happiness. To lie, oh how base! They love to laugh. What went ye out for to see?
4. When used to limit or modify the meaning of a noun.
5. A desire to play is natural. He gave orders to march. This rule is to be observed—adjective in predicate. This to-be-observed rule is, or exists.
6. When used to limit the meaning of a verb, adjective, adverb, or other infinitive.
7. They came to see; i. e., for the purpose of seeing. They were anxious to go. That horse is strong enough to draw any load. I wish to go to town to trade to-day.
8. They have not. Case belongs alone to nouns and pronouns.
9. It has, but not always expressed.
10. The subject of "to go" is "I," understood; the meaning evidently is, I wished that I might go home.
11. In the objective case, except when its subject is, or refers to, the same person or thing as the subject of the finite verb, or when the subject is any word but a noun or pronoun.
12. It has, either expressed or implied.
13. Usually in the possessive case; sometimes in the objective; as: There is no harm in children's playing by the river (subj. poss.). There is no harm in children playing by the river (subj. obj.).*
14. It is used in all cases like the infinitive.
15. To be: verb; irreg., intrans., act., pres., infin., with the construction of an adverb limiting the verb confess, understood—[I confess] (in order) to be honest, etc.
16. First, and mainly, by the sense or meaning; when the infinitive has the construction of an adverb, the words "in order" can be placed immediately before the infinitive without destroying the sense; as: They came [in order] to see. When it has the construction of an adjective it can be changed to its present participle, placed immediately before the word it limits and make good sense; as: He asked for money to spend, i. e., spending-money. I want a place to study, i. e., studying-place.
17. Change the infinitive to its equivalent subordinate clause, and the subject will appear. He was eager to depart, i. e., that he might depart. He is the subject. Be so good as to go, i. e., that you should go. John was told not to go, i. e., that John should not go.
18. Person, understood. Expanded, That any person should die is gain.

*There is much dispute about this, many claiming that the possessive pronoun "their," understood, is the subject of "playing," in the second sentence.

QUESTIONS  ON  WRITING

1. Define Writing.
2. What are the principal subjects to which attention should be given in teaching or learning the art of writing?
3. How many kinds of positions are recommendable, and what are they?
4. Describe the "left" position.
5. Under what circumstances is the left position generally used, and used with advantage?
6. Describe the "front" position.
7. What particular advantage has the front position?
8. Describe the "right-oblique" position.
9. Describe the "right" position.
10. What special caution should be kept in view in each and all of the above-mentioned positions?
11. Describe the manner of holding the pen.
12. What is meant by movement?
13. How many kinds of movements are usually employed in writing, and what are they?
14. Give a description of each, and state under what circumstances employed.
15. What is meant by form?
16. In what manner does a careful study of form aid in making a good penman?
17. What is a line?
18. How many kinds of lines are used in writing, and what are they?
19. How many kinds of curves are used in writing, and define each.
20. Define horizontal, vertical and oblique lines.
51. What space is allowed between capitals used as initial letters?
52. What space is allowed between words?
53. What space is allowed when following word begins with a capital?
54. When one word ends with a right curve and the next begins with a left, or vice versa, what space is left?
55. What space is allowed between sentences?
56. What space is allowed between figures?
57. What is meant by shading?
58. What letters should not ordinarily be shaded?
59. Where should the shade occur in t and d?
60. How should p be shaded?
61. How should f be shaded?
62. Where should the shade occur in b and l? In h and k?
63. When two or more letters requiring similar shading occur together, what rule should be observed?
64. What capital letters should be shaded on the first curve? On the second curve?
65. Which should receive shade on the capital stem?
66. What letters receive shading below the base line?
67. What are figures?
68. How are figures formed?
69. What is the height of figures as compared with letters?
70. On what slant are figures written?
71. How far do the figures 7 and 9 extend below the line?
72. What is the width of the figures?
73. Where is the stroke commenced in forming the figures?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  WRITING.

1. The art of expressing thought in legible characters; to "form for the conveyance of meaning."
2. Position; manner of holding pen; movement; form; rate; spacing and shading.
3. Four — "left," "front," "right-oblique," and "right."
4. Sit, or stand, with the left side inclined toward the desk, the left arm lying on the book or paper, weight of body supported mainly by the left side and right arm, as well as book or paper at right-angles to the desk.
5. When writing in large books, or when it is impossible or inconvenient to turn the paper obliquely.
6. Sit, or stand, directly facing the desk, near it, but not leaning over it; the forearms both on the desk and nearly at right angles to each other, the left holding in place the book or paper, which should be inclined so that the lines meet the right forearm at right angles.
7. The weight of the body is not thrown to either side (in any other it is thrown upon one side or the other); and hence this position is best adapted to resist fatigue of the bodily muscles.
8. Sit, or stand, with right side inclined towards the desk, right forearm resting wholly on the desk, left partially, and the copy placed obliquely on the desk. The weight of the head and shoulders is thrown on the left side.
9. Sit, or stand, with right side turned to the desk, but not in contact with it, the right forearm as well as the copy being on the desk parallel with its edge; copy held in place by the fingers of the left hand.
10. Keep the body erect; by no means permit the head to drop forward over the paper. Teachers should exercise the greatest care in this respect over those placed in their charge.

11. There is considerable dispute in regard to this, but the manner most practiced by businessmen and taught in most of our commercial colleges is the one given by Mr. Spencer, viz., hold pen between first two fingers and thumb, the holder crossing the forefinger in front of the knuckle-joint and the second finger at the root of the nail; the end of the thumb touching the holder opposite the lower joint of the first finger. The other fingers should separate from first two at the middle joint and curve so that the ends of the nails rest upon the paper.

12. The proper motion of the muscles of the shoulder, arm and hand in writing.

13. Two; combined and whole-arm.

14. The combined movement is the motion of the muscles of the forearm and fingers together, resting upon the elbow and the nails of the third and fourth fingers; used in ordinary writing. The whole-arm movement is a motion of the muscles of the whole arm and shoulder, resting upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and upon the point of the pen; used in making large capitals, flourishes, and in blackboard exercise. The wrist joint should in all cases be kept free.

15. The exact shape and appearance of a character representing a thought preconceived in the mind.

16. The mind directs the action of the muscles, and as writing is a result of muscular action, the mind must have a clear, concise and ready conception of what it wishes the muscles to do, before the action can be realized.

17. A point moving in any direction leaves a path called a line.

18. Two : straight and curved. A straight line is the path of a point moving in but one direction ; a curved line is the path of a point constantly changing its direction.

19. Two : right and left. A right curve bends to the right of a straight line connecting its extremities, while a left curve bends to the left.

20. A line parallel to the horizon; a line at right angles to the horizon ; a line neither horizontal nor vertical.

21. When they are equi-distant, with respect to each other, throughout their entire length.

22. The line upon which the letter rests. The line,
real or imaginary, that bounds the height of the small let-ters, or those but one space in height. The line that bounds the height of the extended letters, or those three spaces in height.
23. The space between two lines meeting in a point.
24. Two: right and acute. A right angle is formed by a right line meeting another perpendicularly. An acute angle is one smaller than a right angle.
25. A three hundred sixtieth part of the circumference of a circle.
26. If from the centre of a circle a vertical and a hor-izontal line be drawn, meeting the circumference, and the smaller of the two arcs thus made be divided into ninety equal parts or degrees, a line drawn from a point on this arc 52° from where the arc meets the horizontal line, to the centre of the circle, is said to be on a slant of 52°. One drawn similarly from a point 30° above the horizontal is said to have a slant of 30°.
27. A slant of 52°, so called because the main or down-ward strokes of written letters have this slant. A slant of 30°, so called because generally used in upward or connect-ing strokes.
28. Three: by angular juncture, as in the upper part of small i; by short curves, as at the base of small i; and by oval turns, as in large O.
29. The height of small i, commonly called a space. The horizontal distance between the two straight lines in the letter u.
30. a, c, e, i, m, n, o, u, v, w and x.
31. One and one-fourth spaces.
32. The final part, or small oval of the letter k.
33. Two spaces.
34. One and one-half spaces.
35. j, g, f, l, y and z.
36. b, f, h, k, l, and all the capitals.
37. Lines of a certain and established form, by combi-nations of which all letters may be formed.
38. 1. By simplifying the forms of letters. 2. By teach-ing both mind and muscle this simplified form. 3. By giving a standard for uniformity. 4. By educating the taste to more pleasing proportions in the parts of letters.
39. By analysis.
40. To analyze a letter is to name the separate princi-ples employed in its construction, and to state their posi-tion and manner of connection. 41. On the base line always. One space above the base line.
42. A, E, M, N, O, Q.
43. C, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Q, S, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.
44. B, D, F, P, R, T, which begin two and one-half spaces above base line. D begins two spaces above.
45. The proper distance left between letters, words or sentences.
46. One and one-fourth spaces.
47. Two spaces from the last straight line of the connecting letter. Write the words, name, cinque, and notice the required distance from the bottom of the downward stroke of n and the connecting point of a and q.
48. From the middle of the oval to the straight line of the following letter.
49. From the middle of first oval to the left side of second oval.
50. One-fourth space, recrossing from base of capital.
51. One space.
52. Two spaces.
53. The extreme left point of the capital should be one and one-half spaces from the last downward stroke of preceding word.
54. Between the straight lines, two and one-third spaces; between curves, one and one-third spaces; between final downward stroke of first and beginning of curve for next word, one and one-half spaces.
55. Three spaces.
56. One-third of a space.
57. A proper use of light and heavy strokes, the latter formed by a gently-increasing pressure upon the points of the pen, being held and moved so that the pressure is constantly alike on both points, until the middle of the stroke desired to be shaded is reached, and then as gently release the pressure as it was increased until the stroke is complete.
58. All the letters but one space in height except a, which should receive a slight shade on first downward curve.
59. The heaviest shade should be at the top of the last downward stroke.
60. Shade should commence at base line and gradually increased to the end of the downward stroke.
61. Only on that part of the downward stroke which is below the line.

QUESTIONS  ON  ALGEBRA.

1. Define Algebra.
2. Why is algebra called universal arithmetic ?
3. Define mathematics.
4. Define quantity.
5. Define algebraic quantity.
6. How many kinds of algebraic quantities are there?
7. What are known quantities ?
8. What are unknown quantities ?
9. How many kinds of symbols are there ?
10. What are symbols of quantity ?
11. What are the symbols of operation ?
12. What are the symbols of relation ?
13. What are the signs of aggregation ?
14. What are the terms of an algebraic quantity?
15. What are positive terms ?
16. What are negative terms?
17. Distinguish between similar and dissimilar terms.
18. Define coefficient.
19. Define exponent.
20. What are literal quantities ?
21. Define monomial.
22. Define polynomial.
23. Define binomial.
24. Define residual.
25. What is a trinomial ?
26. What is meant by the degree of a term ?
27. What is a homogeneous quantity?
28. Express the product of a and b, and explain.
29. Express algebraically : A man sold a farm which
cost him a dollars for b times its cost ; after keeping back c dollars for himself, he divided the remainder equally among d children. How many dollars did he give to each

30. In the following : a=4, b=3, c=2, d=1.
a²+b²+c²+d²
—————— + a b c d. Solve.
a+b+c+d

31. Define algebraic sum.

32. What is the method of finding the algebraic sum ?

33. Define unit of addition.

34. Give method of algebraic subtraction.

35. How may a parenthesis be removed from an algebraic expression?

36. How may an algebraic expression be enclosed in a parenthesis ?

37. Give law governing the sign of a product in algebraic multiplication.

38. Give law of coefficients in multiplication.

39. Give law of exponents in multiplication.

40. Give formula for the square of a binomial.

41. Give formula for the product of the sum and difference of two quantities.

42. Give law of signs in algebraic division.

43. Give law of coefficients in division.

44. Give law for exponents in division.

45. Give general law relating to change of value resulting from change of dividend or divisor by multiplication or division.

46. Give principles relating to change of sign in dividend or divisor.

47. Prove that any quantity having a cipher for an exponent is equal to unity.

48. Prove that any quantity having a negative exponent is equal to the reciprocal of that quantity with an equal positive exponent?

49. What are the factors of a quantity?

50. A³+b³ is divisible by what? Explain.

51. A³—b³ is divisible by what? Explain.

52. A⁴—b⁴ is divisible by what? Explain.

53. A¹⁰+b¹⁰ is divisible by what? Explain.

54. 32a⁵+1 is divisible by what? Explain.

55. Define common divisor ; greatest common divisor.

56. Define multiple, common multiple, and least common multiple.
57. Give method for finding the greatest common divisor of two or more quantities.
58. Give method for finding the least common multiple of two or more quantities.
59. What is substitution in algebra ?
60. What is a fraction?
61. Give general law relating to change of value, resulting from change of numerator or denominator by multiplication or division.
62. What is an entire quantity ? A mixed quantity ?
63. Distinguish between real and apparent signs.
64. How may the real signs of a fraction be changed ?
65. Changing all the signs of both numerator and denominator has what effect upon the real sign ?
66. What is reduction ?
67. Give method for reducing a fraction to lowest terms.
68. Give method for reducing a fraction from fractional form to an entire or mixed quantity.
69. Give method for reducing a mixed quantity to the form of a fraction.
70. How may fractions be reduced to a common denominator ?
71. Give method for adding fractions.
72. Give rule for subtraction of fractions.
73. Give rule for multiplication of fractions.
74. Give rule for division of fractions.
75. What is an equation ?
76. What branch of mathematics treats most of the equations ?
77. What is the first member of an equation? The second member ?
78. Define arithmetical equation Algebraic equation.
79. Define numeral equations. Literal equations.
80. Define identical equation.
81. How is the degree of an equation denoted ?
82. Define simple equation. Quadratic, and cubic.
83. What is meant by the transformation of an equation ?
84. How may an equation be cleared of fractions ?
85. What is transposition?
86. How may a term be transposed ?
87. What is meant by the reduction or solution of an equation ?
88. Define indeterminate equation.
89. What are simultaneous equations ?
90. When two or more simultaneous equations are given, by what process are the values of the unknown quantities determined?
91. How many methods of elimination are there?
92. Give method of elimination by addition or subtraction.
93. Give method of elimination by comparison.
94. Give method of elimination by substitution.
95. Give method of eliminating in simple equations containing more than two unknown quantities.
96. When only can the value of the unknown quantity be determined?
97. What is an inequality? Express a is greater than b.
98. By what operation will the sign of an inequality be reversed?
99. What operations may be performed upon an inequality and the result still subsist in the same sense?
100. What is a power? A root?
101. Define involution. Evolution.
102. What is meant by the square of a quantity? The cube of a quantity?
103. Distinguish between perfect and imperfect power.
104. How is evolution indicated? What is a surd?
105. In raising a quantity to a given power, what are the principles relating to coefficients, exponents, and signs of the power?
106. How may a fraction be raised to a given power?
107. Give formula for the square of a trinomial.
108. What is meant by leading terms? By following term?
109. Of what value is Newton's Binomial Formula?
110. Give method of expanding by Newton's Binomial Formula.
111. How may a binomial having coefficients be expanded without successive multiplication, as (2a—3b)⁷?
112. What is a radical quantity?
113. How is the degree of a radical quantity indicated?
114. What are similar radicals?
115. On what are the operations in radicals based?
116. When is a radical in its simplest form?
117. By what method are radicals reduced to simplest form?
118. How may we reduce a rational quantity to a radical?
119. How may we reduce radicals of different degrees to a common radical index ?
120. Give method of adding and subtracting radicals.
121. Give method of multiplying and dividing radicals.
122. How may a radical sign be removed ?
123. Give classes of quadratic equations.
124. Define pure quadratic equations.
125. What is an affected quadratic equation ?
126. What is meant by the root of an equation?
127. Why may the sign ± be prefixed to the root of a quadratic equation ?
128. Speak of the roots of an affected quadratic equation.
129. Give a method of forming a quadratic when the roots are given.
130. How, then, may a trinomial in the form of x² + ax + b be separated into two binomial factors ?
131. Give method for completing the square in equations reduced to the form of x² + 2 ax=b.
132. Give method for completing the square in equations reduced to the form of ax² +bx =c.
133. How may the equation x⁴—3x²=550 be solved?
134. What is meant by the absolute term of an equation ?
135. What is arithmetical progression ?
136. What is geometrical progression ?
137. What are the extremes ? The means ?
138. Define ratio in geometrical progression.
139. What letters are used as symbols of the different terms in progression ?
140. Give formulas for problems in arithmetical progression.
141. Give formulas for problems in geometrical progression.
142. What is ratio ? Proportion ?
143. Define couplet. Terms.
144. What are the antecedents ? Consequents ?
145. Define extremes. Means.
146. Define mean proportional.
147. Define proposition and give kinds.
148. What is an axiom ?
149. Define problem.
150. What is a scholium ? 151. Prove that the product of the means equals the product of the extremes.
152. If we have three terms of a proportion, how may the fourth be obtained ?
153. What is a logarithm ?
154. What is a system of logarithms ?
155. What are the important uses of logarithms ?
156. Give method of multiplication by the use of log-arithms.
157. Give method of division.
158. Give method of involution.
159. Give method for evolution.
160. What are the integral and decimal parts of a log-arithm called ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  ALGEBRA.

1. Algebra is that branch of mathematics in which the operations are indicated by signs, and the quantities are represented by letters.
2. Because the object of algebraic notation is to abridge and generalize the analysis of mathematical problems.
3. Mathematics is the science which treats of the relations of quantities.
4. Quantity is anything that can be measured or compared.
5. An algebraic quantity is a quantity expressed in algebraic language.
6. Two kinds—known and unknown.
7. Known quantities are those whose values are given; when these are not expressed by figures they are represented by the leading letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c, d.
8. Unknown quantities are those whose values are to be determined, and are represented by the final letters of the alphabet, as u, x, y, z.
9. Four kinds—symbols of quantity, operation, relation and aggregation.
10. In arithmetic numbers are represented by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. In algebra numbers or quantities are more frequently represented by the common letters of the alphabet.
11. The signs of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, and evolution.
12. The signs of equality, inequality, ratio, and proportion.
13. The parenthesis ( ), brackets [ ], brace { }, vincu- lum —, and bar |. They indicate that the quantities within are to be taken together.
14. The divisions made by the signs + and —.
15. Those that have the plus sign.
16. Those that have the minus sign.
17. Similar terms are terms containing the same letters affected by the same exponents, while dissimilar terms are those which have different letters or exponents.
18. The coefficient of a term is that factor which is considered as denoting the number of times the remainder of the term is taken.
19. An exponent is a small figure or letter written at the right, and a little above another figure, or letter, to denote how many times the latter is to be used as a factor.
20. Literal quantities are those whose numbers or values are expressed by letters.
21. A monomial is an algebraic quantity consisting of but one term.
22. A polynomial is an algebraic quantity consisting of more than one term.
23. A binomial is a polynomial of two terms.
24. A residual is a binomial, the terms of which are connected by the minus sign.
25. A polynomial of three terms.
26. The degree of a term is the number of literal factors it contains, and is found by adding the exponents of the several letters.
27. One whose terms are all of the same degree.
28. ab. When two or more letters representing numbers are written side by side, their product is indicated.
29. ab—c / d
30. 16+9+4+1 / 4+3+2+1 +4×3×2×1=27.
31. The algebraic sum of two or more quantities is a quantity which, taken with reference to its sign, is equivalent to the given quantities each taken with reference to its particular sign.
32. The algebraic sum of two or more similar terms, having like signs, is the sum of their absolute values taken with their common sign. When with unlike signs, is the difference of their absolute values taken with the sign of the greater term.
33. The unit of addition is the quantity whose coefficients are added.
34. Conceive the signs of the subtrahend to be changed, and unite terms as in addition.
35. When preceded by the plus sign a parenthesis may be removed and the enclosed terms written with proper signs, but when preceded by the minus sign the signs of all the enclosed terms must be changed.
36. Any number of terms with their proper signs may be enclosed by a parenthesis and the plus sign written before the whole, or the minus sign may be written before the whole, provided that all the signs of the given terms be changed.
37. When the two factors have like signs the product is positive, and when the two factors have unlike signs the product is negative.
38. The coefficient of the product is equal to the product of the coefficients of the two factors.
39. The exponent of any letter in the product is equal to the sum of the exponents of this letter in the factors.
40. The square of the first term, plus twice the product of the first and the second, plus the square of the second if both terms are positive; if, however, the binomial be a residual the sign of the second term in the square should be minus.
41. The product of the sum and difference of two quantities is equal to the difference of their squares.
42. If the signs of terms are alike, prefix the plus sign to the quotient; if they are unlike, prefix the minus sign.
43. The coefficient of the quotient is found by dividing the coefficient of the dividend by that of the divisor.
44. The exponent of any letter in the quotient is found by subtracting the exponent of this letter in the divisor from its exponent in the dividend.
45. A change in the dividend produces a like change in the quotient; but a change in the divisor produces an opposite change in the quotient. A like change in both dividend and divisor does not alter the value of the quotient.
46. Changing the sign of either dividend or divisor changes the sign of the quotient, but changing the signs of both dividend and divisor does not alter the value of the quotient.
47. a/a = a^(1-1) = a^0
a/a = 1. Therefore a^0 = 1.
48. a^5/a^7 = 1/a^2
a^5/a^7 = a^(5-7) = a^(-2). Therefore a^(-2) = 1/a^2.
49. Those quantities which, multiplied together, will produce that quantity.
50. By a+b. The sum of two equal odd powers is divisible by the sum of the quantities.
51. By a—b. The difference of two equal odd powers is divisible by the difference of the quantities.
52. By a—b and by a+b. The difference of two equal even powers is divisible by both the sum and difference of the quantities.
53. By a^2+b^2. The sum of two equal even powers cannot be factored unless the exponent is composed of the factor 2 and an odd number, in which case it is divisible by the sum of the squares of the quantities.
54. By 2a+1. This comes properly under question 50, 1 being any power of itself.
55. A common divisor of two or more quantities is a quantity which will exactly divide each of them. A greatest common divisor is the greatest quantity that will exactly divide each of them.
56. A multiple of a quantity is a quantity exactly divisible by the given quantity. A common multiple of two or more quantities is one which is exactly divisible by each of them. A least common multiple of two or more quantities is the least quantity exactly divisible by each of them.
57. Factor the given quantities, and affect each factor with the least exponent which it has in any of the quantities. The product of the factors thus obtained will be the greatest common divisor.
58. Factor the given quantities and affect each factor with an exponent equal to the greatest which it has in any of the quantities. The product of the factors thus obtained will be the least common multiple.
59. The process of putting one quantity for another in any given expression.
60. A quotient expressed by writing the dividend above a horizontal line and the divisor below.
61. The denominator, or quantity below the line, being the divisor, and the numerator, or quantity above the line, being the dividend, the principles here involved are the same as those given in answer to question 45.
62. An entire quantity is an algebraic quantity which has no fractional part. A mixed quantity has both entire and fractional parts.
63. The apparent sign of a fraction is the sign written before the dividing line to indicate whether the fraction is to be added or subtracted. The real sign is the sign of its numerical value when reduced to a monomial, and shows whether the fraction is essentially a positive or a negative quantity.
64. By changing all the signs of the numerator or denominator, or by changing the apparent sign of the fraction.
65. The real sign remains unchanged.
66. Reduction in mathematics is changing the form of an expression without changing its value.
67. Reject all common factors from both terms.
68. Perform the division indicated.
69. Multiply the entire part by the given denominator, and annexing the numerator of the fractional part, write the sum over the given denominator.
70. The least common denominator is the least com-mon multiple of all the denominators. Divide this com-mon denominator by each of the given denominators, and multiply each numerator by the corresponding quotient. The products will be the new numerators.
71. Reduce the fractions to forms having a common denominator, add the numerators and write the result over the common denominator.
72. Reduce to common denominator, subtract the numerator of the subtrahend from that of the minuend, and write the remainder over the common denominator.
73. Take the product of the numerators for a new numerator, and the product of the denominators for a new denominator.
74. Invert the terms of the divisor and proceed as in multiplication.
75. An equation is an expression of equality between two quantities.
76. Algebra treats of the nature and properties of the
equation, and of its use as an instrument for conducting mathematical investigations.

77. The first member is the quantity on the left of the sign of equality. The second member is the quantity on the right.

78. An arithmetical equation is one which expresses the equality of numbers. An algebraic equation is one which contains one or more literal quantities.

79. A numeral equation is one in which all the known quantities are expressed by numbers. A literal equation is one in which some or all of the known quantities are expressed by letters.

80. An equation in which the two members are the same, or can be reduced to the same expression by performing the operations indicated.

81. By the highest exponent of the unknown quantity in the equation.

82. A simple equation is one of the first degree. A quadratic equation is one of the second degree. A cubic equation is one of the third degree.

83. The process of changing its form without destroying the equality of its members.

84. Multiply each member by the least common multiple of all the denominators.

85. Changing a term from one member of the equation to the other without destroying the equality of its members.

86. By dropping it from the member in which it stands, and inserting it in the other member with its sign changed.

87. Finding the value of the unknown quantity.

88. An indeterminate equation is one which is satisfied by an infinite number of values of the unknown quantity. Every single equation containing two unknown quantities is indeterminate.

89. Those which must be satisfied by the same values of the unknown quantities which enter them.

90. By elimination, a process of combining equations in such a manner as to cause one or more of the unknown quantities to disappear.

91. Three : by addition or subtraction, comparison and substitution.

92. Multiply or divide the equation by such numbers or quantities that the coefficients of the quantity to be eliminated shall be made equal in the two equations.
these coefficients have like signs, subtract one of the prepared equations from the other; if unlike, add the two equations.
93. Find the value of the same unknown quantity, in terms of the other, from each of the given equations. Form an equation by placing these two values equal to each other.
94. Find the value of one of the unknown quantities in terms of the other, from either of the given equations. Substitute the value for the same unknown quantity in the other equation.
95. Combine one of the given equations with each of the others, eliminating the same unknown quantity by each combination. Then combine one of the new equations with each of the others, eliminating a second unknown quantity, and thus continue till a final equation is obtained containing but one unknown quantity. Substitute the value of this unknown quantity in an equation containing two unknown quantities, and thus find the value of a second. Substitute these values in an equation containing three unknown quantities, and find the value of the third, and so on until the value of all are found.
96. When its conditions furnish as many independent equations as there are unknown quantities employed in the notation.
97. An expression signifying that one quantity is greater or less than another. a>b.
98. If an inequality be subtracted from an equation member from member. If all the signs of the inequality be changed. If both members be multiplied by the same negative quantity. If multiplied by another inequality, subsisting in the same sense, member by member, when more than two of the members of both inequalities are negative.
99. If another inequality subsisting in the same sense be added member to member. If another inequality established in a contrary sense be subtracted. If both members be multiplied or divided by the same positive quantity. If multiplied by another inequality subsisting in the same sense, when more than two of the members of both inequalities are positive.
100. A power is the product obtained by taking a quantity several times as a factor. A root is the quantity repeated to produce a power. 101. Involution is the process of raising a quantity to a given power. Evolution is the process of determining any root of a given quantity.
102. The square of a quantity is its second power, and the cube is its third power.
103. A perfect power is a quantity that can be exactly produced by taking some other quantity a certain number of times as a factor, while an imperfect power cannot.
104. By the radical sign √ . A surd is the indicated root of an imperfect power.
105. The coefficient of the power is the coefficient of the quantity raised to the required power. The exponent of any letter in the power is the product of its exponent by the index of the required power. The odd powers of a negative quantity will have the minus sign; the even powers of a negative quantity, and all powers of a positive quantity, are positive.
106. Raise both numerator and denominator to the required power.
107. Write the square of each term with twice the product of each term by the sum of all the terms which follow it, and reduce the result, if necessary.
108. The leading term is the first, and the following term is the second term in a binomial.
109. It enables one to write by inspection any power of a binomial, neither term of which has coefficients.
110. Let (x+y) be any binomial and (x+y)ᵐ equal any power indicated, then xᵐ + mxᵐ⁻¹y + m(m—1)xᵐ⁻²y² / 2 + m(m—1)(m—2)xᵐ⁻³y³ / 3 etc. There will always be m+1 terms in the power.
111. Put the first term 2a equal to x and the second or 3b equal to y. Expand (x+y)ᵐ by Newton's Formula and restore the values of x and y; or use French's Binomial Formula, which shows that the coefficient of the first term in any power is equal to the corresponding power of the coefficient of the leading term in the root; and that the coefficient of any term may be found by multiplying the coefficient of the preceding term by the exponent of the leading quantity in that term and by the coefficient of the following quantity in the root, and dividing this result by the product of the coefficient of the leading quantity in the root multiplied by the number of terms from the first.
112. A root merely indicated by the radical sign, or by a fractional exponent.
113. By the radical index, or by the denominator of the fractional exponent.
114. Those having the same quantity under a radical sign of the same index.
115. On the most elementary principles of factoring.
116. When it contains no perfect power corresponding to the degree of the radical.
117. Resolve the quantity under the radical sign into two factors, one of which shall be a perfect power of the degree of the radical. Determine the root of that factor and place it before the radical sign as a coefficient to the other factor under the sign.
118. Involve it to the same power as the required index and write the result under its corresponding radical sign.
119. Reduce the indices to a common denominator. Perform upon the quantities the operations represented by the numerators (involution) and indicate the operations signified by the denominator (evolution).
120. Reduce each radical to its simplest form. If the resulting radicals are similar add or subtract the coefficients as the case may be, and to the result annex the common radical; if dissimilar, indicate the addition or subtraction by the proper signs.
121. If necessary, reduce the given radicals to a common radical index. Multiply or divide, as the case may be, the radical parts, and write the result under the common radical sign.
122. Involve the radical quantity to a power corresponding to the radical index.
123. Pure and affected.
124. A pure quadratic equation is one which contains only the second power of the unknown quantity.
125. One which contains both the second and the first powers of the unknown quantity.
126. Such a value as when substituted for the unknown quantity will satisfy the equation.
127. The second power of any quantity must be positive, as it is the product of like signs, either plus or minus, hence every pure quadratic equation has two roots equal in numerical value, but of opposite signs.
128. Every affected quadratic equation has two roots unequal in numerical value.
129. Multiply together the binomial factors obtained by connecting each root with its contrary sign to an unknown quantity and place the product equal to zero.
130. Place the trinomial equal to zero and reduce the resulting equation. Connect each root with its signs changed to the lowest power of the literal quantity.
131. Add to both members of the equation the square of half the coefficient of the first power of the unknown quantity.
132. Multiply the equation by 4 times the coefficient of x² and add the square of the coefficient of x to both members.
133. Represent x⁴ as y² and x² as y ; solve and restore value of y.
134. The term or quantity which does not contain the unknown quantity.
135. A series of members or quantities increasing or decreasing by a common difference.
136. A series of numbers or quantities increasing or decreasing by a constant multiplier.
137. The extremes are the first and last terms. The means are the intermediate terms.
138. The ratio is the constant multiplier.
139. a, represents the first term ; b, last term ; n, the number of terms ; d, the common difference ; r, the ratio ; and s, the sum of the series.
140. l = a ± (n-1)d; s = n/2 (a+l).
141. l = arⁿ⁻¹; s = (rl-a)/(r-1)
142. Ratio is the quotient of one quantity divided by another of the same kind, regarded as the standard of comparison. Proportion is an equality of ratios.
143. A couplet is the two terms which form the ratio. The terms of a proportion are the four quantities compared.
144. The antecedents in a proportion are the first terms of the two couplets. The consequents are the second terms.
145. The extremes in a proportion are the first and fourth terms ; the means, the second and third terms.
146. A mean proportional between two quantities is a
quantity to which the first of the two given quantities has the same ratio as the quantity has to the second.
147. A proposition is a statement of something to be done.
Axioms, Theorems, Lemmas, Corollaries, Postulates, and Problems.
148. A self-evident truth.
149. A problem is a proposition to do some specified thing and is stated with reference to developing the method of doing it.
150. A remark made at the close of a discussion and designed to call attention to some particular feature or features of it.
151. If a:b::c:d then ad=bc. For a:b::c:d is the same as b/a = d/c or a/b = c/d clearing of fractions in either case ad=bc. Q. E. D.
152. Either mean is equal to the product of the extremes divided by the other mean, and either extreme is equal to the product of the means divided by the other extreme.
153. The exponent by which a fixed number is to be affected in order to produce any required number.
154. A scheme by which all numbers can be represented either exactly or approximately by exponents by which a fixed number (the base) can be affected. Negative numbers can have no logarithms.
155. To facilitate the multiplication, division, involution and evolution of large numbers.
156. Add the logarithms of the two factors and the result will be the logarithm of their product.
157. Subtract the logarithm of the divisor from that of the dividend and the result will be the logarithm of the quotient.
158. Multiply the logarithm of the number by the index of the power and the result will be the logarithm of the power.
159. Divide the logarithm of the number by the number expressing the degree of the root and the result will be the logarithm of the root.
160. The integral part is called the characteristic and the decimal the mantissa.

TEST PROBLEMS  PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED

1. The sum of two numbers is 12, and their difference is equal to ⅓ of the greater. What are the numbers?
2. A farmer made a mixture of barley, oats and peas, using two bushels of barley as often as 5 of oats and 1 of peas ; the whole number of bushels in the mixture was 32. How many bushels of each kind did he use?
3. A farm rents for 6 per cent. more this year than last. This year it rents for $1,060. What was the rent last year?
4. A steamer whose regular speed is twelve miles per hour in still water, can make a trip up stream in 7 hours and down in 5 hours. At what rate does the river flow?
5. A can do a piece of work in 6 days, B in 4 days. In what time can they both do it, working together?
6. What time is it when ⅓ of the time past noon equals ¼ of the time to midnight?
7. What fraction is that which if 1 be added to the numerator the fraction will be ⅓ but if 1 be added to the denominator the fraction will be ¼?
8. Divide the number n into two such parts that the greater, increased by a, shall equal the less, increased by b.
9. A says to B: "Give me one dollar and I shall have twice as much money as you." B says to A : "No; you give me one dollar and I shall have just as much money as you." How many dollars have each?
10. What is the length of one edge of that cube which contains as many solid units as there are linear units in the diagonal through the opposite corners?
11. The sum of two numbers is 100, and the difference of their square roots is 2. What are the numbers?
12. What number is that consisting of two digits, units and tens, which is equal to three times the sum of
its digits, and if 45 be added to the number, the order of the digits will be reversed?
13. James is ⅓ as old as John; 5 years ago he was ⅕ as old? how old are each?
14. What two numbers are those whose product is 36, and the difference of their squares is 65?
15. Divide the number 2000 into two such parts that the greater shall be to the less as 9 to 7.
16. There is a fish whose head is 9 in. long; the tail is as long as the head and ½ the body; and the body is as long as the head and tail together. What is the length of the fish?
17. A shepherd was met by a band of robbers who plundered him of ¼ of his flock and ¼ of a sheep over; he afterwards met a second band who took ⅓ of the remainder and ⅓ of a sheep over; and a third band took ½ of the last remainder and ½ of a sheep over, when he had but 25 sheep left. How many sheep had he at first?
18. Simplify (√a + √b)(√a - √b) / (⁴√a + ⁴√b)(⁴√a - ⁴√b).
19. A tree 80 feet high is broken during a storm; the upper part clinging to the stump strikes the ground 40 feet from the foot of the tree. How long is each part?
20. A picture 12 feet by 18 feet is set in a frame of uniform width containing the same area as the picture. What is the width of frame?
21. To find the area of a scalene triangle whose sides are a, b, and c.
22. How are the above problems solved arithmetically?
23. How many strokes do the clocks of Venice, which go on to 24 o'clock, strike in a day?
24. A company of travelers at a hotel incurred a bill of $12. If there had been two more in the company each would have been charged 30 cents less. How many were there in the company?
25. The sum of three numbers in arithmetical progression is 27, and the product of the extremes is 77. What are the numbers?
26. A tract of land in the form of a square is surrounded by a board fence, four boards high, each board 16½ feet long; the number of acres in the tract equals the number of boards in the fence. How many acres of land are there?
27. A boy being asked how many fish he had, replied:
11 fish are 7 fish more than ⅔ of the number. How many had he ?
28. A man purchased a house with 10 doors, giving $1 for the first door, $2 for the second, $4 for the third, and so on. What did the house cost him ?
29. A man holds an endowment policy payable in 30 years, and ⅓ of the time past equals ¼ of the time to come. How much time has past?
30. One kind of wine is 40 cents a quart, and another 24 cents. How much of each must be taken to make a quart worth 28 cents ?
31. A farmer has two flocks of sheep, each containing the same number. From one he sells 39 and from the other 93, and then finds just twice as many in one flock as in the other. How many did each flock originally contain?
32. A man being asked his age, replied : If to my age you add its half, and third, and then deduct 10, the result is 100. What was his age ?
33. A merchant has sugar at 9 cents and 13 cents a pound, and he wishes to make a mixture of 100 pounds that shall be worth 12 cents a pound. How many pounds of each quality must be taken ?
34. A man was hired for a year for $100 and a suit of clothes ; but at the end of 8 months he left, and received his clothes and $60 in money. What was the value of the suit of clothes ?
35. Determine the 5th root of 31152784.1 by means of logarithms, knowing that the logarithm of 31152784.1= 7.493497.
36. A man sold a horse for $420, thereby gaining 25 per cent. What was the cost of the horse ?
37. Two men commenced trade together. The first put in $40 more than the second ; and the stock of the first was to the stock of the second as 5 to 4. What was the stock of each ?
38. A man traveled 36 miles in a certain number of hours ; if he had traveled one mile more per hour he would have required 3 hours less to perform his journey. How many miles did he travel per hour?
39. A person after spending $100 more than ⅓ of his income, had remaining $35 more than ⅕ of it. What was his income ?
40. A boy engaged to carry 100 glass vessels to a certain place, and to receive 3 cents for every one he de-

STATEMENTS AND ANSWERS  TO  PROBLEMS.

1. The half sum of two numbers plus the half difference equals the greater.
The half sum minus the half difference equals the less.
Let 2x=difference.
6+x=greater.
6—x=less.
2x=6+x
3 Ans. Greater 7½. Less 4½.

2. Let x=No. bushels peas.
2x=No. bushels barley.
5x=No. bushels oats.
8x=32. Ans. 4 bushels peas, 8 bushels barley,
20 bushels oats.

3. Let x=rent last year.
x+6x
——=1060. Ans. $1,000.
100

4. Let x=rate of river.
Then 7(12—x)=5(12+x). Ans. 2 hours.

5. Let x=time required by both.
x x
Then — + — =1. Ans. 2⅔ days.
6 4

6. Let x=time past noon.
12—x=time to midnight.
x 12—x
Then — = —— . Ans. Half past 4 o'clock P. M.
3 5

7. Let x=numerator of fraction.
y=denominator.
x+1 x
Then —— = ⅓ and —— = ¼. Ans. ⅖.
y y+1 8. Let x=greater ; n—x=less.
Then x+a=(n—x)+b.
Ans. Greater (n+b-a)/2 less (n+a-b)/2.

9. Let x=A's money ; y=B's money.
Then x+1=2(y-1) and x-1=y+1.
Ans. A's=$7. B's=$5.

10. Let x=length of edge.
sqrt(3x^2) =the diagonal.
x^3 = sqrt(3x^2). Ans. sqrt(3).

11. Let x=greater ; y=less
Then x+y=100 and sqrt(x) - sqrt(y) =2.
Square second equation and subtract. Ans. 64 and 36.

12. The local value of the digit in ten's place being ten times that in unit's place, if we let x=units and y=tens the number will be 10y+x. Then 10y+x=3(x+y) and 10y+x+45=10x+y. Ans. 27.

13. Let x=James' age ; y=John's age.
Then x = y/3 and x-5 = (y-5)/5. Ans. James 10, John 30.

14. Let x=one number and y the other.
Then xy=36 and x^2-y^2=65.
Find value of x^2 in each equation and compare.
Ans. 9 and 4.

15. Let x=greater number and y the less.
Then x+y=2000 and x:y::9:7 or 9y=7x.
Multiply first equation through by 7 and subtract.
Ans. 1125 and 875.

16. Let x=length of body and 9+1/2x=length of tail.
Then 9+9+1/2x=x, or x=18+1/2x. Ans. 72 inches.

17. Let 12x=number he had at first.
9x-1/4=first remainder.
6x-1/2=second remainder.
3x-3/4=third remainder.
3x-1=25. Ans. 103.

18. In both numerator and denominator we have the product of the sum and difference of two quantities. Ans.

19. Let x=upper part and 80-x=lower part.
Then x^2-42^2=(80-x)^2. Ans. Upper part 50 feet. Lower 30 feet.
20. Let x=width of frame. Then 24x+36x+4x^2=216. Transpose, unite and complete the square. Ans. 3 inches.
21. From the vertical angle let fall a perpendicular to the base b. Let x=the segment adjacent to the side c ; b—x=the segment adjacent to the side a ; Then will c^2—x^2=perpendicular. Also a^2—(b—x)^2=perpendicular. Then will c^2—x^2=a^2—(b—x)^2. After finding the perpendicular multiply the base b, by ½ the perpendicular.
22. Add the three sides and divide this sum by 2. Subtract each side separately from the half sum. Multiply the several remainders and the half sum together and determine the square root of the result.
23. s = n/2 (a+b). s = 24/2 x (1+24). Ans. 300.
24. Let x=number in the company. Then 1200/x - 30 = 1200/(x+2). Divide both members by 30. Clear of fractions and complete the square. Ans. 8.
25. The formulas will not apply in this problem so let y=common difference. Then x—y=first ; x=second, and x+y=third. 3x=27, x=9, x^2—y^2=77. Ans. 7, 9, 11.
26. Let x=side of the square in rods. Then x^2/160 =number of acres. 16x=number of boards, each board being 16½ feet or 1 rod long. Then x^2/160 =16x. After finding x, square it and divide by 160. Ans. 40960.
27. Let x=the number. Then x/2+7=11. Ans. 10.
28. l=ar^(n-1), l=1x2^9. Substitute l in s = (rl-a)/(r-1). Ans. $1,023.
29. Let x=time passed ; 30—x=time to come. x/2 = (30—x)/4. Ans. 10 years.
30. Let x=the amount required at 40 cents and y=the amount required at 24 cents. Then x+y=1 and 40x+24y=28. Ans. ¼ at 40 cents, and ¾ at 24 cents.
31. Let x=original number in each flock. Then x—39=2(x—93). Ans. 147.
32. Let x=his age. Then x + x/2 + x/3 - 10 = 100. Ans. 60 years old.
33. Let x=number of pounds at 9 cents and y=number of pounds at 13 cents. Then x+y=100, and 9x+13y=1,200. Ans. 25 lbs. at 9c., and 75 lbs. at 13c.
34. Let x=value of clothes. Then (100+x)/12 = (60+x)/8. Ans. $20.
35. 7.493497 ÷ 5 = 1.498699, and by reference to the table of logarithms 1.498699 is the logarithm of 31.52. Ans. 31.52.
36. Let x=cost of horse. Then x + 25x/100 = 420. Ans. $336.
37. Let x=what the first put in. Then x—40=what second put in. Then x : x—40 : : 5 : 4. Ans. $200, and $160.
38. Let x=number of miles traveled per hour. Then 36/x - 3 = 36/(x+1). Ans. 3 miles.
39. Let x=his income. Then x = 100 + x/5 + 35 + x/2. Ans. 450.
40. Let x=number he broke, and 100—x=number he delivered. Then 3x—9(100—x)=240. Ans. 5.
41. Let x=height of the tree. Then 42 : 12 :: x : 18. Ans. 98⅓ feet.
42. Let 2x=first ; 3x=second and 4x=third. Then 9x=360. Ans. $80, $120, $160.
43. Let x=length, and 3x the breadth. Then 3x²=10,800. Ans. Length 180, breadth 60.
44. Let x=price of one orange, and y=price of a lemon. Then 6x+7y=33 and 12x+10y=54. Ans. Oranges 2 cents ; lemons 3 cents.
45. Let x=the greater and y=the less. Then x+y=20 and x^2y^2=9216. Determine the square root of both members of the second equation and compare with the first. Ans. 12 and 8.
46. Let x=number of hours before B will overtake A. Then 5x/3 - 7x/5 = 56/5. Ans. 42 hours.
47. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x=distance traveled by minute hand. There being 12 spaces for the minute hand to gain on the hour hand, 12x-x=12. Ans. 1 hour, 5 min., 27 3/11 sec.
48. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x=distance traveled by minute hand. The minute hand must gain two revolutions on the hour hand. Then 12x-x=24. Ans. 2 hours, 10 min., 54 6/11 sec.
49. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x=distance traveled by minute hand. After the hands are together between 2 and 3 o'clock, the minute hand must gain three more spaces on the hour hand. Then 12x-x=27. Ans. 2 hours, 27 min., 16 4/11 sec.
50. Let x=distance traveled by hour hand. 12x=distance traveled by minute hand. Here 5 revolutions and six spaces must be gained. Then 12x-x=66. Ans. 6 o'clock.

QUESTIONS  ON  PARLIAMENTARY RULES.

1. What are Parliamentary Rules?
2. From what source did we derive these recognized rules?
3. Why taken from the rules governing the British Parliament?
4. Are these rules binding upon the people in their assemblies?
5. Are these changes often made?
6. When such legislative manual is adopted by any particular legislature, does it become authority for the next body following it?
7. Would it be possible to establish a system of governing rules which would agree in every particular with that of Congress or other legislative assemblies?
8. Who is recognized as authority on parliamentary practice?
9. How is an assembly of the people called into an organized body?
10. Does this election of officers constitute the permanent organization of the assembly?
11. How is the new organization usually taken up and acted upon?
12. Under such circumstances, is it usual to proceed in the election of permanent officers in the same manner as adopted in the election of temporary ones?
13. By what name is the presiding officer recognized?
14. What name is applied to the recording officer?
15. Who are entitled to participate in the proceedings of an assembly?
16. How are these electors or representatives recognized as lawful members of any assembly?
17. What are credentials? How obtained?
18. When are the credentials or certificates of member-ship examined and acted upon?
19. When rival claims are presented, how proceed?
20. Do the contesting members have the privileges of other members during the discussion of rights?
21. Does it become necessary that the president or clerk shall be a member of the assembly?
22. In our numerous societies and associations, what offices are usually sustained?
23. When an assembly has rightfully appropriated a room or place for its sessions, how can it protect itself from disorderly or improper conduct of any member or any person not entitled to be therein?
24. What authority has an assembly to employ suffi-cient force to remove such person or persons?
25. When a person or persons become disorderly, are they subject to prosecution?
26. How is the judgment, opinion, sense or will of a deliberative assembly expressed?
27. What object was in view when the various ways of disposing of a proposition or motion were adopted?
28. What is a quorum?
29. What number constitutes a quorum?
30. What is the duty of the presiding officer in regard to a quorum?
31. Why is it necessary that a certain number should constitute a quorum?
32. By what are the various organized assemblies of the people governed?
33. How are changes made in the rules of any organ-ization?
34. When adopted rules are disregarded or infringed upon, whose duty is it to take notice thereof?
35. Suppose it is not the sentiment or wish of the assem-bly that a particular rule be enforced?
36. How avoid any future enforcement of distasteful rules?
37. When there is no provision for the assembly to amend or repeal the rules governing them, when can changes be made?
38. Can a rule be dispensed with or suspended where there is no express provision on this subject?
39. What is meant by the term "general consent," as used in parliamentary practice?
40. In taking a vote on any question, does it always require a majority to pass the question?
41. When an assembly is not likely to finish its business at one sitting, when would be the most appropriate time to fix the time for reassembling?
42. In the election of officers, why is it necessary that absolute majorities should be required?
43. What are the duties of the presiding officer?
44. In the absence of the president and vice-president, whose duty is it to preside?
45. Does the officer-elect have the same power conferred upon him as upon the regular officer?
46. What is pro tempore?
47. In addressing an assembly, does the presiding officer rise?
48. What is the duty of the recording officer?
49. What position should the secretary or clerk assume while reading or calling the assembly?
50. What is meant by calling the assembly?
51. What are the rights and duties of members of any assembly?
52. In cases of irregular or disorderly conduct, how proceed?
53. What punishment can be inflicted upon a member for willfully violating the rules of the assembly?
54. What misdemeanors are called high breaches of decorum?
55. Whenever a member desires to address the assembly, whether for debate or for the introduction of any communication, how proceed?
56. When two or more persons rise at the same time, or nearly so, to address the assembly, how shall the presiding officer decide who shall be first heard?
57. Should this decision be called in question by any member saying that in his opinion such a member is entitled to the floor, what must be done?
58. What are communications?
59. What are motions? Questions?
60. How prepare a petition for presentation?
61. What is the duty of a member presenting a petition?
62. What deviation is usually practiced from this regular method of proceeding?
63. When petitions or other similar subjects are before the assembly for action, how are they usually disposed of?
64. When any question is ordered to lie on the table, when does it again come before the assembly?
65. Whenever a member introduces a proposition of his own for consideration of the assembly, how obtain the action of the assembly?
66. As motions are usually made orally, what indulgence is extended to the mover by the presiding officer?
67. When a motion is made and receives no second, does it command any further attention of the assembly?
68. When is a motion in the possession of the assembly?
69. After a motion has been stated by the presiding officer, can the mover withdraw it from the assembly?
70. When a motion has been made and seconded, but not yet stated by the presiding officer, can it be withdrawn or modified?
71. What is the duty of the presiding officer in regard to stating a motion when called upon to do so by any member?
72. When a motion is before the assembly, can another motion be made and acted upon?
73. Are members allowed to make remarks when there is no question before the house?
74. When a proposition is made, and the assembly is not willing to give it attention at that time, how dispose of the question?
75. When a motion is under debate, what questions can be received?
76. By what name are these forms of questions distinguished from the principal motion?
77. What are subsidiary questions?
78. How are subsidiary motions classified?
79. What is the previous question?
80. What are the objects of the mover in making a motion for the previous question?
81. What is the result of an indefinite postponement?
82. When should motions to postpone be made?
83. What subsidiary motion is usually made when it is the desire of the assembly to postpone a question until the subject under consideration may suit their convenience better than when presented?
84. When a subject has been ordered to lie on the table, how is it recalled? When?
85. In what form should a motion be made when it is the desire to proceed with a matter which has been ordered to lie on the table?
86. Suppose a question when voted to lie on the table is never recalled, what becomes of that question?
87. What are motions to commit?
88. What authority has the committee thus appointed?
89. Can more than one committee be appointed to perfect any proposition?
90. What are motions to amend?
91. What is the division of a question?
92. When a motion is thus divided, what becomes of it?
93. Are these questions open to amendment?
94. What must be the condition of a proposition to admit of a division?
95. In legislative bodies, propositions are known as filling blanks. How are such propositions presented and acted upon?
96. In filling blanks in a motion, does it require separate action for each blank filled, and are such motions amendments?
97. When several propositions are made for filling blanks which relate to time or number,—as a day when postponement shall take place, the number of which a committee shall consist,—which proposition must be taken up first?
98. When the propositions relate to limitation,—as the amount of tax to be raised, the rate of interest, on what day the session of a legislature shall be closed by adjournment, which propositions must be taken up first?
99. What are the terms addition, separation and transposition, as they are used in legislative assemblies?
100. After an amendment has been stated by the presiding officer, can the mover change the question?
101. When an amendment is proposed, and the mover of the original question signifies his consent to it, what digression is often practiced?
102. After a question, or amendment, has been seconded, can the mover withdraw his motion?
103. In how many ways is the form of a question affected by amendments?
104. As all forms of amendments are subject to certain general rules, explain how these rules should be classified?
105. What is the First Rule? Second Rule? Third Rule? Fourth Rule? Fifth Rule?
106. In Rule Fifth, if the proposition is fit for rejection by the assembly, why not be suppressed by the presiding officer?
107. When an amendment is made by striking out a particular paragraph or certain words, and the amendment is rejected, can it again be moved to strike out the same words, or a part of them?
108. When a question has been moved to amend, or an amendment to an amendment, how shall the presiding officer proceed in stating the question?
109. In the third form of amending by striking out and inserting, how proceed?
110. When a motion to strike out and insert is carried, what changes can be made?
111. What is the manner of stating a question which is required to be amended by striking out, or inserting, or striking out and inserting other words?
112. Can an amendment be made which will destroy the entire original motion?
113. In deliberative assemblies, what motion can be made and take the place of a regular question?
114. Is a motion for adjournment always in order?
115. In order to entitle this motion to precedence over any before the assembly, how must it be given?
116. Can a motion to adjourn be amended?
117. When an assembly is adjourned without any particular day or time, when does it assemble again?
118. When a question is interrupted by an adjournment, and before any vote or question has been taken upon it, does it stand before the assembly at the next day of meeting?
119. To what do the questions of privilege relate?
120. What are the orders of the day?
121. When does the question for the orders of the day arise?
122. When the orders of the day is decided in the affirmative, how proceed?
123. What becomes of the original motion when interrupted by the orders of the day?
124. If the question is decided in the negative, what business can the assembly act upon?
125. If the business relating to the orders of the day is not disposed of on the day assigned, what becomes of it?
126. What are incidental questions?
127. How are incidental questions divided?
128. What is the duty of the presiding officer in relation to questions of order?
129. Can the presiding officer be questioned in regard to his decision of a breach of order or departure from rule?
130. What is appealing from the decision of the chair?
131. When an appeal is made, how state it to the assembly?
132. When an appeal is before the assembly, is the presiding officer entitled to express his own opinions?
133. What is the rule in regard to reading papers?
134. Why must a member obtain the consent of the assembly before reading any book or paper, or his own speech prepared in writing?
135. When, in the course of a debate, or other proceeding, the reading of a paper is called for, and an objection is made upon it, how proceed?
136. When a motion has been regularly made, and the presiding officer has put the question formally to the assembly, can it be withdrawn?
137. What is the suspension of a rule?
138. In the suspension of a rule, does a majority vote decide?
139. How treat an amendment of an amendment?
140. Which of the subsidiary questions admit of no amendment?
141. Why do these questions not admit of amendment?
142. When the previous question is moved, can another be made to prevent its action?
143. If the previous question is decided negatively, to-wit, that the main question shall not now be put, is the main question then subject to amendment, commitment, or postponement?
144. How are questions for postponement considered?
145. Can this question be amended?
146. When the motion for an amendment to some other day is rejected, how can a change of day be obtained?
147. If the motion for postponement is decided in the negative, what other means can be resorted to for suppressing it?
148. If a motion for commitment is decided in the affirmative, can the previous question, or postponement, be then used?
149. How may a motion to commit, or recommit, be amended?
150. What motion supersedes all the other subsidiary questions?
151. Of these subsidiary questions, what one can be superseded by others?
152. By what reasoning are the motions for postponement to a day certain and commitment, allowed to supersede a proposed amendment?
153. How should business be brought before an assembly?
154. When two or more subjects are placed on the table, and no priority has been given to one over the other, which should command the attention of the assembly first?
155. When any paper, which consists of several distinct propositions is presented for the action of the assembly, how proceed in the most appropriate manner?
156. Where a paper consists of a preamble or title, does it become proper to proceed first with the heading?
157. When a paper has been referred to a committee, and is reported back to the assembly, how is it taken up for consideration?
158. When the resolutions or articles of the committal have been thus agreed upon, how enter the final question upon the records of the assembly?
159. When the paper referred to a committee is reported back in a new draft, which is often done when numerous changes are made, how is the new draft considered?
160. Give an example of how questions may grow out of each other, and in what order they may be decided.
161. In a case like the preceding example, we have six questions before the assembly at one time; how dispose of them?
162. When is a proposition in order for any member to discuss it?
163. What abusive proceeding is sometimes allowed in the moving of subsidiary motions?
164. Under such circumstances, what is the duty of the presiding officer?
165. When a member has obtained the floor, what right belongs to him?
166. Can he be interrupted in his speech by any other member rising and moving an adjournment, or for the orders of the day, or by making any other privileged motion?
167. When a member has the floor, and calls are made for an adjournment, or the orders of the day, or for the question, how are such calls to be considered?
168. How shall a member address himself to the presiding officer when he wishes to call attention to some point of order, privilege or orders of the assembly?
169. When the time arrives for proceeding with the orders of the day, can a member be interrupted while speaking, and new subjects presented?
170. After a motion has been made, seconded and proposed, to whom is it customary to give the floor on opening the debate?
171. When two or more members claim the floor, to whom should the presiding officer give the preference?
172. Has a member the right to discuss a subject before it is moved?
173. Is the discussion of a subject, not already moved, indulged in by the members?
174. When a member desires to address the assembly for the purpose of discussion, or to make a motion, how should he proceed?
175. What is the duty of a person in speaking in regard to mentioning the name of a member then present?
176. When the presiding officer rises to speak, at the same time as another member, what shall be the duty of that member?
177. How long is a member permitted to speak on any subject?
178. What are the rules in regard to speaking?
179. Does the introduction of a subsidiary motion restrain debate on the general question?
180. When a member is called to order for departing from the subject under consideration, what privilege may be extended to him?
181. How many times can a member speak upon the same subject under debate?
182. On what points may a member speak a second time in the same debate?
183. What is the meaning of the phrase "to clear a matter of fact"?
184. When a member wishes to make an explanation while another is speaking, and the speaker yields the floor for an explanation, does the speaker have the right to the floor after the explanation has been given? 185. What methods do assemblies adopt to prevent a continuation of lengthy and unprofitable debates?
186. When an assembly will not support the presiding officer in his efforts to maintain order and decorum, what will he be justified in doing?
187. When disorderly words are used in speaking, which are personally offensive or insulting to another, or to the assembly, how proceed to check its continuance?
188. If offensive words are not taken notice of at the time spoken, or immediately after the speaker has finished, has any member the right to censure the member before the assembly?
189. Sometimes it occurs that a member while speaking does not command the attention of the assembly; that his right to be heard is disregarded by improper disturbances, whispering, talking, and other evidences of no regard for the speaker. What would be the most prudent course of the member speaking?
190. What is the order, resolution, or vote of the assembly?
191. In stating a question to an assembly, is it necessary for the presiding officer to give it in the precise form proposed?
192. In matters of trifling importance, such as receiving petitions and reports, withdrawing motions, reading papers, etc., what form is often used in disposing of them?
193. What is the form used by the presiding officer in putting a question to the assembly?
194. If the presiding officer is unable to decide the vote; or, after deciding according to his judgment, any member rises and says, "I doubt the vote," what must be done?
195. If the assembly is equally divided on any question, how decide?
196. Is it the duty of the presiding officer to give the casting vote?
197. When the expression of the assembly is taken by actual count, to whom does this duty belong?
198. In legislative assemblies, how is the question taken by vote?
199. After the affirmative side of the question has been put, and voting commenced, is it open to debate?
200. What objects can be accomplished by an interruption as above described?
201. When a question is taken by ayes and noes, the
negative and affirmative taken at the same time, why can there be no opening of the debate, as in other cases ?
202. When, during a division, objections arise concerning the right of any members to vote, how settle the objection ?
203. Suppose, in counting the assembly, on a division, it appears that there is not a quorum present, what shall be done?
204. What is a motion for reconsideration ?
205. Who has a right to make a motion to reconsider?
206. Of what use are committees?
207. What are the powers of a committee ?
208. What names are usually applied to the different committees ?
209. What is a select committee ?
210. What is a standing committee ?
211. In appointing a committee, how proceed ?
212. How select a committee by ballot ?
213. How elect by nomination and vote?
214. When a subject is referred to a committee, what custom is usually adopted in the selection of that committee?
215. What is the duty of the secretary in regard to committees?
216. Who is the chairman of a committee ?
217. When and where does a committee meet for the transaction of business ?
218. Can a committee transact business without the attendance of all the members ?
219. If a committee fails to meet at the particular time, as ordered by the assembly, what is the result ?
220. If disorderly words are spoken in a committee, what is to be done ?
221. What is the difference in the action of a committee on a paper originating with, and one referred to them ?
222. If a committee is opposed to the whole paper referred to them, can they reject it ?
223. What should be the appearance of a paper originating with a committee and reported to the assembly?
224. How should a committee treat a paper referred to it ?
225. When the committee has finished its work, what move is next in order ?
226. When the report of a committee is to be made, how proceed?
227. If the report is deferred to some future time, what is the manner of then disposing of it?
228. If the report is of a paper with amendments, how proceed?
229. Is a motion and vote necessary in accepting a report?
230. When a report is of considerable length, how is it usually presented to the members for their inspection?
231. When is a committee dissolved?
232. What is meant by recommitting a subject?
233. Does the action of a committee have any bearing upon a subject recommitted?
234. In how many forms may the report of a committee be presented?
235. When the report of a committee is accepted, how is it regarded by the assembly?
236. Do the terms accepting and adopting have the same meaning?
237. What is a committee of the whole?
238. How resolve an assembly into a committee of the whole?
239. What number is required to constitute a quorum?
240. If at any time the number present falls below a quorum, what is the duty of the committee?
241. Who acts as clerk in recording the business transacted by a committee of the whole?
242. How are the records of this committee kept?
243. What is the difference between the proceedings of the assembly and the committee of the whole?
244. How avoid an improper discussion, which in the assembly can be governed by the previous question?
245. If the business of the committee is not concluded at the usual time for the assembly to adjourn, or if the committee have other reasons for not continuing, how shall they proceed?
246. What is a sub-committee?
247. Is the formality of a motion and question ever dispensed with as to the time of receiving a report?
248. What special duty should be imposed upon every presiding officer in the discharge of business?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS  ON  PARLIAMENTARY RULES.

1. A recognized code of systematic regulations, by which the people may be assembled for deliberation, and governed accordingly.
2. From the British Parliament.
3. Because of the early relationship between England and the United States. These rules have remained unchanged in the English Parliament for several hundreds of years, and have become a prominent system of parliamentary authority.
4. Not binding, although this universal custom becomes a general law, changed only when legislative bodies shall so specify.
5. Not in the common assembling of the people. In the legislative branches of our government a different system of particular rules have been established, yet founded in and embracing all the essential rules of the common parliamentary law. Differences are adopted even in the two Houses of Congress, while in each state no prescribed rule is used in common. As a consequence of this disagreement, all legislative bodies provide themselves with a Legislative Manual, which becomes the standard authority for the government of that assembly.
6. It does not. Each legislative assembly is free to adopt the rules of its predecessors or to create new ones. In Congress, the same privilege is accepted, which, unlike the standard laws of the British Parliament, are subject to change to suit the particular wants of that body.
7. It would not. As a people, we have no great respect for customs and precedents. This lack of respect
for a permanent system is manifested in the endeavor of individuals to publish works which, in many particulars, are a departure from the general law.
8. Luther S. Cushing, author of Cushing's Manual.
9. There being no organization, it is effected by some individual in the assembly requesting the meeting to come to order for the transaction of the business calling them together. He also requests that some person be nominated for presiding officer. Such nomination being made, he puts the question for a vote of the assembly. Should the nominee be rejected, other nominations are made, until a choice is effected, whereupon the officer elected takes the chair, and proceeds in the same manner to complete the organization of the assembly, by choice of a secretary and such other officers, if any, as may be deemed necessary.
10. It does not, although in all conventions and meetings where the people are called together for special purposes, no further organization is required; but should a permanency be desired, these officers are regarded as temporary, and to govern until a permanent organization is obtained and other officers elected to take their places.
11. By referring it to a committee, who report such necessary articles for government as may have been suggested by the assembly, by individuals thereof, or upon their own judgment. Such report to be received or rejected, as the assembly deem proper.
12. It is not. A committee is often selected, who, after consultation, recommend the election of certain individuals as qualified to fill the different offices required.
13. In organized societies or legislative bodies, president or speaker; in political conventions, school meetings, or any of the numerous calls for an assembling of the people, chairman; in secret societies, by whatever name adopted by that society.
14. Secretary or clerk.
15. When the assembling is a call for the whole people, all are entitled; in political conventions or caucuses, those who are recognized as electors of that party; in school meetings, electors of that school district; in societies or associations, those who have been duly elected as members.
16. Usually by a committee being appointed to examine the credentials presented by the different individuals who desire to take part in the assembly.
17. A certificate of qualification. In the Congress of the United States, certificates of membership are given by
the presiding officers of the states where each member is elected; in the legislatures of states, from the county or parish officers where each member is elected; in political conventions, from state or local authority, according to the call.

18. The proper time for this investigation is after the temporary and before the permanent organization, by the committee appointed for that purpose.

19. The committee report the claims, and such persons are entitled to a hearing, the decision of the matter being left with those whose rights of membership are not called in question.

20. They do not. After being heard, it is their duty to withdraw, or if, by the courtesy of the assembly, they are permitted to remain, they have no right to further discuss or vote upon the subject.

21. As these officers are to preside over and record the proceedings of an assembly, it does not become necessary that they shall, in all cases, become members of the assembly. In legislative bodies, the clerk is seldom, or never, a member; and in the Senate of the United States, and most state senates, the president is not a member.

22. President, vice-president, secretary and treasurer. To these may be added one or more vice-presidents, one or more secretaries, and such other officers or committees as the association shall see fit to adopt.

23. By employing sufficient force to remove such person or persons from the meeting.

24. This protection is guaranteed by the constitution of the United States, and all necessary resorts to the use of force are unquestionably recognized as just.

25. They are, according to the extent of the offense.

26. According to the nature of the subject, either by a resolution, order or vote. When it commands, it is an order; the expression of opinions, by a resolution; the result of a question decided by the assembly, a vote.

27. As all questions were liable to be imperfect in form, objectionable in part, and not presented at the desired time, it was necessary that various ways should be invented by which the question could be retained, perfected, presented when desired, or postponed from time to time, as the will of the assembly should decide.

28. A sufficient number of members for the transaction of business.

29. Usually, in councils, legislative bodies or associations. tions, rules are established determining this point, but should there be no established rules, it requires a majority of all members composing that association, society or assembly.
30. He should not take the chair until he is satisfied a quorum is present ; and should, at any time in the course of the proceedings, notice be taken that a quorum is not present, it then becomes the duty of the presiding officer to count the members present, and should a quorum be wanting, the assembly must be immediately adjourned.
31. In order to secure fairness of proceeding, and to prevent matters from being concluded in a hasty manner, or agreed to by so small a number of the members as not to command a due and proper respect.
32. By a code of rules usually known as a constitution and by-laws.
33. By a prescribed rule as given ; but when there is no prescribed rule, it becomes proper for the assembly to act at any time upon an amendment the same as in any question, but in the suspension of a rule there must be an unanimous consent.
34. Any member has the right to report such offense, and require that the presiding officer should enforce the rule without debate or delay.
35. It matters not ; so long as one member insists upon its execution, it must be done. It is then too late to alter, repeal or suspend the rule.
36. By an amendment at the proper time.
37. At any time when it is the will of the assembly to amend or repeal.
38. It cannot, except by general consent.
39. It denotes the unanimous opinion of the assembly.
40. In all the common transactions of the people, a majority rules ; but in legislative bodies, on some particular questions or subjects, as the entering of the yeas and nays upon the records, one-fourth of the members present may carry the question, while on other subjects it may require a two-thirds vote, as in impeachment trials and the passing of laws previously vetoed.
41. It would be more satisfactory in all cases to decide this matter before the time to close has arrived. By doing so, the judgment of the assembly would be better expressed, as impatience is often manifested when the motion to adjourn is made.
42. As all officers of a deliberative assembly are
removable at the pleasure of the assembly, it is not reasonable to suppose that a person elected by a minority could retain his office when opposed by a majority. It is essential in the transaction of business that they should possess the confidence of the members, which they cannot be said to do unless they have the suffrages of at least a majority.

43. To open the assembly at such times as provided for the meeting; to announce the business necessary to be transacted in proper order; to receive and submit all proper motions and propositions presented by the members; to put to vote all regular questions that may be presented for action, and to announce the result; to enforce order and decorum, and to restrain the members, when engaged in debate, from the violation of these rules; to receive all communications, and announce them to the assembly; to sign his name to all acts, orders and proceedings of the assembly, when necessary; to decide all points of order or practice when called upon to do so; to name the members who are to serve on committees when no provision has been made for their appointment; and, in general, to obey the commands of the assembly, declare its will, and stand as its representative.

44. It then becomes the duty of the secretary to open the meeting and conduct the proceedings until the appointment of a president and chairman is made.

45. He does; the only difference being that he does not hold power beyond this particular session.

46. The term applied to any officer appointed to fill, for the time being, the place of an absent one.

47. To state a motion, or put a question, he should rise, but may read sitting.

48. To take note of and record all the business transactions of the assembly; but he is not required to take minutes of words used in debate, or of things proposed or moved without coming to a vote. It is also his duty to read all papers or communications; to call the roll of the assembly; to notify committees of their appointments and the business referred to them; to sign, if necessary, with the president, all acts or orders of the assembly; and to hold and protect all papers and documents, letting none be taken from the table without permission of the assembly.

49. He should stand, unless disabilities prevent.

50. Calling, by name, each member, whose duty is to respond by expressing his choice, for or against, the question before the assembly. This mode of obtaining the opinion of an assembly is often adopted in conventions where nominations for offices are made. It is quicker expressed than by ballot.

51. Every member is entitled to the same equal rights in the business transactions of the assembly; he is entitled to the respect of all other members while debating, or recommending any proposition which he may present. It is the duty of every member to act the part of a gentleman, in manners and language; to remove his hat upon entering the assembly-room, and to avoid, as far as possible, any unnecessary noise and confusion.

52. It is the privilege of every member to report such conduct, and it is the especial duty of the presiding officer to take notice or complain of irregular or improper conduct, calling the attention of the assembly to it, naming the individual censured. The member censured is entitled to a hearing, if he wishes to explain why he has thus conducted himself. It is then his duty to withdraw from the assembly, unless permission is granted that he should remain, but not to take further action, as no man is entitled to sit as his own judge.

53. Only those which relate to the rights of that member in the assembly, such as being debarred from taking any action for a stated time; expulsion, or any prohibition which the assembly may declare.

54. Assaults by one member upon another, threats, challenges, affrays, etc.

55. The member must rise in his place, and, standing uncovered, address himself to the presiding officer, by his title, who, on being addressed, calls the member by his name, by which permission is given to the member to proceed with his business.

56. He should give the floor to the member whose voice he first heard.

57. In such a case, it becomes necessary for the presiding officer to refer his decision to a vote of the assembly. If decided in the negative, then the name of the member for whom the floor was claimed must be acted upon.

58. They are of two kinds, namely, those which convey information of some general character, and those which contain a request for some action on the part of the assembly. The latter form of communications embraces orders, resolutions or votes.
59. Propositions drawn up by any member and introduced for action in the assembly. Motions in all cases must be sanctioned or seconded by another member.
60. A petition should contain a carefully constructed statement of what is desired, and be signed by the petitioner himself, except when sickness prevents, or he is attending in person; but in no case should the petitioner state it to the assembly, but it should be presented by some member to whom it is entrusted for that purpose.
61. He should inform himself of the nature and substance of the petition prepared, and if, in his judgment, it contains nothing intentionally disrespectful to the assembly, he rises in his place, with the petition in his hand, and informs the assembly that he has a certain petition, stating the substance of it, which he, or some other member, moves shall be received. This motion being seconded, the question is put whether the assembly will receive the petition or not.
62. The presiding officer, usually, taking for granted that there are no objections to its reception, orders it sent up to the clerk, or secretary, and it is then read, by which means it is brought before the assembly to be disposed of as business; but should objections be made to this deviation, the presiding officer must require a motion of reception to be regularly made and seconded, or the subject will be dropped without further action.
63. By being immediately considered or assigned to some future time, or ordered to lie on the table for examination and consideration of the members individually.
64. Not until the members require it.
65. He puts it into the form desired, and then moves that it be adopted; after which, if it receives the approbation or second of any member, it comes before the assembly for action.
66. By not requiring the motion to be presented in writing. If otherwise presented he is justified in refusing to receive it, except for adjournment, to lie on the table, and such motions as are always in the same form.
67. It does not, and no notice should be taken of it by the presiding officer. To this rule exceptions occur, such as necessarily require the action of the presiding officer in enforcing decorum, or to proceed with any order of the assembly. Sometimes a special rule is passed requiring more than one second on particular subjects.
68. After it has been made and seconded, and stated by the presiding officer.
69. He cannot, for it no longer belongs to him; but, by special leave of the assembly, when acted upon as in any motion, it can be withdrawn.
70. It is proper for the mover to withdraw or modify it, either of himself or on the suggestion of some other member, or of the presiding officer, and without any motion or vote for the purpose.
71. Whenever a member desires the motion stated for his information, it becomes the duty of the presiding officer to observe the request.
72. Not unless it is one which is previous in its nature to the question under consideration, and, consequently, entitled to take its place for the time being, and be first decided.
73. When those remarks or suggestions relate to some business not yet moved as a question, it is proper to state them, but the presiding officer should be careful to check and prevent all observations which may tend to excite debate, it being a general rule that no debate can be allowed to take place on any subject, unless there is a question pending at the time.
74. For this purpose we have the previous question, indefinite postponement, postpone to some future time, to lie on the table, or, if the motion is not in a satisfactory form, to refer to a committee.
75. To adjourn; to lie on the table; for the previous question; to postpone to a day certain; to commit; to amend; and to postpone indefinitely. These several motions shall have precedence in the order in which they are arranged.
76. They are called subsidiary questions.
77. Those which relate to the principal motion, and are made use of to enable the assembly to dispose of it in the most appropriate manner. These motions are sometimes used to destroy the principal question, and even to dispose of one another.
78. Into four classes, as follows:
First. If the question is considered useless or inexpedient, and the assembly desires to suppress it, either for a time or altogether, the subsidiary motions, for this purpose, are the previous question and indefinite postponement.
Second. When more information is wanted, or time for reflection and examination, or the assembly has other mat-ter which has more pressing claims upon its present atten-tion, then the subsidiary motions to postpone to some future day or time, and to lie on the table, are called into use.

Third. When the form is defective, or a more careful and deliberative consideration should be given than can be conveniently expressed by the assembly, then it would be most proper to refer the proposition to a committee.

Fourth. When alterations or amendments are desired, then the subsidiary motion is to amend.

79. A motion intended to suppress debate and bring the question to a vote, or to remove it from before the assembly. In meaning it is known as, "Shall the main question now be put?" If the previous question is lost, the question under debate is considered suppressed for the day, but if carried, then the question is put immediately, with-out any further debate.

80. Either to suppress the motion or to bring it to an immediate vote of the assembly.

81. The object is to suppress a motion entirely, and an indefinite postponement is equivalent to a dissolution. The effect of this motion, when carried, is to quash the propo-sition entirely; if lost, the decision has no effect whatever.

82. When the members individually want more infor-mation than they possess, or where there is something else which they are desirous of disposing of first. When a subject is postponed, it can be taken up at any time when it may suit the convenience of the assembly.

83. The question most commonly in use is, to lie on the table.

84. By a motion and vote, at any time when the assem-bly pleases, although, when any matter has been thus dis-posed of, in strictness it should not again become a subject on the same day, unless so specified when made.

85. "I move that the assembly do now proceed to con-sider that matter or subject," (naming it).

86. If no motion is made to take it up, it remains as dead matter, without life, as far as it concerns the future actions of the assembly. This motion is often used to suppress a question under debate.

87. Whenever the proposition is defectively framed, and it is necessary to have a careful deliberation, the subject is referred to a committee, which is called a commitment, or, if the subject has been in the hands of a committee, a recommitment.

88. To follow out the instructions of the assembly. If no particular instructions are given, then the committee must re-frame according to the spirit of the subject, but cannot change the subject by means of an amendment.

89. Different parts may be committed to different com-mittees.

90. To unite to the subject matter of a proposition some points or propositions not therein contained.

91. When a proposition is composed of two or more parts, which are so far independent of each other as to admit of a division into several questions, and it is sup-posed that the assembly will approve of some of these parts, but not all of them, a division may then take place by a separate motion for that purpose.

92. It becomes a series of questions, to be considered and acted upon each by itself as an independent matter, in the order in which the mover has divided the proposi-tion.

93. They are the same as any other proposition.

94. Its point must be so distinct and entire, that if one or more of them be taken away, the others may not be affected by the division.

95. They are presented in regular form, but blank in regard to time, number, or amount, which the mover desires to be filled by the assembly; as, the time of post-ponement, the number of which a committee shall consist, the amount of fine to be imposed, etc.

96 The blanks are to be filled by regular motions, and are not considered as amendments to the question, but as original motions, to be made and decided before the prin-cipal questions.

97. The question must be first taken upon the greatest or farthest, and so on to the least or nearest, until the assem-bly comes to a vote.

98. The question must be first taken upon the least or nearest, and so on to the greatest or most remote, until the assembly comes to a vote.

99. They are used whenever a matter presented for action contains more than one proposition, which might be better in one; or when a proposition should be separated into parts; or when a paragraph or section requires to be transposed. But these modes of disposing of a proposition are better referred to a committee.

100. He cannot; the same law controlling the amendment as on an original question.
101. To incorporate the proposed amendment in the original motion, and proceed without a separate motion.
102. If it is his desire to withdraw his motion it can only be done by general consent. Such motions not coming to a vote are not required to be recorded.
103. In three ways, namely: either by inserting or adding certain words; or by striking out certain words; or by striking out certain words and inserting or adding others.
104. Amendments are classified into five rules, known as First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth.
105. Rule First.—When a proposition consists of several sections, paragraphs, or resolutions, the natural order of considering and amending it is to begin at the beginning and take up the paragraphs in the order in which they occur; and when a latter part has been amended, it is not in order to then take up any former part and alter or amend.
Rule Second.—There can be no amendment of an amendment to an amendment. Whenever a proposed amendment to an amendment does not meet the requirements of the assembly, notice should be given by the one who desires to amend, that, if rejected, he shall move again in the form in which he desires to have it adopted.
Rule Third.—Whenever a proposed amendment has been adopted or rejected by the assembly, the subject in question cannot afterwards be altered or amended. In this rule, let it be observed that whenever an amendment has been voted upon by the assembly, it cannot again be amended; but before the proposed amendment has been brought to a vote, it is susceptible to a change, as given in Rule Second.
Rule Fourth.—Whatever amendment is disagreed to by the assembly cannot again become a question.
Rule Fifth.—When a proposed amendment is an infringement on one already adopted, it is a fit ground for its rejection by the assembly, but not for the suppression of it by the presiding officer, as being out of order.
106. The object is to guard against the possibility of the presiding officer suppressing an important modification, which might embarrass instead of subserving the will of the assembly.
107. The same words, or a part of them, if used with other words, and forming a different proposition, can be
struck out the same as if no rejection had been made. The same is applicable to words that have been struck out and restored in connection with other words, providing this proposition is substantially different from the first.
108. The presiding officer should put the amendment to the amendment first; then the amendment; and lastly, the original question as amended.
109. As the form is a combination of the other two, it may be divided into these two forms by a vote of the assembly. If the motion is divided, the question first to be decided is on striking out; if carried, then the question for inserting. Should the question for striking out be lost, then of course there can be no question for inserting. When the motion is made to strike out and insert as one question, and the motion is lost, the same motion cannot be made again, but it may be moved to strike out the same words and insert nothing; to insert other words; to insert the same words with others; to strike out the same words with others, and insert the same; to strike out a part of the same words with others, and insert the same; to strike out other words, and insert the same; and to insert the same words, without striking out anything; providing these new propositions are really different from the original motion.
110. As the words struck out, or a part of them, cannot be inserted, or the words inserted, or a part of them, cannot be struck out, it becomes necessary, if changes are desired, to either insert the words struck out, or a part of them, with other words; or to strike out the words inserted, or a part of them, with other words.
111. The passage to be amended should first be read; then the words proposed to be struck out, or inserted, or struck out and inserted; and lastly, the whole passage as it will stand if the amendment is adopted.
112. It can, although the object of an amendment is for improvement; yet it can be made to destroy. If the assembly so wills, the bill may be amended by striking out all after the enacting clause and inserting an entirely new bill wholly different in effect.
113. There are certain motions or questions which, on account of superior importance, are entitled to take the place of any other subject or proposition then under consideration, and should first be acted upon and decided by
the assembly. These are called Privileged Questions, and are of three kinds: first, motions to adjourn; second, those that relate to the rights and privileges of the assembly or of its members; and, thirdly, motions for the orders of the day.

114. It is commonly said that it is always in order, but exceptions arise which do not make it so. When the assembly is voting by the ayes and noes, or a member is speaking, it is not in order.

115. Simply to adjourn, without the addition of any particular day or time.

116. When it is the object of the motion to supersede a question already proposed, it does not admit of an amendment; but when it is made and there is no other business before the assembly, it may be amended like other questions.

117. At the next regular day, as agreed upon by rule or by-laws of the assembly. But the adjournment of a meeting not organized for the transaction of business, from time to time, is equivalent to a dissolution.

118. It does not. Such questions must be brought forward in the usual way; but if such question has been stated by the presiding officer, it stands before the assembly.

119. To the rights and privileges of the assembly, or of its individual members, such as a disturbance of the assembly by members or strangers, or where a quarrel arises between two members. The settlement of such rights or privileges supersedes the question pending, and must be first disposed of. When settled, the question interrupted is to be resumed at the point where it was suspended.

120. When a subject, or different subjects, have been assigned for a particular day by an order of the assembly, such matter becomes the order of the day.

121. Whenever a proposition, except to adjourn, or the question of privilege, is presented for the action of the assembly, that does not relate to the orders of the day, then a motion to proceed with the business ordered will supersede the question before the assembly.

122. The orders must then be read and gone through with in the order in which they stand. Should an order be assigned to a particular hour, a motion to proceed to it is not a privileged motion until that hour arrives; but if no hour is fixed, the order or orders are for the entire day, and every part of it.
123. It is removed from the assembly the same as an interruption by an adjournment, as described in Question 118.
124. They can continue with the business before the assembly when interrupted, and are entitled to dispose of it before the orders of the day can again be moved.
125. It no longer becomes an order of the assembly, and if acted upon in the future, must come up as any other business.
126. Such as arise out of other questions, and are entitled to be decided before the questions which give rise to them.
127. First, questions of order; second, motions for the reading of papers, etc.; third, leave to withdraw a motion; fourth, suspension of a rule; and fifth, amendment of an amendment.
128. To enforce the rules and orders of the body over which he presides, without question, debate or delay, in all cases where it is manifest that there is a breach of order or a departure from rule.
129. He can. Questions may arise in which there is no breach of order or violation of rules. Such questions must be decided before a case can arise for the enforcement of the rules.
130. Whenever the decision of the presiding officer is not satisfactory, any member can object to it, and have the question decided by the assembly. Such question is debatable, and to be decided in the same manner as any other question.
131. "Shall the decision of the Chair stand as the decision of the assembly?"
132. He is entitled to take part in the debate, which, on ordinary occasions, he is prohibited from doing.
133. Where papers are laid before an assembly for its action, every member has a right to have them read once at the table before he is compelled to vote upon them. When, therefore, a member calls for a reading of the papers, no question should be made as to the reading; but where a member desires a repetition of the reading, or of some other paper, book or document on the table, or of his own speech prepared beforehand in writing, and there is an objection, he must obtain leave of the assembly for the reading, by a motion and vote of the assembly.
134. Because of delay and interruption, which would
otherwise ensue, if the members were allowed to use the time of the assembly for that purpose.

135. A new question, to decide whether the paper shall be read or not, can be made, which takes the place of the other, as incidental to it.

136. It can, by an unanimous vote of the assembly.

137. When a proposition is debarred from the action of the assembly by reason of some special rule, such rule may be removed for the time being by a vote, under the head of suspension of a rule, by which the proposition may be admitted.

138. In most legislative bodies it requires two-thirds or three-fourths, according to the code of rules adopted, but if no provision is made, there seems to be no other mode of suspending or dispensing with a rule, except by general consent.

139. Like other incidental questions, the sub-amendment supersedes the amendment until decided.

140. The previous question, and to lie on the table.

141. Parliamentary usage has fixed the form of the previous question, "Shall the main question now be put?" which calls for immediate action; consequently, no change can be made. In the question to lie on the table, usage has decided it not susceptible to an amendment, as it is already as simple as can be.

142. The subsidiary question to lie on the table will supersede it.

143. As this decision takes the main question out of the possession of the assembly for the day, there is nothing then before it to amend, commit, or postpone.

144. As either indefinite, or to a day certain.

145. When the postponement is indefinite, it can be amended to a day certain; and when it is to a day certain, to some other day; or an amendment to an amendment, when a different day is desired.

146. The substituted day may be moved as an independent motion.

147. By the use of the previous question; or commit; or amend.

148. When decided in the affirmative, the question is then removed from before the assembly, and, consequently, there is no ground for the previous question; but if decided negatively, the question remains to be disposed of as the assembly shall declare.

149. By the substitution of one kind of a committee
for another, or by changing the number of the committee.
150. To lie on the table.
151. The amendment question. This motion can be superseded by postponement to a day certain, or by a commitment.
152. In either case the proposed amendment is not suppressed, but referred to a committee for careful delib- eration; or, in case there was urgent business, a lengthy debate might delay; consequently, the right to postpone to a day certain.
153. In regular order. In "permanent organizations" of an assembly or society, a settled order of business is usually adopted, and whatever business is to be transacted comes under that order; but in assemblies where no defi- nite system has been established, subjects are taken up when appropriately presented.
154. They are left to the discretion of the presiding officer, unless the assembly, by action, decide to take up a particular subject.
155. The entire paper should first be read by the secre- tary or clerk, then by the presiding officer by paragraph, pausing at the end of each distinct article, for amending, if desired, and when the whole paper has been gone through with in this manner, the presiding officer puts the final question on agreeing to or adopting the whole paper, as amended or unamended.
156. It does not. The preamble, or title, is postponed until the residue of the paper is gone through with.
157. The amendments only are first read, in course, by the recording officer. The presiding officer then reads the first, and puts it to the question, and so on until the whole is adopted or rejected, no amendments being made, except an amendment to an amendment, until all the amend- ments reported by the committee have been disposed of, when an opportunity is offered by the presiding officer to the assembly for amendments to the body of the paper; and when the whole has been thus acted upon, the entire paper is put to the question on agreeing to or adopting it as the resolution, order, etc., of the assembly.
158. As the order, resolution, etc., of the assembly, and not as the report of the committee accepted.
159. As an amendment, and is to be first amended, if necessary, and then put to the question as an amendment reported by the committee; or, the new draft may first be
accepted as a substitute for the original paper, and then treated as such.

160. First, a proposition is moved. Second, a motion to amend. Third, a motion to commit. Fourth, the debate results in a question for order. Fifth, the question of privilege and rights of members in a debate, etc., is called up. Sixth, to lie on the table.

161. The regular course of proceeding requires the motion to lie on the table to be put first; if carried, the whole is removed from the assembly; if lost, the question of privilege must then be settled; then the question of order; then of commitment—which, if lost, brings us to the question of amendment; and, lastly, the main question.

162. After it has been moved and seconded, and proposed to the assembly by the presiding officer. Until this is done, it is not a question before the assembly, to be acted upon or considered in any manner.

163. A member moves a principal question, and at the same time calls for the previous question, or that the resolution lie on the table.

164. To take no notice of the subsidiary question, but propose the principal one in the usual manner, thus giving members the right of debate, etc., in relation to the subject.

165. The right to express his opinions in the discussion of the subject under consideration.

166. He cannot be interrupted, except by a call to order, which question being decided, he is entitled to be heard through. When any matter of privilege affecting the assembly itself, or any of its members, of which the assembly ought to have instant information,—such as obstructing the passage-way to the hall; quarreling of members; or when it becomes necessary to have lights,—it gives sufficient cause for interruption until the assembly is again in condition to have the speaker proceed.

167. As breaches of order; for no motion can be made without the member rising and addressing the chair, and being recognized by the presiding officer.

168. " Mr. President, I arise to a point of order." He should then proceed with the statement of his point, or other matter of order, or of privilege.

169. He can, for if the debate or consideration of that subject were allowed to proceed, it might continue through the day, and thus defeat the order.
170. To the mover of the question, in preference to others, if he rises to speak; also, on resuming debate after adjournment, to give the floor to the mover of the adjournment, if he desires it.

171. He should prefer the one who is opposed to the measure in question; but in all these cases the determination of the presiding officer may be overruled by the assembly.

172. If he states that he intends to conclude with a motion, and informs the assembly what that motion is, he may be allowed to speak. But if he speaks upon a subject not known to be or to become a motion before the house, he is liable to be called to a point of order.

173. Often, when the subject to be brought before the assembly is not definitely understood, the expression of opinion is given. This promiscuous expression, or counsel, is allowed when no member raises an objection. Otherwise the subject must come regularly before the meeting.

174. He should rise and stand up in his place, uncovered, address the presiding officer as "Mr. Chairman," or "Mr. President," according to title, and if in order, the presiding officer will respond by calling the speaker by name, by which means the assembly may take notice who it is that speaks, and may give their attention accordingly.

175. To refer to him by some expression, or in some manner, without speaking his name, the object being to guard against the possibility of exciting personal feeling.

176. To sit until the former has been heard.

177. So long as he has the floor and keeps within the rule. (See Question 184.)

178. No person is to use indecent language against the proceedings of the assembly, or to reflect on any of its prior determinations, unless he means to close his remarks with a motion to rescind such determination. No member is at liberty to digress from the matter of the question. Every member should clearly express his points of arguments, or the presiding officer may mistake them for a digression. Care should be taken in discussion that the speaker should follow the particular question, instead of the general question; for one moment it may be an amendment, at another time postponement, and again on ordering the previous question.

179. Sometimes it happens that the subsidiary motion involves in itself the merits of the original proposition, in which case the debate embraces both.
180. By an affirmative vote of the assembly, he may continue, but if no question was made, or if decided in the negative, the speaker must abandon the objectionable course of remarks and return to the subject under debate.
181. No member can speak more than once to the same question, but he may to the same subject as often as it is presented in the form of a different question; as, when referred to a committee, or when subsidiary or incidental questions arise in the course of the debate. This rule applies to the technical points of this decision, and if enforced will prevent a member from speaking a second time unless he obtains leave of the assembly.
182. To clear a matter of fact, or explain some material part of his speech, but carefully keeping within that line, and not falling into the matter itself.
183. To explain a statement made by a member, but which was not so thoroughly discussed as to give a thorough comprehension.
184. He does not. In yielding the floor he relinquishes it altogether.
185. By the limitation of the time allotted to each speaker; by adopting beforehand a special rule in reference to a particular subject, which at a specified time shall declare debating to cease, and all motions or questions pending in relation to it shall be decided. Besides these methods for putting an end to an unprofitable or tiresome debate, is the long-used previous question.
186. In permitting every kind of disorder without censure.
187. By a member or members rising and calling to order, the objecting party repeating the words used exactly as he conceives them to have been spoken, in order that they may be reduced to writing by the recording officer. If the presiding officer thinks there is no foundation for deciding the language disorderly, he will prudently delay giving orders to the clerk to record them, until a further expression of the assembly, either by vote or calling out, is obtained.
188. Such censure is not to be recorded, or any action taken thereon.
189. To submit himself to the pleasure of the assembly, and to sit down, for it scarcely ever happens that the members of any assembly are guilty of this piece of ill manners, without some excuse or provocation, or that they
are so wholly inattentive to one who says anything worth their hearing.

190. An order is a command of the assembly; a resolution expresses the opinions or purposes; and the term vote may be applied to the result of every question decided by the assembly.

191. When the proposition is quite lengthy, as is usual with a petition, report, etc., the form in which it is usually presented to the assembly is, "Shall the petition, or the report, be received?"

192. There being no objection expressed, the formality of taking a question by a vote is dispensed with, and the matter declared to be accepted; but should any member rise to object, the presiding officer shall consider everything that has passed as nothing, and at once go back and take the matter up in regular form.

193. "As many as are of the opinion that," repeating the words of the question, "say 'aye'; as many as are of a different opinion, say 'no.'"

194. The members are requested to form a division, either in two separate parties, or by rising in their seats, or by roll-call.

195. By a vote from the presiding officer.

196. It is; but in doing so he may, if he pleases, give his reasons.

197. The presiding officer appoints tellers for each division, and the members are required to rise, uncovered, and remain until counted.

198. The one in general use in this country is by roll-call. The clerk is ordered to call the name of each member, who rises in his place and answers yes or no, and the clerk notes the answer as the roll is called. He then reads over, first the names of those who answered in the affirmative, and then the names of those who answered in the negative, in order that if he has made any mistake in noting, or any member has made any mistake in his answer, the mistake of either may be corrected. The clerk then counts the number on each side, and reports them to the presiding officer, who declares the result to the assembly.

199. It is not a full question until the negative is reached; consequently it is in order for any member to rise and speak, make motions for amendments or otherwise, and thus renew the debate. In such a case, the question must be put over again on the affirmative.

200. By obtaining the votes of members who were not
in when the voting commenced; or those already voting may have changed their minds.

201. Because the question becomes full, both sides be-ing acted upon at the same time.

202. The presiding officer must decide it without de-bate, the act to be subject to revision and correction by the assembly after the division is over. The presiding officer may, if he please, receive the advice of members in regard to the objection, which they are to give sitting, in order to avoid even the appearance of a debate.

203. Suspend proceedings until a quorum is obtained, whether on the same or some future day, when the ques-tion must be taken up at that precise point.

204. A question by which a matter which has been acted upon shall again come before the assembly in pre-cisely the same condition as it was before being considered.

205. Any member, the same as of any other motion, although in legislative bodies special rules regulate by whom, when, and in what manner; but where an assem-bly is subject to no special rules concerning it, it is the privilege of any member to move a reconsideration.

206. To bring into shape matters which require thought to construct, or investigation; or any business which can-not be as conveniently transacted in the assembly session as outside.

207. It depends upon the general authority and par-ticular instruction given them by the assembly at the time of their appointment. A vote taken in committee is as binding as a vote of the assembly. A committee has full power over what may be committed to it, except that it is not at liberty to change the title or subject.

208. They are, Select, Standing and Committee of the Whole.

209. A committee especially selected to transact any business arising on a particular occasion.

210. A committee appointed beforehand for the con-sideration of all matters of the same nature which may arise during the session. The standing committee contin-ues in existence, while the select is dissolved after the par-ticular business for which it was appointed is transacted.

211. First decide upon the number of which the com-mittee is to be composed. The number being settled, there are three modes of selecting the members, to-wit: appointing by the presiding officer; by ballot; and by nomination and vote of the assembly.
212. The same as in other elections, and are elected singly or all together, as may be ordered.
213. The names of the members proposed are put to the question, singly, and are approved or rejected by the assembly, by a vote taken in the usual way.
214. That none be appointed who are directly opposed to the body of that subject, but rather those who are supposed to approve it.
215. To make out a list of the members, together with a certified copy of instructions under which they are to act, and to give the papers to the person first named on the committee, if convenient; but, if otherwise, to any other member of the committee.
216. Usually he is the first person named on the committee, but this is a matter of courtesy, every committee having the right to select its own chairman, who presides over it, and makes the report of its proceedings to the assembly.
217. When and wherever the members of the committee shall decide. But if directions have been given by the assembly, they cannot regularly sit at any other time or place than in accordance with instructions. Sometimes these instructions are to sit immediately and make its report forthwith; but no committee has a right to sit while the assembly is in session, unless so ordered.
218. Without some particular number has been designated by the assembly, a majority constitutes a quorum for business.
219. The committee is closed, and cannot act without being newly directed to sit.
220. They must be written down and reported to the assembly for its consideration. A committee cannot punish disorderly conduct of any kind, but must report it.
221. Where a paper is referred to a committee, they proceed to the question of amendment; while a paper originating with them may be amended, as in the case of a paper referred, but at the close the question is put on the whole, for agreeing to the paper as amended or unamended.
222. They cannot. If in their judgment it cannot be made good by amendments, they have no authority to reject, but must report back to the assembly, and there make their opposition as individual members.
223. It should be in a clear draft, fairly written, without erasing or interlining.
224. They are not at liberty to erase, interline, blot, disfigure or tear it in any manner, but must report all amendments in a separate paper, stating the exact parts to be amended and the words to be inserted. If the amendments agreed to are very numerous and minute, they may report them all together in the form of a new draft.

225. It is moved and voted upon that the committee rise, and that the chairman, or some other member, makes their report to the assembly.

226. The chairman or member appointed to make the report, rises in his place and informs the assembly that the committee to whom was referred such a subject or paper have, according to order, had the same under consideration, and have directed him to make a report thereon, which he is ready to do when the assembly shall please. The person offering the report, or any other member, can then move that the report be now received. The assembly then decide whether it will receive the report at that time, or fix upon some time in the future for its reception.

227. At the time when, by the order of the assembly, the report is to be received, the chairman reads it in his place, and then delivers it, together with all the papers connected with it, to the clerk or secretary, where it is again read, and then lies on the table until it suits the convenience of the assembly to take it up for consideration.

228. The chairman reads the amendments in their connection with the paper, showing the alterations made therein, and the reasons assigned by the committee for their action; while in the reading of the report at the clerk's table the amendments only are read.

229. It is usually dispensed with, although, if any objection is made, or if the presiding officer sees any informality in the report, he should decline receiving it without a motion and vote.

230. By being printed, and each member given a copy, by which means the reading of such papers by the clerk becomes unnecessary.

231. When the report has been made and received, the committee is dissolved, and can act no more without new power; but if the report is not received the committee is not discharged, but may be ordered to sit again, and a time and place for such session appointed accordingly.
232. When any subject has once been in the hands of a committee, and the report made upon it is not satisfactory to the assembly, it may again be committed to the same, or some other committee, by which act it is known as recommitted.

233. None whatever, the whole question being again before the committee as if nothing had passed therein in relation to it.

234. In three different forms, namely: First, it may contain merely a statement of facts, opinions or reasoning, in relation to the subject of it, without any general conclusion; second, by a statement of facts, etc., with a general conclusion; third, by resolution, or a general conclusion, without any introductory part.

235. When the report is accepted it is adopted, as though it was originally done by the assembly without the services of a committee.

236. They do, although the term "accepting" should be used when the report contains merely a statement of facts, reasoning or opinion; and the term "adopting," when the report concludes with resolutions or propositions.

237. The whole assembly resolved into a committee.

238. When the time arrives for the committee to sit, the presiding officer puts the question, then made, that the assembly do now resolve itself into a committee of the whole, to take under consideration such a matter,—naming it. If this question is decided in the affirmative, he declares the result, and names some member to act as chairman of the committee; if objections are made, then by nomination and vote. The elected chairman takes a seat (not in the chair of the assembly) at the secretary's table, and the presiding officer takes a seat elsewhere, like any other member.

239. The same number as constitutes a quorum in the assembly.

240. On motion, the chairman rises, and the presiding officer thereupon resumes the chair. The chairman then informs the assembly of the cause of the dissolution of the committee, but can make no report of business transacted.

241. In legislative bodies, it becomes the duty of the assistant clerk.

242. The same as in any committee, the report to the assembly, only, to be recorded in the journal of the assembly.
243. In the committee of the whole the previous question cannot be moved; it cannot adjourn; every member may speak as often as he pleases, providing he can obtain the floor; it cannot refer any matter to another committee; the presiding officer of the assembly has a right to take part in the proceedings, the same as any other member; and in case of a breach of order, the committee cannot punish offenders, but must write down and report to the assembly.
244. To move that the committee rise; and if it is apprehended that the same discussion will be attempted on returning again into committee, the assembly can discharge the committee, and proceed itself with the business.
245. A move should be made that the committee rise, report progress, and ask leave to sit again. If the motion prevails, the presiding officer resumes the chair of the assembly, and the chairman informs him that the committee have, according to order, made some progress thereon, but, for want of time, ask leave for the committee to sit again. The presiding officer thereupon puts the question, by which the committee is given leave to sit again, and the time is also designated when the assembly will again resolve itself into a committee. If the request is not granted, the committee is dissolved.
246. A committee appointed by a committee for the purpose of expediting their business.
247. By general consent, it is. If the assembly are ready to receive it at the time, they cry out, "Now, now"; if not ready, some other time is proposed, as "To-morrow," or "Monday," and that is fixed by general consent; but any objection necessitates an agreement by a motion and vote.
248. He should give the closest attention to the proceedings of the assembly, and especially to what is said by every member who speaks. By so doing, confusion will be prevented, offensive language checked, and harmony obtained. Much depends upon the presiding officer for a careful, just and thorough transaction of the business of the assembly. His attention, interest, and impartial acts inspire confidence, create union of feeling, and impress upon each member the necessity of legislation for the benefit of all.