RECREATIONS IN THE COMMON SCHOOL STUDIES;

A HAND BOOK FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS:

IN WHICH IS INCLUDED
A Comprehensive Review
OF THE SUBJECTS OF
CIVIL GOVERNMENT and the THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING.

TOGETHER WITH A COMPLETE OUTLINE OF U. S. HISTORY,

FROM WASHINGTON TO CLEVELAND.

PREPARED BY E. B. STIVERS.

COLUMBUS, O.: PUBLISHED BY STIVERS & GUSTIN.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by
E. B. STIVERS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

ELECTROTYPED, PRINTED, AND BOUND BY
ALDINE PRINTING WORKS,
CINCINNATI, O.

PREFACE.

The design of the following pages is to furnish teachers, advanced pupils, and private learners, a select review of subjects taught in the common schools.

The questions under each department have been compiled mostly from lists used by Boards of Examiners, and they embrace a great variety of topics, many technical terms, and curious odds and ends of subjects of interest to teachers and students: the respective answers have been prepared with much care, and they are based on the latest and most reliable authorities.

Some features of the work, to which the careful attention of teachers is directed, are: United States History Outlines, Systems of Diagramming, Orthographic Parsing, Practical Rules in Arithmetic, and the matter under the subject of Civil Government.

The book entire embodies much of interest to teachers in our Public Schools, and to make it worthy the approval of his co-workers in the field of education, has been the aim of The Author.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

United States History Outlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Questions on United States History . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Answers to Questions on United States History . . . . . . 49
Questions on Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Answers to Questions on Geography . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Questions on English Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Answers to Questions on English Grammar . . . . . . . . 171
    Systems of Diagramming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Questions on Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Answers to Questions on Orthography . . . . . . . . . . 206
    Orthographic Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Questions on Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Answers to Questions on Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . 226
    Practical Rules in Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Questions on Civil Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Answers to Questions on Civil Government . . . . . . . . 254
    Salaries of Government Officials. . . . . . . . . . . . 270
        Speakers of the House of Representatives. . . . . . . 271
Questions on Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Answers to Questions on Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Questions on Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Answers to Questions on Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY.

1. Who were the Mound Builders?
2. Name and locate four of their most noted monuments.
3. Name the captors of Major André.
4. What reward did they receive?
5. How many voyages were made by Columbus?
6. Why was the Western Continent named America instead of Columbia?
7. Who was John Eliot, and what made him famous?
8. Name the original thirteen colonies, and give date of settlement of each.
9. Who were the "Filibusters"?
10. Name the 'bachelor' Presidents.
11. When and by whom was the Mississippi discovered?
12. Name and give date of the first permanent English settlement in North America.
13. What nations probably discovered the Western Continent prior to the voyage of Columbus?
14. How long did President Harrison live after his inauguration?
15. When was gold discovered in California?
16. Write a short sketch of the life of Roger Williams.
17. State briefly the cause of the French and Indian War.
18. When and where was the treaty made which ended this war?
19. What was the Crystal Palace?
20. When did the great Railroad Riots occur?
21. What was the "Starving Time"?
22. What brilliant feat in navigation did Ferdinand Magellan perform? When?
23. Where and when did Benedict Arnold commit treason against his government?
24. Who undertook to capture Arnold, and what was the success of the scheme?
25. Which are the "Martyr Presidents," and why so called?
26. What is the most plausible theory of the origin of the Indian race in North America?
27. How did the New England States receive the name?
28. Who invented the steamboat, and when did the first steamship cross the Atlantic?
29. Describe the voyage of the Mayflower.
30. What Presidents have died in office?
31. Who were the Huguenots, and what part of the United States did they settle?
32. What treaty closed Queen Anne's War?
33. What was the "Boston Tea Party"?
34. When was the Stars and Stripes adopted by Congress?
35. Describe Washington's crossing the Delaware.
36. Under whose administration was Alaska purchased, and what was the price paid for it?
37. When was the Pacific Railroad completed, and why was its completion so eagerly sought by the people?
38. What was the "Ostend Manifesto"?
39. What father and son have been Presidents of the United States, and how long a term did each serve?
40. When and by whom was the Postal System organized?
41. Name and locate the great family of Indians that excelled all the Northern tribes in the arts of war, government, and agriculture.
42. What was the Electoral Commission?
43. Give a short sketch of the Modoc War.
44. Who discovered the Pacific Ocean? When?
45. Give dates of the founding of Harvard and Yale Colleges.
46. What was the first State admitted into the Union?
47. Who was the oldest President?
48. When and by whom was Lake Champlain discovered?
49. Locate and give date of the first permanent Dutch, English, Spanish, and French settlements in North America.
50. What was the “Dred Scott” decision?
51. When and by whom was the sewing machine invented?
52. When was the first newspaper printed in the colonies?
53. When did the Wesleys and Whitefield visit the colonies?
54. When and by whom was Pennsylvania settled?
55. Which was the last of the thirteen Colonies settled? When?
56. Write a short sketch of the Negro plot in New York.
57. What States were admitted into the Union in 1845?
58. Who are the Mormons, and when did they found Salt Lake City?
59. When, and under what circumstances, was West Virginia made a State?
60. What was the “Resumption of Specie Payment,” and when did it take place?
61. When and by whom was President Garfield assassinated?
62. When was the Niagara Suspension Bridge completed ?
63. When was the first treaty made between the United States and Japan ?
64. Who was tried in 1844 for treason against his State, sentenced to imprisonment for life, released within three years, and was afterwards restored to political rights ?
65. Whose vote invalidated the impeachment of President Johnson ?
66. How did the vote of the Senate stand ?
67. State the three kinds of colonial governments.
68. Under which form had the people the greatest political rights ?
69. Who was the last of the Dutch governors of New York ?
70. When and where convened the first representative legislature that ever sat in America ?
71. When was the Fifteenth Amendment formally announced ?
72. State in substance this Amendment.
73. Give an account of the first election of Jefferson to the Presidency.
74. What was the most important battle of the Revolution ?
75. When was the first union of any of the colonies ?
76. Who served as a United States Senator for thirty years from the State of Missouri ?
77. Who wrote "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what influence had the work on United States history ?
78. Between what cities was the first telegraph line established, and what was the first dispatch sent over it ?
79. What is known as the "Ordinance of '87" ?
80. What are the remarkable features of this Ordinance ?
81. Who were the committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence?
82. Who invented the cotton gin, and what influence had it on the nation?
83. What generals have become Presidents?
84. In how many and what ways has the United States Government acquired territory?
85. Who was the first Presidential candidate of the Republican party?
86. Who were the persons hanged for participating in the conspiracy against President Lincoln and Cabinet?
87. Why are Representatives in Congress elected for two years, and United States Senators for six?
88. Name the States that formed the Southern Confederacy in the order of their secession.
89. Which State was first restored to the Union?
90. State briefly the "Monroe Doctrine."
91. Write a sketch of the life of John Paul Jones.
92. Who discovered the Ohio River? When?
93. What important treaty was made in 1783?
94. State in what particulars this treaty was important. (See 192.)
95. When were these cities founded: New Orleans, Boston, Philadelphia, New York, St. Louis, and Chicago?
96. Name some of the prominent Generals of the Revolution.
97. Under what circumstances was the "Star Spangled Banner" composed?
98. Name the five States admitted under Monroe's administration.
99. What is the most perplexing question debated in American politics?
100. When was Negro slavery introduced into the colonies?
101. Who was the first American baronet?
102. Under what circumstances was the title conferred?
103. What was the first book written in America?
104. What were the principles taught by Roger Williams, which caused his banishment by the General Court from Salem colony?
105. In what year was the Hudson River discovered?
106. Where was New Sweden, and when settled?
107. What was the last battle in the "Second war of American Independence"?
108. Who made the first proposition in Congress to restrict slavery?
109. When was fought the battle of Shiloh, and what noted Confederate General was killed there?
110. Why is Shiloh considered one of the great battles of the Civil War?
111. Describe briefly "Morgan's Raid."
112. For what is Charles Goodyear celebrated in United States history?
113. What three cities have been seats of the Federal Government?
114. What was the subject of the great debate between Webster and Hayne?
115. When was the Emancipation Proclamation issued?
116. When did it become effective?
117. When was the Hartford Convention called, and for what purpose?
118. Who were the Presidential candidates in 1880? Who was elected?
119. What connection has the name of Blennerhassett with U. S. history?
120. What was the "Grand Model," and by whom prepared?
121. Who were "Monmouth's Rebels"?
122. Relate briefly the story of "Braddock's Defeat."
123. What was the first product shipped from New England to Europe?
124. Describe the Salem witchcraft.
125. Who were the President and Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy in 1861?
126. What was the "Conway Cabal"?
127. Relate the story of "Capt. Mollie Pitcher."
128. When was Shay's Rebellion?
129. Who was the "old man eloquent"?
130. What was the origin of Clay's expression, "I would rather be right than be President"?
131. Name and give dates of three important naval engagements in the war of 1812.
132. Give in substance the "Fishery Dispute."
133. Name five important events under Jefferson's administration.
134. Who was the youngest President?
135. Name three Presidents whose deaths have occurred on July 4th.
136. What three great statesmen died while Taylor and Fillmore were Presidents?
137. Where and when was the first child born of English parents in North America?
138. Give origin of the "Know-Nothing" party.
139. How and when was Florida acquired by the United States?
140. When was the Erie Canal built?
141. When was the first steam railway constructed in the United States?
142. Who was "Old Hickory"?
143. What was the Nullification Act?
144. Who is the author of "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute"?
145. When was the "Patriot War"? Why so called?
146. What territory was comprised in the Louisiana purchase?
147. Why did Napoleon desire to dispose of Louisiana to the United States?
148. What causes led to the war with Mexico?
149. How often and at what times was Henry Clay a Presidential candidate?
150. Who once lacked but one vote to make himself President, and afterwards was condemned to a felon's cell?
151. State the leading causes of the Civil War?
152. For what is the military career of Gen. Greene noted?
153. Who were the Presidential candidates in the "Centennial year," and how many electoral votes did each receive?
154. Name four popular American historians, giving place and date of birth of each.
155. What is known as the "Hard Cider and Log Cabin Campaign"?
156. Who were the Hessians?
157. Relate the events of the Civil War in the year 1861.
158. Who was Capt. Nathan Hale?
159. Write a short sketch of the life of Horace Greeley.
160. Where, when, and how was the English General Ross killed?
161. What, to the Americans, was the darkest period of the Revolution?
162. What battle of the Revolution is ranked as one of the "Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World"?
163. What was the turning point of the Civil War?
164. What was the decisive battle of the war of 1812?
165. What events in American history have occurred on April 19th?
166. Which Presidents did not take the oath of office on the 4th of March?
167. Who is called the "Path-Finder of the Rocky Mountains"?
168. Who is the author of "This is a nation and not a league"?
169. Which President was called "The Railsplitter"?
170. What tribes of Indians composed "The Six Nations"?
171. Who introduced the celebrated resolutions of 1765 in the House of Burgesses of the Virginia Colony?
172. What memorable words were uttered on this occasion by the person referred to in the above question?
173. What American General was suspected of having purposely fallen into the hands of the British in 1776.
174. Relate the story of the death of Col. Elmer E. Ellsworth.
175. How was slavery abolished in the United States?
176. When, where, and to whom did Gen. Robt. E. Lee surrender?
177. Sketch briefly the military career of Stonewall Jackson.
178. When and by whom were used these words: "Don't give up the ship"?
179. Relate the difficulties with France in Adams's administration.
180. What were the memorable words of Gen. Stark at the battle of Bennington?
181. What were the Alien and Sedition?
182. What was the Mutiny Act?
183. What was the Stamp Act?
184. What was the Boston Port Bill? Writs of Assistance?
185. When did the first English women come to Virginia?
186. Name in order, with the proper dates, the Four Colonial Wars.
187. Who was Col. Tarleton?
188. What noted foreigners served as officers in the American army in the War of the Revolution?
189. Name ten prominent Confederate Generals.
190. Name ten prominent Federal Generals.
191. When and on what occasion was organized the society known as "The Cincinnati"?
192. Relate briefly the campaign of Gen. George Rogers Clark.
193. When and where was signed the treaty ending the War of the Revolution?
194. When and where was Washington inaugurated first President?
195. Name Washington's Cabinet.
196. What was the Wilmot Proviso?
197. Quote a noted sentence from President Lincoln's second inaugural address.
198. What decisive measures were taken against Napoleon III. at the close of the Civil War?
199. What were the Sanitary and Christian Commissions?
200. Relate the Trent Affair.
201. State four important political questions which have been at issue at any period since 1790.
202. Give dates of the following: Adoption of the Constitution; founding of St. Augustine, and the admission of California.
203. State something of the origin of "Mason and Dixon's Line."
204. Describe the "Battle of the Iron-ships."
205. Who were Presidential candidates in 1860?
206. Give the Missouri Compromise.
207. State the clauses of the Omnibus Bill. Who was its author?
208. Relate the voyage of Sir Francis Drake.
209. What noted person, belonging to one of the royal families of Europe, visited the United States during John Adams's administration?
210. Name the four Dutch Governors of New York.
211. What was Clay's compromise of 1833?
212. What question of dispute arose between Great Britain and the United States in 1852? (See 132.)
213. What is the origin of the stripes on the flag of the United States?
214. Why are there six white and seven red stripes on the national banner?
215. What State is called the "Mother of Presidents"? Name the Presidents chosen from it.
216. When did New York come permanently under English rule?
217. What colony first established religious tolerance?
218. Who was the Paul Jones of the Civil War?
219. The winter of what year is noted as the coldest in the history of the United States?
220. When was the great fire in New York City?
221. When and by whom was the Smithsonian Institute founded?
222. Which President did not use the veto power?
223. In what year occurred the "falling of the stars"?
224. Who were the National Republicans?
225. When was the office of Postmaster-General created?
226. Who was the first Secretary of the Interior?
227. Which President received every electoral vote but one?
228. In what year was the great earthquake of the Mississippi valley?
229. Who was Commander-in-Chief of the American forces at the beginning of the war of 1812?
230. What daring deed in the Shenandoah Campaign is related of Stonewall Jackson?
231. What popular error exists as to the place of Lee's surrender to Grant?
232. What was the Brooks-Sumner difficulty?
233. Why is Virginia called the “Old Dominion”?
234. What was the Conscription Act?
235. Name the first three Lieutenant-Generals.
236. When was established the first National Bank?
237. When did the United States declare war against England the second time?
238. What is said of the Etna Furnace at Ironton, Ohio?
239. Who was John Henry?
240. Name six Indian Chiefs noted in American history.
241. With what event is the name of each particularly connected?
242. What American Colonel, who afterwards became General of the army, addressed his soldiers upon the battle-field at Bridgewater?
243. Which was the last to die of the signers of the Declaration of Independence? When did his death occur?
244. When was the Act abolishing the slave trade passed by Congress? When did it go into effect?
245. When was fought the battle of Tippecanoe? What was the result?
246. What was the Expunging Resolution, and when passed?
247. What was the origin of “fifty-four forty or fight”?
248. What was President Lincoln’s first call for troops?
249. Who was the last Confederate General to surrender?
250. Who was the first American Admiral?
251. What class of topics in history is most important?
252. Where and when occurred the battle of Five Forks?
253. What four Secretaries of the Treasury have made for themselves great reputations in that office?
254. What is Fortress Monroe noted for in history?
255. Relate the circumstances under which General Sedgwick was killed.
256. What two persons, born the same year, twice competed with each other for the Presidency?
257. What were the last words of John Quincy Adams?
258. What battle occurred when both armies were marching to make a night attack upon each other?
259. Name the trees celebrated in United States history.
260. What General rushed into battle without orders and won it?
261. What was the “Great Senatorial Trio”?
262. Name the retreats famous in United States history.
263. By what treaty was the Mississippi River made the western boundary of the United States?
264. What naval commander captured his antagonist as his own vessel was sinking?
265. What battle was preceded by prayer?
266. What battle was fought and gained without a commanding officer?
267. Name four ex-Presidents who died between 1860 and 1870.
268. What celebrated statesman and philosopher was called “Poor Richard”?
269. How many invasions of the North did General Lee make?
270. Name the battles that checked each of General Lee’s northern invasions.
271. What ex-Vice-President was tried for treason?
272. What President-elect entered the Capitol in disguise?
273. What general left his wooden leg on the field of battle?
274. Who were the “Hunkers”?
275. Who were the “Barnburners”?
276. Where is the “Cradle of Liberty”?
277. In the attack on and capture of what Fort did the Commander order his men to charge with unloaded guns and fixed bayonets?
278. What American General once made his escape from the enemy by plunging on horseback down a dangerous cliff?
279. Name the Presidents who were poor boys.
280. What are the memorable features of the Battle of New Orleans?
281. What was the bloodiest battle of the Civil War?
282. What officer lost his life from neglecting to read a message?
283. When and where was a celebrated officer fired at fifteen times within easy rifle distance, yet was unharmed?
284. What treaties are celebrated in United States history?
285. What is a "protective tariff"?
286. What was Gen. Charles Lee's words to Gen. Gates on the latter's taking command of the Southern army, 1780?
287. Whose words are these: "I am not worth purchasing, but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me."
288. Name the Generals who commanded the Army of the Potomac.
289. Name and give date of an important battle fought in Indiana, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and Tennessee.
290. Where, when, and to whom was an entire army surrendered without the firing of a single shot?
291. In what war was Jefferson Davis a Lieutenant, and Abraham Lincoln a Captain?
292. When did a stone house turn the tide of battle? A stone wall?
293. What was the "Murphy movement"?
294. Of what American General was it said, " He is the conqueror of the conquerors of Napoleon "?
295. How are the tribes of Indians in the Territory governed?
296. What revenues do the Indians in the Territory receive from the United States?
297. For what are the following named persons noted: Thomas Blanchard, Jethro Wood, Ross Winans, Cyrus H. McCormick, and Graham Bell?
298. Who were the "Mugwumps"?
299. When was the Washington Monument begun? When completed?
300. Write a short sketch of the Bartholdi Statue.
301. Which State contains the greatest number of Indians?
302. What were "Underground Railroads"?
303. Name and locate two noted Confederate prisons.
304. Name and locate two celebrated Federal prisons.
305. By what three men was the Federalist written?
306. Name the three kinds of Congresses.
307. Name four persons who came to America in the Mayflower.
308. What American poem mentions them?
309. Name the men who constituted the Electoral Commission.
310. When and by whom was the Annapolis Naval Academy established?
311. Who administered the oath of office to President Arthur?
312. How many Atlantic Cables are there at present?
313. Who succeeded General Grant as General of the Army?
314. When did the Greely Expedition leave the United States, and when did it return?
315. What date marks the birth of the nation?
316. What noted person laid the corner stone of the Bunker Hill Monument?
317. When and where did the first Continental Con- gress assemble?
318. When, where, and by whom was the resolution offered which declared "That the United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States"?
319. Who is the author of "To the victors belong the spoils"?
320. Who introduced the political principle of "rota- tion in office"?
321. What eminent State Rights advocate was twice elected to the office of Vice-President?
322. Relate the "Martin Koszta Affair."
323. What were the last words of Thomas Jefferson?

ANSWERS TO Questions on United States History.

1. A race of people somewhat advanced in the arts and sciences, particularly mathematics, that inhabited the greater part of North America prior to the Indians. They have left no records of their nation, other than the numerous mounds and fortifications scattered throughout the continent.

2. Fort Ancient in Warren County, Ohio. The Big Elephant Mound in Grant County, Wisconsin. The Grave Creek Mound near Wheeling, West Virginia. The Great Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio.

3. John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart.

4. Each was awarded a pension of $200 for life by Congress, and a silver medal of honor, bearing on one side the motto "Fidelity," on the other side, "The love of country conquers."

5. Four; in 1492, 1493, 1498, and in 1502.

6. The first written account of the new world was published by a German geographer named Waldsee-Müller, at Augsburg, Bavaria, from notes furnished by Americus Vespuccius, and in the book, the name America, feminine of Americus, is suggested for the new world, in honor of Vespuccius.

7. John Eliot, better known as the "Apostle of the Indians," was a young minister who came from England to the Massachusetts Colony in 1631. He earnestly endeavored to convert the Indians to Christianity, and to aid in that work, translated the Bible into the Indian language.

8. New Hampshire, 1621; Massachusetts, 1620; Rhode Island, 1636; Connecticut, 1633; New York, 1613; Pennsylvania, 1643; New Jersey, 1664; Delaware, 1638; Maryland, 1634; Virginia, 1607; North Carolina, 1663; South Carolina, 1670; Georgia, 1733.

9. Gen. William Walker and his followers. Walker led an expedition against Nicaragua in the spring of 1855, and succeeded in placing himself at the head of affairs for a time, but he was soon overpowered and suffered military execution.
Lopez and his followers who undertook to annex Cuba to the United States during Taylor's administration, were known as the "Cuban Filibusters."

10. James Buchanan and Grover Cleveland.

11. In 1541, by Hernando De Soto.

12. Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.

13. By the Normans, under Biron, in 1001, and Lief Ericson and Biron in 1002; by the Welsh, under Madoc, about 1170; by the Venetians, under Zeno, in 1380.

14. One month. He was inaugurated March 4, 1841, and died on April 4th of the same year—"killed by office-seekers!"

15. At Sutter's Mills in the Valley of the Sacramento, February, 1848.

16. Roger Williams, founder of the Baptist Church in America, was born in Wales, 1606. At the age of 18 he entered Oxford University, and, graduating with honors, was ordained a minister of the Church of England, but afterwards joined the ranks of the Puritans. He came to New England in 1631, but was soon expelled from both Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies on account of his peculiar religious practices. He fled from persecution at Salem, where he had gone from Plymouth, to the Narragansett Indians, in the winter of 1635. Here he purchased lands from Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, and founded the State of Rhode Island, in 1636. He was for many years Governor of the colony, dying at Providence in 1683.

17. The animosity between the French and the English growing out of King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's wars, and the claims of both the French and English to the Ohio Valley.

18. In 1763, at Paris.

19. It was a magnificent structure of iron and glass erected in New York City, in which the "World's Fair" was held during the summer of 1853.

20. In the summer of 1877.

21. The winter of 1609-10, in the Virginia colony.

22. He first circumnavigated the globe; in 1519-22.

23. At West Point, New York, in 1780.
It is said that a conference between the British General Clinton, and Arnold, was held in what is known as the Washington Hotel, No. 1 Broadway, New York. The arrangements were completed between Major André on the part of Clinton, and Arnold, at a Mr. Smith's house on the night of September 21, 1780, in the vicinity of West Point on the Hudson.

24. John Champe, a Sergeant Major of the American dragoons in New Jersey.
Champe pretended to be a deserter from the American army, and going to New York City, joined a body of troops which Arnold was raising. By previous arrangements made with the American commander, Champe was to seize Arnold in the night and convey him to the American camp. Everything was in readiness, when Arnold suddenly removed his headquarters, and Champe's scheme failed. Champe afterwards made his escape to the American lines, when his comrades were first informed that he was not a deserter but a spy.

25. Lincoln and Garfield. From their having been assassinated while in office.
26. That they originally came from northern Asia, crossing into the western continent by way of Behring Strait, which at present is only about 36 miles in width.
27. In the year 1614, Capt. John Smith explored the coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, and made a map of the region which he called New England.
28. Robert Fulton in 1807. The Savannah, from Savannah, Ga. to Liverpool, 1819.
29. The Mayflower in company with the Speedwell, set sail at Plymouth, England, for the mouth of the Hudson River, September 6, 1620. The two vessels bearing the first settlers of New England, had not been long at sea, until the Speedwell sprung a leak, and putting her passengers on board the Mayflower, she returned to port. The Mayflower continued on her stormy journey till December 21, when a landing was made at a point since named “Forefather’s Rock” on the coast of Massachusetts. Here the “Pilgrims,” 102 persons in all, began the second permanent English settlement in America.
30. Harrison, April 4, 1841; Taylor, July 9, 1850; Lincoln, April 15, 1865; Garfield, September 19, 1881.
31. They were French Protestants who fled from religious persecutions in their native country under the reign of Henry IV., 1685. Those who came to America settled in most part in the Carolinas, chiefly at Charleston. Many of “their descendants are eminently honorable, and have borne a proud part in the establishment of our Republic.”
32. The Treaty of Utrecht in Holland, 1713.
33. The destruction of 342 chests of tea on board British vessels in Boston Harbor, by a party of citizens disguised as Indians. This event occurred Dec. 16, 1773.
34. The National Flag was adopted by Congress on June 14, 1777.

35. "On Christmas night, 1776, in a driving storm of sleet, amid drifting ice that threatened every moment to crush the boats, he crossed the Delaware with 2,400 picked men, fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, in the midst of their festivities, captured 1,000 prisoners, slew their leader, and safely escaped back to camp, with a loss of only four men—2 killed and 2 frozen to death."

36. Johnson's Administration, October, 1867. $7,200,000 in gold.

37. In May, 1869. It furnished when completed, a means of rapid transit between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. The journey between New York and San Francisco can now be made in less than one week's time.

38. It was a public declaration of the American Ministers to England, France, and Spain, met in Convention at Ostend, Belgium, stating "the advantages to be derived by Spain and the United States from the transfer of Cuba, at a fair price," from the former to the latter power.

39. John Adams, from 1797 to 1801, John Q. Adams, from 1825 to 1829.

40. In 1753 by Benjamin Franklin, at which time he was appointed Postmaster-General.

41. The Iroquois, or Six Nations. They occupied the region south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, extending from the Ohio River to Lake Champlain, and bounded on the southeast by a line nearly parallel to the Appalachian Mountains.

42. It was the tribunal that decided the presidential contest of 1876. It was composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court, and the decision rendered two days before the close of Grant's term, was that Rutherford B. Hayes had received 185 electoral votes, and Samuel J. Tilden had received 184, thus electing Hayes to the Presidency by a majority of one vote!

43. This war was brought on through an order issued by the United States authorities in 1872, directing the removal of the Modoc Indians from their lands in Oregon to a reservation in Indian Territory. The Indians refused to be removed, and entrenching themselves in the "lava beds," did not submit until they had been severely bombarded in their place of retreat. A council of peace was agreed upon in April, 1873, but while it was in session the Indians treacherously murdered Gen. Canby and Reverend Dr. Thomas, and wounded others of the Peace Commission. The war was then vigorously pushed by the United States until the last Indian surrendered, and the leader, Captain Jack, was tried by court-martial, condemned, and hanged October 3, 1873, at Ft. Klamath.
44. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, September 29, 1513.
45. Harvard in Massachusetts, founded in 1638; Yale in Connecticut, founded in 1701 at Saybrook, but removed to New Haven in 1716.
46. Vermont, March 4, 1791.
47. William Henry Harrison, sixty-eight years of age.
48. In the summer of 1609, by Samuel de Champlain.
49. The Dutch at New York in 1613; the English at Jamestown, Va., in 1607; the Spaniards at St. Augustine, Fla., in 1565; the French at Fort Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1605.
50. It was a decision rendered by the Supreme Court of the United States, through Chief Justice Taney, that slave owners might take their slaves into any State of the Union without forfeiting authority over them. Dred Scott was a slave who had been taken by his master into a free State, upon which he claimed his freedom. The matter was carried by Scott's friends to the Supreme Court, whereupon Chief Justice Taney rendered the decision as stated above, which is known as the "Dred Scott" decision.
51. In 1844, by Elias Howe, a native of Massachusetts. Howe began his experiments to invent a sewing machine in 1839.

52. In 1704; The Boston News Letter.
53. John and Charles Wesley in October, 1735; George Whitefield in 1739.
54. The first permanent settlement was made at Tini-cum in 1643, by the Swedes. The State was founded by the Quakers under William Penn in 1682.
55. Georgia. In 1733, at Savannah, by James Oglethorpe.

56. “The Negro Plot,” as it has been called, occurred in New York City in the year 1741. Several destructive fires, the supposed work of incendiaries, having broken out, suspicion was fastened on the negro slaves who formed a large portion of the population, by its being circulated that they had planned to murder the whites, and to set up a government of their own. Many of the negroes were tried and condemned under evidence given by disreputable witnesses, and great numbers of them were sold to foreign slave-holders. It was afterwards doubted that any plot existed.

57. Florida on March 3d; Texas on December 29th. It is frequently stated that Texas was admitted on March 1, 1845, but the statement is wrong; a joint resolution to annex Texas to the United States was passed March 1, 1845, but the State was not admitted until December 29th of that year.

58. A religious sect founded by Joseph Smith in 1830, at Manchester, New York. Their stronghold at present is Utah, particularly Salt Lake City, which they founded under the leadership of Brigham Young, the successor of Smith, in 1846.

59. West Virginia was admitted as the 35th State of the Union, June 20, 1863. This State was erected out of that portion of the State of Virginia lying west of the Alleghany Mountains, and the cause for its separate organization grew out of the refusal of its people to secede from the Union when the Virginia legislature passed resolutions declaring the State withdrawn from the Federal compact.
60. It was an act passed by Congress providing “for the redemption in coin of all legal tender notes on and after January 1, 1879.”
61. On July 2, 1881, in the railroad depot, at Washington, D. C., by Charles Julius Guiteau.
62. It was completed in 1855.
63. In 1854, by Commodore M. G. Perry, a brother of the “Hero of Lake Erie.”
64. Thomas W. Dorr, the instigator of “Dorr’s Rebellion” in Rhode Island.
65. It is said that Senator B. F. Wade, of Ohio, refused to vote to impeach the President, from the fact of his being President pro tem. of the Senate, and on the removal of the President in this case, he would have become President. The Republican party blamed Edward G. Ross, Senator from Kansas, with the failure of the impeachment, from his refusing to vote with his party on that question.
66. The votes cast were 35 “guilty,” and 19 “not guilty,” lacking but one vote to impeach.
67. Provincial, proprietary, and charter.
68. The charter.
69. Peter Stuyvesant, September, 1664.
70. On July 30, 1619, at Jamestown, Virginia.
71. It was duly ratified March 30, 1870.
72. It gives the right of suffrage to all, irrespective of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”
73. The election before the people was held in the year 1800. There were four candidates, John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney being the Federal candidates, and Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr the Anti-Federal. In the Electoral College, Jefferson and Burr each received the same number of votes, which, under the rules, threw the choice of President and Vice-President into the House of Representatives. The vote of that body on the 36th ballot, elected by one vote, Mr. Jefferson to the Presidency, over Aaron Burr who became the Vice-President.

74. The battle of Saratoga, which caused the surrender of Burgoyne's army on the 17th of October, 1777.

75. The Union of Mass., Plymouth, Conn., and New Haven under the title of "The United Colonies of New England," in the year 1643.

76. Thomas Hart Benton, from 1820 to 1850.

77. Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe The story appeared as a serial in The National Era, an anti-slavery advocate published at Washington. It was first published in book form in 1852. The publication of the work is considered one of the causes of the Civil War, and the ultimate overthrow of the institution of slavery in the United States.

78. Between Baltimore and Washington, D. C. The first official message was the announcement of Polk's nomination for President, by the Democratic party, in convention at Baltimore, May 29, 1844. Miss Annie Ellsworth of Washington, who first conveyed the intelligence to Prof. Morse that Congress had appropriated $30,000 to establish an experimental telegraph line, received the promise of the "mad man" in the moment of his great joy, that she might send the first message. Accordingly when the line was completed between Washington and Baltimore, and signals had been exchanged between the operators at each end, Prof. Morse sent for Miss Ellsworth, in fulfillment of his promise, and with her own hands she sent this sentence, "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT!"—the first formal dispatch ever sent over a telegraphic wire connecting remote places with each other.

79. It was an act providing for the organization of the Northwest Territory, passed by the last Continental Congress, July 13, 1787. It was due to the efforts of Dr. Cutler that the Ordinance was passed, and it is considered the most perfect document of the kind ever framed. Its principles are embodied in the constitutions of every State erected out of the Northwest Territory.

80. Some of the striking features of the Ordinance are: “There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in said Territory, other than for the punishment of crimes.” “Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” “The said Territory and the States which may be formed therein, shall ever remain a part of the Confederacy of the United States of America.”

81. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston.

82. Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, in 1793. It at once made cotton the most profitable product of the southern States, which created a great demand for slave labor in that section, and ultimately through the extension of slavery, brought on the Civil War.

83. Washington, Jackson, Harrison, Taylor, Pierce, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur.

84. In four ways: by annexation, conquest, purchase, and treaty. “Discovery” is often given in reference to the acquisition of the “Oregon country.” (See answer 146.)
85. John C. Fremont in 1856.
86. Lewis Payne Powell, David E. Harrold, George A. Atzerott, and Mrs. Mary A. Surratt.

87. The members of the *House* are the direct representatives of the people, and in order that the will of the masses may not be subverted, and arbitrary measures enacted, frequent opportunities to make changes of their representatives are given. The Senate is made a perpetual body,—its members are older, and as a rule more learned in political affairs than those of the House—it can check objectionable measures of the last named body, and is intended to be the SAFEGUARD of the nation.

88. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina.

89. Tennessee, by joint resolution of Congress, July 24, 1866.

90. "The American Continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are not to be considered as subject to future colonization by any foreign power."

91. John Paul Jones (real name John Paul) was born in the south of Scotland, in 1747. When but a youth he emigrated to Virginia, and after a short career as mate of a slave-ship, he was appointed a lieutenant in the navy, and put in charge of the American prize-ship RANGER, in 1776. After doing considerable damage to British vessels on the west coast of England and Scotland, he returned and was given command of the BON HOMME RICHARD. In September, 1779, his vessel met and captured the British ship Serapis, after one of the severest naval engagements of the war. In 1788 he became Rear-Admiral in the Russian service, but having quarreled with a Russian Admiral, he was dismissed. He died in poverty at Paris in 1792.

92. Robert Cavalier de LaSalle, in 1669, four years before Joliet and Marquette explored the Mississippi.

93. The treaty between the United States and England, at Paris, September 3d.

94. It recognized, by Great Britain, the independence of the United States, and gave to the latter government

the Northwest and Southwest Territories, extending our western boundary to the Mississippi.
95. New Orleans, 1717; Boston, 1630; Philadelphia, 1683; New York, 1613; St. Louis, 1764; Chicago, 1833. A fort named Dearborn was erected at the mouth of the Chicago river, in 1803.
96. American Generals Washington, Greene, Lincoln, Gates, Morgan, Sumter, Marion, Wayne, Schuyler, Putnam, Knox, and Sinclair.
97. It was composed by Francis S. Key, an American patriot while on a mission aboard an English vessel during the bombardment of Fort McHenry, a defense of the city of Baltimore, September 13, 1814.
98 Mississippi, December 10, 1817; Illinois, December 3, 1818; Alabama, December 14, 1819; Maine, March 15, 1820; Missouri, August 10, 1821.
99. The "Tariff Question."
100. In 1619, twenty negro slaves were sold to Virginia settlers by the Dutch. This was the beginning of negro slavery in North America.
101. Colonel William Pepperell who commanded the successful expedition against Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, June 17, 1745.
102. Louisburg was held by the French, with which nation England was at war, and from its being the strongest fortification in America, and the key to New France, King George to reward Pepperell for its capture, created him a baronet.
103. Capt. John Smith's book written in 1607-8, entitled, "True Relation of Virginia."
104. "That the title of the Massachusetts Company, from the king, to its lands, was not valid, but that the Indians were the true owners."
"That it was 'not lawful to call a wicked person to swear, (or) to pray, as being actions of God's worship'."
"That it was wrong to listen to any of the ministers of the Parish Assemblies in England."
"That the civil power had no authority over the opinions of men."

105. In the year 1609.
106. It occupied the territory comprised within the present State of Delaware, and a portion of the present State of Pennsylvania, extending from the southeast corner to the falls at Trenton. It was purchased of the Indians by the Swedes, and settled by them in February, 1638.
107. The Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815, was the last engagement on land.
108. Thomas Jefferson, in the year 1784.
109. April 6th and 7th, 1862. General Albert Sidney Johnston.

110. Upon the result of this battle depended largely the fate of the Confederacy. This was the last stand taken by the Confederate army in defense of the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, over which the division of the army east of the Mississippi chiefly received supplies from Texas and the southwest. The Confederate lines had been beaten slowly from Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Bowling Green, Columbia, and Mill Spring, to a position just in front of this railroad, and here Albert Sidney Johnston determined to die or gain a signal victory, and to that end concentrated his own, and Beauregard's forces from the Shenandoah, at Corinth, and made the attack on Sherman and Grant at Shiloh. The world knows the result.

111. On the 7th of July, 1863, the successful "Confederate raider," John Morgan, with about 2,500 men, crossed the Ohio River at Brandenburg, Kentucky, into Indiana, and after sacking Corydon and Salem, turned his line of pillage up the river. His route as planned was to scour the country along the river, pass around Cincinnati, and recross into Kentucky at Pomeroy, Ohio. In this he failed, for being hotly pursued by a force under General Hobson, and harassed by "home guards" along his line of march, he was overtaken and surrounded at New Lisbon, Columbiana County, Ohio, July 26th, and himself and most of his men made prisoners. Morgan was taken to Columbus and confined in the penitentiary for about four months, but making his escape he fled to Kentucky. He was soon afterwards surprised and killed while quartering at the house of a friend.

112. For the invention of vulcanized India rubber.
113. New York, Philadelphia, and Washington.
114. The doctrine of "State Rights;" in particular, the "Nullification Act" of South Carolina.
115. On September 22, 1862.
116. On January 1, 1863.
117. December 15, 1814.
It was a convention of delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Connecticut, called to adopt resolutions opposing the Administration's course in the war with England. The acts of this convention were so obnoxious to the people throughout the other States, as to entirely destroy the Federal party, the leaders of which were in sympathy with the convention's proceedings.

118. The Democratic nominee was Gen. W. S. Hancock; the Republican nominee was Gen. J. A. Garfield; the Greenback nominee was Gen. J. B. Weaver. Garfield was elected, and inaugurated March 4, 1881.

119. Herman Blannerhassett and his accomplished wife, as early as 1798, began their residence on an island in the Ohio River, a few miles below Marietta. Their home has been described by Wirt as one of matchless beauty and comfort. To this retreat came the crafty Aaron Burr in 1805, and through his influence, Blannerhassett was induced

to enter upon a scheme to establish an Empire with Burr at its head, in the southwestern portion of the United States. Burr and Blannerhasset were arrested on a charge of treason in 1807, but were acquitted from a lack of proof, although Burr's design could hardly be mistaken. Blannerhasset died on the Isle of Guernsey, in 1822.

120. It was the constitution for the government of the colonists in the Carolina grant of Charles II., King of England, to a company of noblemen in 1663. The "Grand Model" was prepared by the great English philosopher, John Locke, assisted by Lord Shaftesbury.

121. They were persons who were suspected by King James II., of England, of conspiracy with his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, against him in 1685. Many persons so suspected were sent to Virginia and sold as indented servants to the planters. They were set free in Virginia in 1689.

122. At the opening of the French and Indian War, in 1755, General Braddock was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the English forces and Colonial allies in America. Three expeditions were planned: one against Fort Du Quesne, one against Niagara, and one against Crown Point. Braddock led in person the expedition against Fort Du Quesne, with great military pomp and display. He was warned by Washington and other Colonial officers to guard against an Indian ambuscade, but their words were unheeded as "coming from those unused to military discipline." On the morning of July 9, 1755, while in line of march up a narrow ridge on the Monongahela, the army was surprised by an ambuscade of French and Indians. The British forces were slaughtered in great numbers, and General Braddock was mortally wounded. Washington covered the retreat of the flying "Continentals" with the "Virginia hunters," and saved the army from utter destruction.

123. A cargo of sassafras root taken by Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602.

124. It was a delusion that broke out in Massachusetts in 1692. It was supposed that the children of a Mr. Parris, a minister near Salem, were under the influence of witches. An Indian servant was beaten until she admitted her guilt, and soon many other persons, some of whom were people of great respectability, were accused of being in league with evil spirits. Many were tried and condemned, and the superstition was not checked until nearly fifty persons had been tortured and twenty hung. The eminent theologian, Rev. Cotton Mather, engaged actively in trying to root out witchcraft in New England, and even wrote a book treating on the subject.

125. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, President; Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President.

126. It was a conspiracy of officers headed by General Conway in 1777-8, to have Washington removed from command of the army, and General Horatio Gates appointed in his stead.

127. At the battle of Monmouth an artilleryman was shot at his post, when his wife, Mary Pitcher, who had been carrying him water, bravely took his place and used the gun with telling effect upon the British. From this incident she was afterwards called "Captain Mollie."

128. In 1786 Daniel Shays, at the head of nearly 2,000 armed insurgents, resisted the authorities of the State of Massachusetts in collecting taxes to defray the expenses of government, chiefly entailed during the Revolution. Shays was attacked near Springfield by a force under General Lincoln, and after a brief contest the insurgents were dispersed. Shays and his followers were finally pardoned.

129. John Quincy Adams.

130. Clay's course on the Tariff Compromise of 1833 was in opposition to the Whig party, to which he belonged. When he advanced his ideas on the Tariff Question, he was told that it would lose him the Presidency. His reply was, "I would rather be right than be President."
131. The Constitution ("Old Ironsides"), and the Guerriere, August 9, 1812; Perry's Victory on Lake Erie, September 10, 1813; Battle of Lake Champlain, September 11, 1814.
132. By the Treaty of Washington in 1870, it was agreed that the dispute between Great Britain and the United States, concerning the fisheries on the coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, should be arbitrated by a board of three commissioners, one member to be appointed by Great Britain, one by the United States, and the third to be chosen by these two. This Commission met at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1878, and awarded Great Britain $5,500,000. (See answer 212.)
133. War with Tripoli, 1801; Louisiana Purchase, 1803; Aaron Burr's duel, 1804; Right of Search, 1806; American Embargo, 1807.
134. U. S. Grant, in 1869, at the age of 47 years.
135. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, July 4, 1826; James Monroe, July 4, 1831.
136. Henry Clay, June 28, 1852; Daniel Webster, October 24, 1852; John C. Calhoun, March 31, 1850.
137. Virginia Dare, a granddaughter of Governor White, of the Roanoke Colony, August 18, 1585.
138. The American, or as it was stigmatized by its opponents, "Know-Nothing" party, came into existence in Pierce's Administration, and its chief principles were "Opposition to the election of Roman Catholics and persons of foreign birth to any office," and to the extension of slave territory. The meetings of "Know-Nothings" were secret, and their motto "Americans for America." The organization grew out of the old Whig party, and was succeeded by the Republican party in 1856.

139. By purchase from Spain in 1819, although the United States did not get formal possession till 1821. The price paid was $5,000,000.

140. The Erie Canal was begun in 1817, and completed in 1825. It connects the Great Lakes with the Hudson River at Albany, New York; its length is 363 miles, and it cost $7,500,000.

141. The first permanent railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio, built in 1828. A short line had been built in Massachusetts in 1826.

142. “Old Hickory” was a name applied to Andrew Jackson, from his stately figure and determined will.

143. In 1832 a Sovereign Convention of the people of South Carolina declared that the “Tariff Act” of Congress of the United States, passed in that year, “being based upon the principles of protection to manufacturers, and not upon the principle of raising revenue, was unconstitutional, and, therefore, null and void.” It was further declared that unless said act of Congress was modified in conformity with the last named principle, the connection of the State of South Carolina with the Federal Union would be severed on and from February 12, 1833. (See answer to question 211.)

144. Charles Coatesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina. In 1797, President Adams sent Mr. Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, and John Marshall of Virginia, as Special Envoys to France, to treat with that government on matters likely to cause trouble between the two governments. On arriving at Paris in October, the envoys were refused audience by the French Minister, M. de Talleyrand, but were given to understand that on the payment of a quarter million dollars, they would be received in their public capacity, and all matters in dispute would be speedily settled. Thereupon Mr. Pinckney is credited with replying, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute."

145. In 1837, Canada being in rebellion against England, a body of about 700 "patriots" from the State of New York, attempted to render the insurgents assistance. They fitted out the steamer Caroline with supplies, and seized and fortified Navy Island, in the Niagara River. Here a conflict ensued between the "patriots" and a party of loyalists from Canada, which resulted in the setting fire to the Caroline, and her drifting over the Falls. The disturbance was quelled by the prompt action of President Van Buren.

146. The northern boundary corresponded nearly to the present boundary between the United States and the British possessions. On the east it was bounded by the Mississippi River, except what is now a part of the State of Louisiana lying east of that river. On the south it bordered the Gulf of Mexico. The western boundary in the treaty made with Spain in 1819, was defined as "beginning at the mouth of the Sabine River, continuing along its western bank to the 32° of north latitude, thence by a line due north to the Red River, thence up that river to the 100th meridian west from Greenwich, thence due north to the Arkansas, thence following the Arkansas to its source in latitude 42°, and thence by that parallel to the Pacific Ocean."

The establishment of this last boundary in the treaty above named, changed the original territory as acquired from France in 1803, by giving Texas to Spain, and the United States receiving the "Oregon country" instead, thus extending our western border to the Pacific Ocean. The western boundary of Louisiana as acquired from France in 1803, was not clearly defined, but was stated as being the central range of the Rocky Mountains, and the Rio Grande River.

147. He saw that England, from her superior naval forces, would wrest the territory from him, in the event of the threatened war between England and France, and being jealous of Spain from which power he had lately taken Louisiana, he sold the territory to the United States, thus putting it beyond the reach of either England or Spain.
148. Disputed boundaries, and the annexation of Texas to the Federal Union.
149. Three times. In 1824, 1834, and 1844.
150. Aaron Burr, Vice-President during Jefferson's first administration.
151. The different constructions put upon the Constitution by the people of the Southern and Northern States; the difference in occupation and products of the people of the two sections; the publication and distribution of sectional books; the influence of demagogues, both North and South; lastly and chiefly, the subject of negro slavery.
152. He never fought a decisive battle, yet gained substantial advantages over his enemies.
153. The Democratic candidate was Samuel J. Tilden of New York; the Republican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio; the Greenback party nominated Peter Cooper of New York. Under the decision of the "Joint High Commission," Hayes received 185 electoral votes, and Tilden 184. The Greenback candidate did not receive a single electoral vote. The votes of Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon were thrown out by the Commission, on account of alleged frauds in the elections of those States.
154. George Bancroft, born at Worcester, Mass., in 1800; William H. Prescott, born at Salem, Mass., in 1796; John Lothrop Motley, born at Dorchester, Mass., 1814; Jared Sparks, born at Willington Conn., 1789.
155. The presidential campaign of 1840. The opponents of General Harrison said that he lived in a "log cabin and drank hard cider." Hence the phrase.
156. They were Germans from Hesse Cassel, hired by the British Government to fight the Americans.
157. The firing on the "Star of the West;" The inauguration of President Lincoln; Capture of Fort Sumter; Secession of ten Southern States; Battle of Bull Run; Blockade of Southern Ports.
158. He was a native of the State of Connecticut, an ardent advocate of the cause of liberty, and a commissioned officer in the War of the Revolution. He was sent by Washington, while his army was stationed on Long Island, in 1776, to learn the intentions of Lord Howe and the strength of his army. While on this hazardous but patriotic mission, young Hale was recognized by a relative in the British army, and seized as a spy. He was hardly given the form of a trial, was condemned and executed, without being allowed the use of a Bible, and even his letters to his sisters and aged mother were destroyed. His last words were, "I only regret that I have but one life to give to my country."
159. He was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, Feb. 3, 1811. In early life he determined to be a printer, and at the age of fifteen years began his trade in the office of "The Spectator," at East Poultney, Vt. From here he went to New York City, and founded the New York Tribune in 1841. He was a member of the 31st Congress, and was an avowed enemy of negro slavery. After the close of the Civil War, he earnestly advocated a speedy and liberal reconstruction of the Seceded States, and was one of the bondsmen of Jefferson Davis upon his release from Fortress Monroe. He was the presidential candidate of the Liberal Republican and Democratic parties in 1872, but was defeated. He died on the 29th of November, 1872.
160. At the attack on the city of Baltimore, September 12, 1814, by shots fired by two persons secreted in a tree, watching the advance of Ross and his staff of officers.
161. The winter of 1777-78, while the army under Washington was encamped at Valley Forge.
162. The surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga.
163. The defeat of Gen. Lee at Gettysburg, and the capitulation of Gen. Pemberton at Vicksburg, which occurred at the same time, July 3d and 4th, 1863.
164. The Battle of Lake Erie in conjunction with Gen. Harrison's victory over Proctor and Tecumseh, at the Battle of the Thames.
Gen. Jackson's victory at New Orleans was gained after terms of peace had been agreed upon between the United States and Great Britain, but the news had not reached Jackson or Pakenham at the time of the battle.
165. Noted events are the battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. The riot in the streets of Baltimore April 19, 1861, when the first blood was shed in the Civil War.
166. Washington, April 30, 1789; Monroe, March 5, 1821; Taylor, March 5, 1849; Hayes, March 5, 1877. This does not include the Vice-Presidents who have succeeded to the presidential chair through the death of the President.
167. John Charles Fremont.
168. Andrew Jackson.
In his proclamation as President of the United States, issued December 11, 1832, with regard to the "Nullification Act," he says: "The Constitution of the United States, then, forms a government, not a league."
169. Abraham Lincoln.
Lincoln was one of the early settlers of Illinois, and there it was he felled trees, split rails, and fenced the grounds surrounding his humble log cabin.

170. Originally the Senecas, Mohawks, Oneidas, Cayugas, Onondagas, and Tuscaroras. Later the Hurons and Algonquins were added. The "Six Nations" were collectively called Mingoes.

171. Patrick Henry.
172. "Cæsar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III.—may profit by their examples! If this be treason, make the most of it."
173. General Charles Lee.

174. In May, 1861, the Federal troops seized Arlington Heights and Alexandria, which are on the Maryland side of the Potomac, and were formerly included in the District of Columbia. After the capture of Alexandria, Col. Ellsworth seeing the Confederate flag still flying over the "Marshall House," went up and took it down. At the foot of the stairs, as he descended, he was shot by the landlord, J. W. Jackson, who in turn was instantly killed by private Brownell.

175. By the passage of the XIIIth Amendment to the Constitution, February 1, 1865, and the ratification of said amendment by two-thirds of the States, in December of that year.

176. April 9, 1865, at the house of a Mr. McLean, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, to General U. S. Grant. (See answer 331.)

177. He was born at Clarksburg, in what is now West Virginia, in 1824. In 1846 he graduated at West Point Military Academy, served in the Mexican War with marked distinction, and later became a professor in the Military Institute at Lexington, Virginia, where he taught till the opening of the Civil War. He particularly distinguished himself in the Battle of Bull Run, from which he received the name "Stonewall," and in many later engagements he displayed great military talents. He was fired upon, through mistake, by his own men and mortally wounded at Chancellorsville, after defeating Gen. Hooker's division, May 2, 1863. He lingered until the 10th of the month. His full name was Thomas Johnathan Jackson. The name "Stonewall" was given him by the Confederate General Bee, at the first Battle of Bull Run, where Jackson held his command like a "stonewall."

178. In the naval contest between the Shannon and the Chesapeake, June 1, 1813, Captain Lawrence, the brave commander of the Chesapeake, after every officer on board was either killed or wounded, and himself "weltering in blood, just before expiring," gave his last command, "Don't give up the ship!"

179. The trouble with France in Adams's Administration originated with the refusal of the United States government, while Washington was President, to become the ally of France in her war with Great Britain. The French ministers Genêt and Adêt, both tried to enlist the sympathies of the people in the French struggle, but Washington put a timely check to their designs. When Adams became President he endeavored to get an amicable settlement of the difficulties, and appointed three commissioners (see answer 144) to go to France for that purpose. The envoys being grossly insulted by the French ministry, and our flag disrespected on the seas, and our commerce endangered, President Adams directed vigorous preparations for war, but Napoleon Bonaparte coming to the head of affairs in France, the crisis of war was happily averted, and a treaty was entered into and ratified by the two governments.

180. "There are the red-coats ; we must beat them to-day, or Molly Stark is a widow."

181. The Alien Act authorized the President at his pleasure "to order any foreigner, whom he might believe to be dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States, to depart out of the country, under very heavy penalty for refusing to obey the order."
The Sedition Act made it a crime punishable under a very heavy penalty, for any one " to write, print, utter, or publish, any false, scandalous, or malicious writing, against either House of the Congress of the United States, or the President of the United States, with intent to defame, or to bring them, or either of them, into contempt or dis-repute."

182. The British Parliament enacted in 1774 that the colonists in America should provide quarters and supplies for British troops stationed among them. This the people refused to do, and so exasperated were they at the King and Parliament, that the people of Massachusetts and New York even refused to sell articles of food and shelter to the British troops. From the furor the Act above named created among the colonists, it has been called the " Mutiny Act." Some authorities speak of it as the " Quartering Act."

183. An Act passed by Parliament in 1765 ordering that all documents in the colonies, such as deeds, notes, contracts, bonds, and public documents, should be printed on government stamped paper.

184. An Act passed by Parliament in 1774 closing the port of Boston. Writs of Assistance were warrants granted English officers to search stores and private houses for smuggled goods.

185. In 1619, ninety young women of good character came to Virginia, from England, and became wives of planters. Their passage was paid in tobacco by their husbands, at the rate of 150 pounds each.

186. King William's War 1689-1697; Queen Anne's War 1702-1713; King George's War 1744-1748; French and Indian War 1754-1763.

187. " He was the most active, energetic, and dangerous of all the British partisan officers" who fought in the

Revolution. His field of action was chiefly in South Carolina, where he met equally daring foes in the persons of Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. Col. Tarleton was born in 1754, and died in 1833.

188. The French Generals, Lafayette, De Kalb, and Admiral D'Estaing and Count Rochambeau; the Prussian General, Baron Steuben; the Polish Generals, Pulaski and Kosciusko; these are among the most illustrious foreigners who helped to gain American independence.

189. Generals Albert Sidney Johnston, Robert E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, Gustave T. Beauregard, "Stone-wall" Jackson, Jubal A. Early, Braxton Bragg, Wade Hampton, William J. Hardee, and John B. Hood.

190. Generals Erwin McDowell, George B. McClellan, U. S. Grant, William T. Sherman, George H. Thomas, Philip H. Sheridan, Joseph Hooker, Winfield S. Hancock, George G. Meade, Benjamin F. Butler.

191. It was a friendly society formed by Washington and his officers at the close of the Revolution, and named in honor of the famous Roman general, Cincinnatus, who quitted his plow to serve his country, and after gaining victory, returned to his peaceful pursuits.

192. The expedition under Clark, and which was conceived by him, marks one of the most important events in the history of our country. In the year 1778, Clark, then a resident of the territory belonging to Virginia, west of the Alleghanies (Kentucky), perceived that unless the English posts in the Northwest Territory were quickly seized, the entire country west of the Appalachian Mountains would be overrun by the British and their Indian allies. He at once set out for Virginia, and arriving at the Capital laid his plans before Patrick Henry, then governor of the State. They were approved by the governor, and Clark was instructed to raise seven companies of men west of the mountains, and to proceed at once against Kaskaskia, Vincennes, and Detroit. This he did, and subdued the whole region except the Fort at Detroit, and received a pledge from the French traders and Indians to support the arms of the United States then at war with Great Britain. By this daring stroke, the United States probably gained her Independence—if not that, she at least gained such control over the Northwest Territory, as to have it ceded to her in the treaty with Great Britain in 1783.

193. At Paris, September 3, 1783.
194. On the 30th of April, 1789, in the City of New York.
195. Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson; Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton; Secretary of War, General Henry Knox; Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph.

196. It was a bill introduced into Congress in 1846 by David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, providing that "there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any territory which shall hereafter be acquired, or be annexed to the United States, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." Its aim was to prohibit slavery in the territory about to be acquired from Mexico.

197. "With malice towards none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds."

198. He was demanded to withdraw his troops from the aid of Maximilian whom he had helped to place upon the throne of the late established Empire of Mexico, as it was an infringement of the "Monroe Doctrine." (See answer 90.)

199. The Sanitary Commission furnished money and supplies for the relief of the sick and wounded, and rendered untold service in adding home comforts to the hospitals.
pitals, and in establishing places of lodging for soldiers returning home on "sick-leave."
The Christian Commission administered to the wants of the wounded and dying upon the field of battle, helped bury the dead, and looked after the spiritual welfare of soldiers on the march and in camp. These Commissions were sustained by both the Northern and the Southern people.

200. The Confederate government in 1861 appointed John Slidell and James M. Mason embassadors to England and France, but while they were on board the British mail steamer Trent on their voyage to Europe, they were seized by Captain Wilkes of the San Jacinto, in the service of the Federal Navy, were carried to Boston and imprisoned. Great Britain at once threatened war for this insult to her flag, but that crisis was averted by a prompt apology for the rash act of Capt. Wilkes, by the Federal government; Mason and Slidell were released, put aboard a vessel and sent to their destination.

201. The Tariff, Slavery, Banking System, and Secession.
202. Constitution adopted by Congress, September 17, 1787; St. Augustine founded, 1565; California admitted, September 9, 1850.

203. The original "Mason and Dixon's Line," is the line separating Pennsylvania from Maryland, as established by the celebrated English astronomers and surveyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, in 1767, after it had been in dispute between the Lords Baltimore and the Penn family for nearly eighty years.
As Pennsylvania was a free State, and Maryland slave, a line corresponding nearly in latitude with the boundary between these two States, and marking in a general way the boundary between slave and free territory, became known in later time as "Mason and Dixon's Line," but this was sponged out of existence by the Civil War.

204. It was the contest between the Confederate iron-clad, Merrimac, and the Federal ironclad steam battery, Monitor, which took place in Hampton Roads, March 9, 1862, and is widely known as the "Battle of the Iron Ships." Says Barnes: It was the first of the kind in the world. Close against each other, iron rasping on iron, they exchanged their heaviest volleys. Five times the Merrimac tried to run down the Monitor, but her huge beak only grated over the iron deck, while the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing of doing anything with her doughty little antagonist, the Merrimac now steamed back to Norfolk.
The defeat of the Merrimac saved the Federal Union.
205. Stephen A. Douglas, Democratic party, north; John C. Breckinridge, Democratic party, south; Abraham Lincoln, Republican party; John Bell, American or Union party.
206. When Missouri applied for admission into the Union, 1819, a bill was introduced before Congress, making it a condition of that State's admission, that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist therein." Under this restriction, Missouri failed of admission, but was finally admitted under the Compromise, which "prohibited slavery in all that portion of Louisiana Territory lying north of 36° 30', north latitude, except Missouri."
207. California to be admitted as a free state; Utah and New Mexico to be organized without any provision concerning slavery; Texas to be paid $10,000,000 to release her claim on New Mexico; the slave trade to be prohibited in the District of Columbia; a fugitive slave law to be enacted providing for the return to their owners of slaves escaping to a free state; the formation of new states, not exceeding four in number, out of the Territory of Texas.

208. He sailed from England in 1576 to the eastern coast of South America, then passing through the strait which bears his name, he coasted along the Pacific shore with the intention of reaching the north-west passage from the Pacific, when he expected to sail eastward around the continent, through, as he supposed, an open sea connected with the Atlantic. But he voyaged northward only to the coast of Oregon, which region he took possession of and named New Albion, from whence he returned to England in 1579, by way of the Cape of Good Hope. It was on the discovery of Drake that England based her claim to the “ Oregon country.”

209. Louis Philippe, then an exile. He afterwards became King of France.

210. Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, William Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant.

211. It was a measure providing for the gradual reduction of the tariff, the late Acts of Congress concerning which, had caused such great excitement in the South, particularly in South Carolina. (See 143.

212. The fisheries on the coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.

213. We quote from Stephens: The stripes came from the six sections of the shield, which formed part of the original device of a seal proposed for the United States. These six sections, or quarterings of the escutcheon, were intended to designate the six European countries from which the United States had been chiefly peopled, to wit: England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, and Holland. In drawing these six sections on the shield-figure, seven spaces of the original color were, of course, left, which gave to the whole the appearance of thirteen bars, or stripes.

214. The thirteen stripes are emblematic of the thirteen original colonies, and they are arranged alternately red and white, because the outline of the banner, as a whole, is much firmer with red margins than with white ones. Since there are thirteen stripes, and those forming the margins are red, there would be, as a matter of course, six white ones.

Some ingenious author has stated that the red stripes indicate the number of slave States, and the white ones the free States of the original thirteen.

This is more noted on the part of the author for cleverness of invention, than for truthfulness of statement.

215. Virginia.
George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, and John Tyler, who became President on the death of Harrison in 1741. Jackson, Taylor and Harrison were born in Virginia.

216. At the time of the surrender by Governor Stuyvesant in 1664.
217. Maryland under the control of the Catholics.
218. Commodore Raphael Semmes of the Confederate Navy.
219. The winter of 1834-35. Orange trees were killed by the severe cold in Florida.
220. On the 16th and 17th of December, 1835. Over eighteen millions of dollars in property were destroyed, and hundreds of rich men were made penniless within a space of sixteen hours.

221. In 1846 at Washington City. It was established by Act of Congress from funds bequeathed by James Smithson, an English chemist, who died at Genoa, Italy, in 1827.
222. Martin Van Buren.
223. On the night of November 13, 1833, occurred the most wonderful meteoric shower ever beheld.

224. Those who belonged to the party headed by Henry Clay, and who were so intensely opposed to President Jackson and his followers, about 1828 assumed the name National Republicans. It was about this time that the name Democrats became firmly attached to the followers of Jefferson and Jackson.
225. The first Postmaster-General was William T. Barry, of Kentucky, appointed by President Jackson as a member of his first cabinet.
226. Thomas Ewing of Ohio, under President Taylor.
227. James Monroe at his second election. He received the votes of every State, and all of the electoral votes except one in the college of New Hampshire, which was cast for John Q. Adams.
228. It occurred December 26, 1811.
229. General Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts.
230. When Jackson was on the retreat from his threatened attack on Washington in 1862, the Federal forces taking possession of the bridge over the Shenandoah, Jackson and his staff became separated from his command. “Riding towards the bridge, and rising in his stirrups, he called sternly to the Federal officer commanding the artillery placed to sweep it: 'Who ordered you to post that gun there, sir? Bring it over here!' The bewildered officer bowed, limbered up his piece, and prepared to move. Jackson and his staff seized the lucky moment and dashed across the bridge before the gun could be brought to bear upon them.”
231. That the terms of surrender were drawn up and signed under the boughs of an apple-tree at Appomattox. General Grant in his autobiography says: Wars produce many stories of fiction, some of which are told until they are believed. The war of the rebellion was fruitful in the same way. The story of the apple-tree is one of those fictions with a slight foundation of facts. As I have said, there was an apple orchard on the side of the hill occupied by the Confederate forces. Running diagonally up the hill was a wagon road which at one point ran very near one of the trees, so that the wheels on that side had cut off the roots of the tree, which made a little embankment. Gen. Babcock reported to me that when he first met Gen. Lee, he was sitting upon this embankment with his feet in the road, and leaning against the tree. It was then that Lee was conducted into the house where I first met him. (See Ans. 176.)

232. In May 1856, Charles Sumner, Senator from Massachusetts, in a speech before the Senate made allusion to Senator A. P. Butler from South Carolina, in language which was deemed highly offensive by the gentleman last named and his friends. At an adjournment of the Senate on the 22d of the month, Preston Brooks, a member of the House from South Carolina, and a a nephew of Senator Butler, approached Senator Sumner who was writing in his seat, in the Senate Chamber, and after some words proceeded to chastise him by striking him over the head and shoulders with a solid gutta percha cane. Brooks struck about a dozen blows, which from his great physical powers, so stunned Senator Sumner as to render his recovery doubtful for several months. However, after a period of three years, during which time he twice visited Europe to receive medical treatment, Senator Sumner was able to resume his seat in the Senate. Perhaps no single act did so much to rouse hostility between the North and the South, or to hasten the rebellion as Brooks's assault on Senator Sumner.

233. It is stated by respectable authority that the term "Old Dominion" originated from the fact that Virginia was the first permanent colony planted in North America by the English. But Stephens, who seems to have given this question careful investigation, states that it is from the adherence of the Virginia colonists to the cause of Charles II. While that monarch was in exile, the Virgin-

ians invited him to come to the colony as their rightful sovereign. Thus, from the adherence of Virginia to the old government, and not to that of Cromwell, it was called the “Old Dominion.”

234. It was an Act passed by Congress, March 3, 1863, authorizing the President to recruit the army by draft, if necessary. This was held by many to be a violation of the Constitution, “since,” said they, “the States, and not the Federal government, have the power to raise troops to carry on the war.” This Act of Congress was the cause of much trouble in the North, especially in New York City, where a serious riot occurred July 13, 1863, which lasted for three days, and during which time more than 400 persons were killed, and over $2,000,000 worth of property was destroyed.

235. George Washington, Winfield Scott, Ulysses S. Grant. Also, William T. Sherman and P. H. Sheridan have been made Lieutenant-Generals.

236. April 10, 1816. It was located at Philadelphia, and was called the “Bank of the United States.”

237. June 18, 1812.

238. It is a proud monument of the growth of the manufacturing interests of the State of Ohio, and is the largest and finest furnace in the United States.

239. He was a secret agent employed by the British government in 1812, to produce a disaffection in the New England States, that might result in their political connection with Great Britain.

240. Powhattan, King Philip, Logan, Chief of the Mingoes, Tecumseh, Osceola, and Pontiac.

241. Powhattan with the first English settlement in Virginia; King Philip with what is known as “King Philip’s War;” Logan with “Lord Dunmore’s War;” Tecumseh with the Battle of The Thames; Osceola with the Florida Wars; Pontiac with the Northwest Indian Confederation, 1763.

242. Winfield Scott.
243. Charles Carroll “of Carrollton,” born at Annapolis, Md. 1737, died 1832.
244. Passed in 1804; went into effect Jan. 1, 1808.
245. November 7, 1811. It resulted in a victory for the American forces over the Prophet and his Indian allies.
246. It was a resolution passed by the Senate of the United States, through the efforts of Thomas H. Benton of Missouri, January 16, 1837, expunging from the Senate Journal, the resolution of censure against President Jackson, passed by that body March 28, 1834. The resolution expunged reads, “Resolved that the President in the late Executive proceedings in relation to the public revenue, has assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the Constitution and laws, but in derogation of both.”
This was expunged by drawing heavy black lines around it, and writing across its face, “Expunged by order of the Senate this sixteenth day of January in the year of our Lord, 1837.”
247. It was first used by General Lewis Cass of Michigan, in a speech before the Senate, December 15, 1845, on the subject of the northwest boundary between the United States and Great Britain.
248. A call for 75,000 volunteers for three months, to put down the rebellion.
249. Gen. Kirby Smith in Texas, May 26, 1865.
250. David Glascoe Farragut, July 1866.
251. Those topics which discuss the causes and results of great events.
252. Five Forks is situated 12 miles southwest from Petersburg, Va., at which place occurred the memorable battle of Five Forks, April 1, 1865.

253. Alexander Hamilton, Albert Gallatin, Salmon P. Chase, and John Sherman. To these may be added William H. Crawford.

254. As the place of confinement of Jefferson Davis while held a prisoner on a charge of treason against the United States government.

255. General Sedgwick was killed at the battle of Spottsylvania, May 9, 1864. He was superintending the placing of a battery, when seeing a soldier dodging a ball from the enemy, he rebuked him, saying, "Pooh! they can't hit an elephant at this distance." At that moment he was himself struck by a ball, and killed.

256. Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy Adams, each born in the year 1767. They opposed each other for the Presidency in 1824, when Adams was successful, and again in 1828 when Jackson was elected.

257. His last words were — "This is the last of earth; I am content."
258. The battle of Camden, Aug. 16, 1780.
259. "The Charter Oak," "Penn's Elm," "Eliot's Pine," "The Twin Sisters," and "The Washington Elm" at Cambridge, Mass.
260. Gen. Arnold at the second battle of Saratoga, September, 1777.
261. Clay, Webster, and Calhoun were called the "Great Trio" for the first time, about 1832. They were afterwards known as the "Great Senatorial Trio."

262. The retreat of Braddock's army, Washington's retreat through New York and New Jersey, Green's retreat through the Carolinas, the Bull Run retreat, and Lee's retreat from Gettysburg.

263. By the treaty of Paris, September 3, 1783. As a fact of history it may be well to state here that at the preliminary meeting of the English and American commissioners, held at Versailles near Paris, in November, 1782, it was proposed by Mr. Oswald the British commissioner, to make the Ohio River the western boundary, and but for the foresight and indomitable perseverance of John Adams, one of the American commissioners, this would have been agreed to.

264. John Paul Jones, in the battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis, Sept. 23, 1779.
265. The battle of Bunker Hill.
266. The battle of King's Mountain, Oct. 7, 1780.
267. John Tyler, Martin Van Buren, Franklin Pierce, and James Buchanan.
268. Benjamin Franklin. He was the publisher of "Poor Richard's Almanac."
269. Two: the first in the summer of 1862, and the second in the summer of 1863. The battle of Gettysburg ended Lee's attempt to invade the North.
270. Lee's invasion of the North in 1862 was checked by the defeat of his army at Antietam, Sept. 17th. His invasion of 1863 was stopped by the result at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863.

271. Aaron Burr, Vice-President during Jefferson's first administration, was arrested and tried for treason, in 1807.
272. Abraham Lincoln. It was feared that he would be assassinated by mobs in Washington, so great was the partisan spirit of the times.
273. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. This was at the battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1846, where Santa Anna escaped on a mule, leaving his wooden leg behind, so great was his haste to get away from the approaching Americans.
274. The "Hunkers" was a name applied to that faction of the Democratic party in the State of New York, which was in favor of the annexation of Texas, as slave territory. The chief spirit of this faction was William L. Marcy.

275. The "Barnburners" or Van Buren Democrats, was that faction of the Democratic party in the State of New York, which opposed the further extension of the slave power. The "Barnburners," the anti-slavery Whigs, and the old Abolitionists formed the Free-soil party in 1848.
276. Old Faneuil Hall in Boston, Massachusetts.
277. Stony Point on the Hudson, captured by "Mad Anthony" Wayne, July 15, 1779.
278. Gen. Israel Putnam. This occurred at Horse-neck in 1779, while "Old Put," as he was familiarly called, had in charge the American forces in Connecticut. The British General Tryon with 1,500 men attacked one of the American outposts guarded by 150 soldiers and two cannon. After the exchange of a few shots, Putnam, perceiving the British dragoons about to make a charge, ordered his men to retreat to a swamp. Tarrying too long himself, and being hotly pursued by the enemy, he made his escape by plunging down a declivity where his pursuers dared not follow, and so escaped to his men, without a mark, save a bullet hole in his hat.
279. Washington, Jackson, Fillmore, Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Garfield, and Cleveland.
280. The British had twice the force of the Americans. The British loss in killed and wounded was over 2,000, the Americans had but seven killed and six wounded. The British army was composed, of veteran troops who had seen service in the war with Napoleon, the American force was composed of militia and backwoodsmen. The first three officers in command of the British forces were killed, namely: Generals Pakenham, Gibbs, and Keane. The battle was fought after terms of peace had been agreed upon between the two governments.
281. The battle of Antietam, September, 17, 1862.
282. Colonel Rall, the Hessian commandant at Trenton in 1776.

283. At Fort Du Quesne, in 1755, where an Indian singled out Washington as a special mark. Every shot was fired with deliberate aim, four of the balls piercing the clothes of the young Colonel. The old chief afterwards made a visit to Virginia "to see the man that could not be killed."

284. The Treaty of Paris, Sept. 13, 1783; Treaty with Spain, 1795; Treaty with Algiers, 1795; Treaty with Napoleon I., 1803; Second Algierine Treaty, 1805; Treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814; Spanish Treaty, 1819; Treaty with Japan, 1845; Webster-Ashburton Treaty, June 12, 1846; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848; The Washington Reciprocity Treaty, June 7, 1854; The Treaty of Washington, May 8, 1871; Second Treaty with China, 1881.

285. "A protective tariff is a duty imposed on imported goods for the purpose of encouraging their manufacture at home."

286. "Beware your northern laurels do not turn to southern willows."

287. They are the words of General Reed of Pennsylvania, when offered a bribe to join the arms of Great Britain against his Country. This was while Lord Howe was in Philadelphia.

288. George B. McClellan, Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, and George G. Meade.

289. (a) Tippecanoe, Nov. 7, 1811; (b) Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863; (c) Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775; (d) Saratoga, Sept. 19 to Oct. 7, 1777; (e) Trenton, Dec. 25, 1776; (f) Shiloh, April 6-7, 1862.

290. At Detroit, Michigan, August 16, 1812, General William Hull surrendered his entire army and all the Territory of Michigan to General Brock, and the Indian Chief, Tecumseh, without firing a single shot.

291. In the Black Hawk War in 1832. The Seminole War of 1835, is given in answer to this question by some compilers of U. S. history, but it is erroneous, as is shown by the facts that Mr. Davis resigned his commission in 1835, and Mr. Lincoln served in the Black Hawk War only.

292. At the battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania, Oct. 4, 1777. At Fredricksburg, Virginia, Dec. 13, 1862.

293. It was a temperance reformatory movement started in the winter of 1877, by Francis Murphy, a reclaimed inebriate.

294. This was said of General Andrew Jackson after his heroic defense of New Orleans in 1815. It will be remembered that the British army was composed largely of troops who had fought against Napoleon, and that their commanding General, Pakenham, was a brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, the hero of Waterloo.

295. Each tribe has its Chief, or governor, and its Council, by whom all laws for the tribe are enacted. These councils elect representatives to the General Council which meets once a year. The Indians are not amenable to the United States, but make their own laws and execute them. (See Geography, 297.)

296. The United States hold in trust an interest bearing fund of $3,000,000, which was provided for the Indians upon their removal from the Southern States to the Territory in Jackson's administration. The interest upon this fund is paid to them annually, and is distributed as follows: 50 per cent. to be used for the Indian Government; 35 per cent. for school purposes; and 15 per cent. for charitable purposes. (See Geography, 297.)

297. (a) Inventor of the Tack Machine; (b) Inventor of the Modern Cast Iron Plow; (c) Inventor of the R. R. Passenger Car; (d) Inventor of the Harvesting Machine; (e) Inventor of the Bell Telephone.

298. This was a derisive term applied to the "bolting Republicans" who, under the leadership of George William Curtis and Carl Schurz, refused to support James G. Blaine for the Presidency in 1884, but labored for the success of Grover Cleveland, the Democratic candidate.

299. The corner-stone was laid July 4, 1848, the cap stone was put in position Dec. 6, 1884, and the dedication ceremonies were held Feb. 21, 1885. The height of the monument is 555 feet, and the entire cost, $1,187,710. The weight of the shaft is 82,000 tons.

300. The statue of "Liberty Enlightening the World" is the largest work of its kind that has ever been executed. This noble monument to "Liberty," stands on Bedloe's Island, in the harbor of New York, and the work complete measures 309 feet in height from the ground. The statue is a gift of the French people to the people of the United States in commemoration of the friendship between the two Republics, which began during the struggle for American Independence. The idea of such a gift originated with that noble Frenchman, M. Laboulaye; but the conception of "Liberty" as she stands, and the execution of the design, is due to the fertile genius of M. Bartholdi, the great French sculptor. The statue was begun in France in 1875, and the work carried to completion by funds amounting to 1,000,000 francs, donated chiefly by the working people of that country. The pedestal upon which the statue stands was built with funds subscribed by the working people of the United States. The statue arrived in the harbor of New York on board the beautiful French Steamer, Isere, on June 19, 1885, at which time was held a great water procession, and public demonstration in honor of the event.

301. The State of California. (1885.)

302. A term used to designate the routes commonly followed by fugitive slaves across free territory to Canada.

UNITED STATES HISTORY.
These routes lay through localities in the free States, the people along which secreted the fugitives from their pursuers, and lent them aid in their efforts to reach Canada.
303. Andersonville, near Macon, Georgia.
Libby, at Richmond, Virginia.
304. The Joliet Prison near Chicago, Illinois.
The prison on Johnson's Island in Lake Erie.
Fortress Monroe is celebrated as the place of confinement of Jefferson Davis, and other prominent Confederates, at the close of the Civil War.
305. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.
306. Colonial, Continental, and National Congresses.
307. Miles Standish, John Alden, Priscilla Mullens, and William Brewster, "the excellent Elder of Plymouth."
308. "The Courtship of Miles Standish," by H. W. Longfellow.
309. Judges Bradley, Strong, Miller, Clifford, and Field. Senators Edmunds, Frelinghuysen, Morton, Bayard, and Thurman. Representatives, Garfield, Hoar, Abbott, Hunton, and Payne.
310. In 1846, by George Bancroft, the historian, while serving as Secretary of the Navy in President Polk's cabinet.
311. Arthur took the oath of office in New York City, on the night of September 19, 1881. It was administered by Hon. J. R. Brady, Justice of the Supreme Court of New York.
312. At present (1885) there are eleven Atlantic cables, seven of which are duplexed, that is, they are capable of receiving and sending at the same time over one wire.
313. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman.
314. The Greely expedition sailed July 7, 1881, and its survivors were brought back July 11, 1884. Lieut. Lockwood reached 83 degrees and 24 minutes north latitude, or within 458 miles of the pole.

315. July 4, 1776.
316. General Lafayette while in the United States in 1824-5.
317. September 5, 1774, at Philadelphia, Pa.
318. June 7, 1776, in Congress at Philadelphia, by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia.
319. William L. Marcy of New York.
320. President Jackson in 1829.
321. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.

322. Martin Koszta was engaged with Kossuth in the Hungarian rebellion, and fled with him to the United States in 1852, where he formally declared his intention to become a citizen. Having occasion to visit Europe in President Pierce's administration, he was seized while on Turkish soil, by the officers of an Austrian frigate, and put in chains. Commander Ingraham of the United States sloop of war, St. Louis, being in the harbor, ordered Koszta's release, finally declaring that if his demands were not acceded to before a certain time, he would open fire on the Austrian vessel. An agreement was then made to put Koszta in charge of the French government until his nationality could be determined. Then followed an elaborate correspondence between the Austrian minister at Washington, and William L. Marcy, the American Secretary of State, which resulted in Koszta's release. Secretary Marcy stated in substance that Koszta had declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and he, as all others, should receive the protection of the American flag at any cost. Commodore Ingraham was voted the thanks of Congress, and a sword.

323. “I resign my soul to God, and my daughter to my country.”

QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY.

1. What forces hold the earth in its orbit?
2. Why is the orbit of the earth an ellipse?
3. What is "standard time"?
4. Name the new divisions of time as arranged for the United States, and bound each by the proper meridians.
5. What things determine the climate of a country?
6. How many times a year is it noon at the north pole?
7. Do degrees of latitude ever vary?
8. What is a degree of longitude?
9. Define sensible, rational, and celestial horizon.
10. How is dew formed?
11. Bound Switzerland, and give its form of govern-ment.
12. What are map projections?
13. Name those in most common use.
14. Is there any difference between a meridian, and a meridian circle?
15. What is the mean annual temperature of a place?
16. Where are degrees of longitude greatest?
17. What is the zodiac?
18. What is the smallest Republic in the world?
19. How great is the specific gravity of the earth?
20. Has the solar system a progressive motion?
21. State the importance of the atmosphere in the economy of the globe.
22. How many moons has Saturn ?
23. Define the great circle of illumination.
24. What are clouds, and how formed ?
25. Which is the most elevated lake ?
26. What determines the location of the tropics and polar circles ?
27. What city in Europe has the same latitude as Columbus in Ohio ?
28. What is the dip of the horizon ?
29. What is the zenith ?
30. What is the nadir ?
31. Give the latitude and longitude of Greenwich, and tell for what it is noted.
32. How many rotations does the earth make in one revolution ?
33. What is meant by speaking of the inhabitants of a region as Ascii and Amphiscii ?
34. With regard to the shadows they cast what are the inhabitants of the temperate zones called ?
35. Those of the frigid zones ?
36. What are planets, and why so named ?
37. Define planetoids, and tell in what region of space they are found.
38. Why is one hour of time said to be equal to 15 degrees of longitude ?
39. Bound the State last admitted into the Union, and name its Capital.
40. What is the ecliptic? Why so called?
41. What is the length of the earth's orbit?
42. How great is the average velocity of the earth in one hour?
43. Explain the origin of coral islands.
44. Locate the principal coal, iron, and gold regions of the United States.
45. Give Laplace's "nebular hypothesis."
46. What is the cause of lightning and thunder?
47. State three conditions on which the temperature of a place depends.
48. Why is the Pacific shore of Mexico rainless?
49. Account for the fact that during certain periods the sun shines on the north side of houses situated north of the tropic of cancer.
50. Name the movements of ocean waters, and tell cause of each motion.
51. Define sidereal, tropical, anomalistical, and civil year.
52. What is generally believed to be the cause of earth-quakes?
53. Define aphelion and perihelion.
54. Name, and bound by parallels, the mathematical zones.
55. What are isothermal lines? Isogeotherms?
56. Name, and bound by the proper isotherms, the physical zones.
57. What is the vernal equinox?
58. How many equinoxes in a year, and at what times do they occur?
59. Why do not the mathematical and physical zones coincide?
60. Locate the Casiquiare River, and state its noted peculiarity.
61. Where are the great cyclone regions?
62. Describe the rotary and the progressive motions of cyclones.
63. Locate the zone of calms, and explain why it is so.
64. How is hail formed?
65. How would the climate and vegetation of South America be changed, were the Andes on the Atlantic coast?
66. Which is the most celebrated volcano? Why?
67. What volcano is called the "light-house of the Mediterranean "?
68. Which is the most useful of all minerals?
69. Which is the most useful of all metals?
70. Which is the most valuable of all metals?
71. Where is zinc obtained?
72. What is pig-iron? What is charcoal?
73. How is coke obtained?
74. Where are the deepest coal mines?
75. What peculiarities belong to the Nile River?
76. What is sago? Where obtained, and why valuable?
77. What is cannel-coal, and why so called?
78. Describe two water routes from New York to Bombay.
79. Where is coffee grown? Whence the name?
80. Name five States of the United States that are nearly equal to each other in area.
81. Name and locate three celebrated natural places of interest in the United States.
82. What points on the earth's surface have no latitude?
83. Where must a place be situated to have no longitude?
84. Bound the "Centennial State." Why so called?
85. What is the effect of the extreme inequality of the mountain slopes of South America?
86. Locate the centre of the land hemisphere.
87. Locate the centre of the water hemisphere.
88. What would be the effect of connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert?
89. Explain why there are thirteen moons in a year.
90. Why is not dew deposited on cloudy nights?
91. How wide is the mouth of the Amazon River?
92. Name the principal narcotics used in different parts of the world.
93. Name and locate five isthmuses.
94. What large cities of the United States are situated on islands?
95. Bound the State of the United States having the largest population.
96. Why are thunder storms more frequent in hot than in cold weather?
97. What is the aurora borealis, or "northern light"?
98. Why is the sky blue?
99. What is the phosphorescence of the Mediterranean Sea?
100. What is a lunar rain-bow?
101. In what direction does the tide wave move around the earth? Why?
102. If the earth's axis were inclined but 15 degrees from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what would be the latitude of the tropics and polar circles? What would be the width of each zone?
103. If the earth's axis were inclined 30 degrees from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what would be the width of each zone?
104. What are three causes of the varying length of the days and nights in the same latitude?
105. Where are the days always equal? Why?
106. When are they equal everywhere? Why?
107. Name five islands of the Mediterranean Sea, and tell to what countries they belong.
108. Go from Milwaukee to Canton via of Alexandria.
109. Locate five inland lakes or seas which have no outlets.
110. State whether the waters of these lakes or seas are fresh or salt. Why?
111. How does the temperature of the ocean compare with that of the land?
112. Describe an eclipse of the sun. Of the moon.
113. What is the cause of the dense fogs off the coast of Newfoundland?
114. What are the several geographical elements of the world?
115. In what respect do oceanic islands differ from continental?
116. How many States originally formed the United States? Name them.
117. How many States are there at present?
118. In what respects do the governments of England, Russia, and France differ?
119. Where and what is the Giant's Causeway?
120. Define monsoons.
121. Explain antipodes.
122. Where are the Thousand Isles?
123. Name and bound three Republics in Europe.
124. What is a mediterranean sea?
125. Name and locate three mediterranean seas.
126. Describe the peculiarities of the animals and plants of Australia.
127. Define apogee and perigee.
128. Why is the sun sometimes said to be "fast" or "slow"?
129. What is the international date line?
130. Where is the greatest amount of rainfall annually?
131. What causes twilight?
132. Why is the duration of twilight not the same all the year?
133. Are there any countries where twilight does not occur?
134. Name seven proofs of the earth's rotundity?
135. At what times of the year does the sun rise due east, and set due west? Why?
136. Why is it colder on the top of a mountain than at the level of the sea in the same latitude?
137. What Empire of Asia is composed entirely of islands?
138. If you were standing at the North Pole to-day, in what direction would your shadow fall?
139. When it is 2 o'clock p. M. at Cleveland, Ohio, what is the time at St. Augustine, Florida, their difference of latitude being 12 degrees?
140. State the different periods of the earth's formation in the order of their occurrence.
141. Explain the distinctive features of each of the geological ages.
142. Define snow-line.
143. Name two States each of which is bounded by eight States.
144. Where are the most extensive tin mines?
145. What three large islands are situated partly in north, and partly in south latitude?
146. What causes the change of seasons?
147. Which is the warmer, the land or water hemisphere? Why?
148. Where is West Point, and for what is it noted?
149. At what time of the year is the earth farthest from the sun? Give reason for your answer.
150. What is the mean distance of the earth from the sun?
151. What would be the effect if the Dead and Mediterranean Seas were connected with a channel?
152. Wherein does geography include the science of mathematics? Of astronomy? Of geology? Of zoology?
153. Where is Harper's Ferry, and for what is it noted?
154. Locate three sargasso seas. How are they formed?
155. State the length and termini of the Atlantic Cable.
156. Which way does the water flow through Behring Strait?
157. What large lake in Central Africa has no outlet?
158. Where is the Golden Horn? Why so called?
159. What important military posts has Great Britain in and upon the Mediterranean?
160. What were the original names of Pittsburgh and New York?
161. Give proofs that the earth is an oblate spheroid.
162. Where are volcanos most numerous? Why?
163. Which ocean receives the most useful rivers?
164. To what political division does the Isthmus of Panama belong?
165. What rights are granted a territory of the U. S. on being admitted into the Union?
166. Name ten seas that touch Europe.
167. What is the "maritime zone" of a country?
168. State the difference between a lough and loch, a naze and cape.
169. Of what is Congress of the United States composed?
170. How many islands constitute the Japan Empire?
171. Over what portions of the earth's surface do the vertical rays of the sun fall?
172. Where is the highest elevation of land? Where is the lowest depression? How great is each?
173. Of what importance is Kiakhta?
174. Where is Nantucket Island?
175. Under the control of what government is the Suez Canal?
176. Where is the Golden Gate? Why so named?
177. State five causes which prevent the isothermal lines from being parallel.
178. Name a large body of water in which no living animal exists.
179. Name the largest body of fresh water on the globe.
180. How are glaciers formed?
181. Where is the largest bell in the world?
182. State the difference between Llanos and Selvas.
183. Explain why degrees of latitude increase in value from the equator to the poles.
184. Which is the larger, the Caspian Sea or Lake Superior?
185. Name three well known geyser regions.
186. Explain the periodical activity of geysers.
187. Name and give height of the culminating point of each grand division.
188. What is the boundary between the western and eastern hemispheres?
189. Describe the Gulf Stream, and tell its effect upon the climate of Great Britain.
190. What causes would you give for the elevations and depressions on the earth's surface?
191. Why is it colder at the Antarctic Circle than at the Arctic?
192. Where is the Yellowstone National Park and for what celebrated?
193. What State of the United States has an eastern and a western river boundary?
194. To what is attributed the origin of ocean currents?
195. What State is the geographical center of the United States?
196. Name and give capital of a country in Europe which has no sea coast?
197. What country has the most extensive system of canals?
198. What and where is the most magnificent church in the world?
199. How many active volcanoes in the world?
200. What plant, although yielding no food, drink, clothing, medicine, shelter, or ornament, is used very extensively in nearly every country in the world?
201. What trees are valuable for their sap? State where each kind is found.
202. State how and where each of the following is produced: Camphor, opium, hasheesh, and castor oil.
203. Where was the first suspension bridge built?
204. Where is the largest suspension bridge in the world?
205. What are deciduous, endogenous, and indigenous trees?
206. Name two cities in Europe that have canals instead of streets.
207. Where is the Welland Canal?
208. What are artesian wells? Whence the name?
209. Of what benefit is the Nile River to Egypt?
210. What is silt? What is a raft, and what river is noted for its rafts?
211. What is a dry-dock, and where is the finest one in the United States?
212. How great is the rotary velocity of the earth at the equator?
213. Mention some of the effects of the rotation of the earth.
214. What is the longest river, and how long is it?
215. What is the highest mountain? How high?
216. What is the greatest Empire on the globe?
217. Name the largest island, and the largest city in the world.
218. Define cosmography, and topography.
219. Locate the Pindus Mountains.
220. What noticeable features of the Amazon River can you name?
221. What is the exact direction of Iceland from the North Pole?
222. In what month and at what hour would shadows fall north at the Antarctic Circle?
223. What portion of the land area of the world do the islands occupy?
224. Where are the principal anthracite and bituminous coal-fields of the United States?
225. How have the soils of the earth been formed?
226. What does the ecliptic show, and where is the surface of the hemisphere cut by the ecliptic?
227. Where and what are Wight, Scilly, and Anglesea?
228. What theory is advanced as a possible cause of earthquakes?
229. On what parallel is the sun vertical at the winter solstice?
230. What does the term solstice mean?
231. How does the presence of icebergs in the South Atlantic prove the existence of land around the South Pole?
232. What are isotheral lines?
233. Where are the Barbadoes, and to what country do they belong?
234. State five causes producing changes upon the surface of the earth.
235. Name and locate the most populous capital in the United States.
236. To what three important families of men do the inhabitants of the Austrian Empire belong?
237. What is the height of the snow-line at the Equator?
238. What causes the difference in the height of tides?
239. Where do the tides rise the highest? How high?
240. What determines the length of day?
241. Classify springs according to the minerals found in their waters.
242. What countries lie around the center of the land hemisphere?
243. Mention the limits of the fall of snow in the northern hemisphere.
244. Explain the mutual dependence of plants and animals.
245. Define meteorology.
246. Name and locate the most noted waterfalls in the world.
247. Explain why the water in the Caspian Sea is salt, while that in the Black Sea is fresh.
248. Name five causes that may vary the rainfall of a place.
249. What are the three functions of political government ?
250. Locate the Magnetic Poles of the earth.
251. Why is the earth flattened at the poles?
252. What does the name of the largest sea in the world signify? How long is it?
253. Locate and describe Palestine.
254. Name five of the present rulers of Europe.
255. Locate the Telegraphic Plateau.
256. Where is the Isle of Man?
257. Which way does the current flow through the Strait of Gibraltar?
258. Describe Plymouth Rock.
259. Where is the greatest amount of rainfall annually in the United States?
260. Name a lake in New York, whose waters find their way into the Gulf of Mexico.
261. Where are noted catacombs?
262. Where is Cleopatra's Needle?
263. What countries are known as the “Emerald Isle,” “Albion,” “Columbia”?
264. How did water originate on the earth?
265. What State has the greatest number of miles of railroad according to its area?
266. How are water spouts formed?
267. In the Afghanistan trouble between England and Russia, what is the meaning of "England recognized as Afghanistan's Suzerain" ?
268. For what is Pisa famous ?
269. In what country were railroads first introduced?
270. Should we say the axis of the earth is inclined 23½, or 66½ degrees ?
271. What is the hottest city in the world? The coldest ?
272. What causes the saltness of the Ocean ?
273. What is the noticeable peculiarity of the surface of Holland ?
274. Where is Lake Chautauqua and for what noted ?
275. What effect have Lakes Huron and Michigan on the climate of the lower peninsula of Michigan ? How is this shown ?
276. Name the States formed from the Northwest Territory in the order of their admission.
277. Of what advantage to a country is a deeply indented coast?
278. How are salt lakes formed ? Name the two largest.
279. What city is known as the "Hub" ?
280. To what race of men do the highest social classes belong ?
281. What two forms have mountains?
282. Where are the Submarine Forests ?
283. How and where is cork obtained ?
284. What is meant by the precession of the equinoxes ?
285. What is the flora of a country? The fauna?
286. Whence are pearls obtained ?
287. How much later do the tides occur each day?
288. What is meant by the descending, or the ascending node of a planet ?
289. Compare the area of the Sahara Desert with that of the Mediterranean Sea,
290. Why have the isothermal lines greater variation in the northern hemisphere, than in the southern?
291. Where is the longest tunnel in the United States?
292. Bound the Pacific Ocean.
293. Name and describe the different forms of clouds.
294. What are steppes?
295. Define zoology, ornithology, ichthyology, and ethnology.
296. What is the title of the monarch of Russia? Of Egypt? Of Turkey?
297. How is Indian Territory governed?
298. What bodies of water are connected by the Suez Canal?
299. Locate Valencia, and tell for what it is noted.
300. If the earth's axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, what imaginary lines would be dispensed with? Why?
301. Why are north winds generally cold and dry?
302. What are the dimensions of clouds?
303. What are dry fogs?
304. Why is dew formed most plentifully after midnight?
305. What produces the various shapes of clouds?
306. Why is little dew formed under thick foliage?
307. How long does the sun shine without setting at Nova Zembla, latitude 75 degrees north, and how long is it invisible?
308. Define antipodes, perioeci, and antioeci.
309. In what sign of the zodiac is the sun on June 21st?
310. Name the two poles of the horizon.
311. What State of the United States is very nearly the size of the Yellowstone National Park?
312. Where is the Tappan Sea, and what noted place is on its border?
313. Where and what is the Camel's Hump?
314. What State is called the "Switzerland of America"?
315. When is it noon at the South Pole?
316. Where does the day begin?
317. How is the earth's surface supposed to become round?
318. What States and Territories are now comprised in the province of Louisiana as acquired by the United States in 1803?
319. How are rocks classified?
320. Name the Barbary States.
321. What is the origin of the name, Barbary States?
322. Write in full, or place on a diagram, N, N b E, NNE, NE b N, NE, ENE b E.
323. Where are the chief salt mines of the United States?
324. How wide is the Strait of Gibraltar?
325. How long is the Erie Canal? How many locks on it?
326. For what is Tasmania noted? What is its capital?
327. What people are called Dutch?
328. To what is the lack of rain in the Sahara attributed?
329. What nation has been semi-civilized but unprogressive for four thousand years?
330. A's time is 10:45 A. M. at the same instant B's is 12:35 P. M.—both correct. Is B east or west of A, and how many degrees?
331. Name the islands composing the Balearic Isles?
332. Give reason why Australia is so named.
333. Describe a portage.
334. Locate Lakes Pepin, Borgne, Constance, St. Clair, Tulare, and Peoria.
335. In what season of the year does Christmas occur at Melbourne?
336. What is the origin of the name Patagonian?
337. What is a lagoon?
338. Is the water in a lagoon salt or fresh?
339. Is the equator of the earth a circle? Why?
340. What canal connects Lakes Huron and Superior?
341. How long is the above named canal?
342. Locate the Sandwich Islands, name their capital, and state what form of government they have.
343. Why is the earth nearer the sun in December than in June?
344. What are the equinoctial points?
345. What are the solstitial points?
346. What is the distinction between the British Isles and the British Empire?
347. What is remarkable of the rivers of Asia?
348. Mention two of the most destructive earthquakes on record?
349. Locate the two antipodal centers of volcanic action.
350. Why are the vertical rays of the sun warmer than the oblique rays?
351. What is the common form of the land masses?
352. What two forms of relief have the land masses?
353. In what zone are coral islands found? Why?
354. Where is the most remarkable glacier region?
355. Where is the human family found in its highest physical perfection?
356. Explain how the water is ejected from a geyser.
357. What are fossils, and what facts do they teach?
358. What are the principal Atlantic ports, on both continents, for the Trans-Atlantic steam lines?
359. Where is St. Helena, and for what noted?
360. Bound the District of Columbia. Give its area and government.
361. Where is Waterloo and for what noted?
362. Where and what is the Vatican?
363. Where is Fingal's Cave?
364. Locate the four most populous cities of the United States.
365. What rivers of Asia do not flow into the ocean?
366. Why do the Gulf Stream and Japan Current flow to the north-east?
367. Why do frosts occur in the fall a few miles from the Great Lakes, before it does along their shores?
368. Is southern Alaska warmer or colder than south- ern Greenland? Why?
369. What produces the oases of the Sahara?
370. What is their chief vegetation?
371. Locate the center of population in the United States for the years 1840, 1850, 1860, 1870, and 1880.
372. What State bordering on Canada, is directly north of eastern Texas?
373. What are the relative positions of the equator and the ecliptic?
374. Why is Ireland called the Emerald Isle?
375. When is the earth entirely illuminated by one revolution on its axis?
376. What is a geographical or nautical mile?
377. What and where is the Gadsden Purchase?
378. Where in the United States are these minerals mined: quicksilver, nickel, and mica?
379. Locate the rainless regions of the world.
380. Classify straits.
381. What country contains the greatest population in proportion to its area?
382. What is a road or roadstead?
383. For what is Hampton Roads celebrated?
384. Locate the marble quarries in the United States.
385. Locate the granite quarries in the United States.
386. Name a city in South America about the same latitude south, as Havana in Cuba, is north. What is the latitude?
387. What is the Peruvian Balsa ?
388. What is the source of the Amazon River?
389. Where is the Desert of Atacama ?
390. What are the Banks of Newfoundland?
391. For what is Sebastopol famous ?
392. What is the Ottoman Empire ?
393. Where is Mecca, and for what noted ?
394. What mineral wealth does the island of New-foundland possess ?
395. Where is Newburgh, and for what celebrated?
396. Locate and describe the Sea of Galilee.
397. What and where was the first canal built in the United States ?
398. For what is the city of Naples celebrated ?
399. Describe the Kremlin at Moscow.
400. What noted mountain in New Guinea?
401. Where is the longest tunnel in the world?
402. Where is the Vermillion Sea ?
403. Where is Put-in-Bay ? For what noted ?
404. Name three men who have contributed much knowledge on the science of physical geography.
405. What are the popular names of the following cities: New Orleans, Brooklyn, Washington, D. C., New Haven, and Philadelphia ?
406. What city is called the “City of the Violet Crown”?
407. What place is called the “City of Spindles”? The “City of Notions”?
408. What place is called the “City of the Violated Treaty”?
409. Name some famous place of resort in the western portion of the United States.
410. Name some popular health and pleasure resorts in the eastern part of the United States.
411. What was the most northern point reached by the Greely expedition ?
412. What is the capital of West Virginia?
413. Locate the "horse latitudes."
414. What is ethnography ?
415. What noted object of interest to tourists in Virginia ?
416. What Empire on the western hemisphere ? What important Republic on the Eastern ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY.

1. Its inertia, the attraction of the sun, and the influence of the other planets.
2. It is due to the attraction of the neighboring planets, which modify the effect of the sun's attraction. Were it not for the counteracting influence of the planets, the earth's path around the sun would be a circle.

3. It is a general system by which time may be reckoned in a uniform and accurate manner by the people of all nations throughout the globe. The system recognizes Greenwich as the prime meridian, and divides the earth's surface into 24 time belts marked in order west from the prime meridian by the 15th, 30th, 45th, 60th, and so on; the clocks in any belt indicating one hour earlier time than that shown by those in the belt adjoining on the east; and one hour later time than that indicated by those in the belt adjoining on the west. The system was first proposed by Mr. Cleveland Abbe of the U. S. Weather Service, and having been recommended by the American Meteorological Society, the Canadian Institute, and other learned bodies, it was adopted by all the leading railway lines in the United States and Canada, and put into operation on November 18, 1883.

4. Five “standard meridians” have been adopted for the United States and Canada, viz : the 60th, 75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th west from Greenwich. The most eastern division is named "Intercolonial Time," the next in order is "Eastern Time," that of the 90th meridian is "Central Time," the next "Mountain Time," and the most western division is called "Pacific Time."

5. By the term climate we mean the state of the atmosphere; whether it is hot or cold, healthy or unhealthy, dry or wet. Climate depends chiefly upon the distance from the equator, and the elevation above the sea. It is dependent further upon the extent and relief of the country, its inclination and exposure, the direction of the prevailing winds, the proximity of large bodies of water, the trend of neighboring mountain chains, cultivation of the soil, the amount of forest land, and the character of the soil as to radiation and evaporation.

6. The sun rises and day begins at the north pole on March 20th. The sun sets and day ends at the north pole on September 22d. Hence, noon occurs on the 21st day of June, at which time the sun is on the northern tropic, and appears to the observer at the north pole in its greatest altitude, being 23½ degrees above the horizon.

7. A degree of latitude is longer near the poles than at the equator. It is due to the fact that the earth's polar diameter is shorter than its equatorial diameter, or that the earth is an oblate spheroid.

8. A degree of longitude is equal in value to the one three-hundred-and-sixtieth part of the equator, or a like part of any parallel. As the parallels grow less in circumference with the increase of latitude, the value of a degree of longitude at the poles is zero.

9. The sensible horizon is the line that bounds our view when standing upon the surface of the earth. The rational or celestial horizon lies below the sensible horizon, but parallel to it, its plane passing through the centre of the earth. If a person were elevated so as to behold the earth as a ball, the great circle marking the junction of earth and sky would be the true or rational horizon.

10. When currents of moist air come in contact with objects of lower temperature, the moisture of the atmos- phere is condensed, and deposited as dew.

11. Bounded north by Baden, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria ; east by the Tyrol ; south by Italy ; and west, and northwest by France. It is a republic, consisting of 22 states or cantons, each independent in matters of home polity, but all form a Federal Union.

12. Drawings representing portions of the surface of the globe on a plane surface. There are three principal kinds of projections: the orthographic, Mercator's, and the stereographic.
13. Mercator's is used mostly for physical maps, from its convenience in showing directions.
For the common outline maps, either the polar or equa- torial projection—forms of the stereographic system—is used. The polar projection shows the pole in the centre of the map, with the equator forming the border. The equatorial projection shows the equator passing through the centre of the map, with a meridian circle forming the border.

14. A meridian circle is a great circle passing around the earth through the poles. A meridian is half of a mer- idian circle, and reaches from pole to pole.

15. The average of the mean daily temperatures throughout the year is the mean annual temperature. The mean annual temperature is based upon the mean daily temperatures of a place. The mean daily temperature of a place is found by taking the average temperature for 24 consecutive hours.

16. Degrees of longitude are greatest at the equator. The equator is the greatest circumference on which longi- tude is reckoned, and one three-hundred-and-sixtieth of its length, or one degree, represents a greater value than a like part of any parallel on which longitude is measured.
17. The zodiac is an imaginary zone or belt on the heavens, extending 8 degrees on either side of the ecliptic, and is divided into 12 parts of 30 degrees each, called the signs of the zodiac.
18. Andorra, a nominal republic nestling among the snow-capped peaks of the Pyrenees, on the northeast boundary of Spain. Its independence dates from Charlemagne, A. D. 790. Population, 10,000.
19. The specific gravity of the earth is 5½; that is, the average weight of the mass composing it is 5½ times as heavy as a globe of water of the same dimension as the earth.
20. The sun with all the planets is moving through space with tremendous velocity. Mädler believes that the solar system is moving around Alcyone, the brightest star in the Pleiades, but his theory is not accepted by other astronomers.
21. It distributes moisture over the continents, supports plant and animal life, takes up and neutralizes poisonous vapors, and retains and modifies the solar heat.
22. Saturn has eight moons.
23. It is the dividing line between the light and shadow cast upon the earth by the sun.
In a darkened room hold a lamp in such a position as to let its rays fall upon the surface of a small globe, and it will quickly be observed that only one-half of the surface reflects the light, while the opposite half remains in darkness. The line separating the light from the darkness represents the great circle of illumination. Now turn the globe upon its axis, and the portion that was in darkness will move into light, and the part that was in light, will move into darkness. This shows the succession of day and night, and illustrates clearly to the observer the great circle of illumination.

24. (a) Clouds are masses of vapor floating in the air. (b) They are formed by the temperature of a large mass of air being reduced below the dew point, when the moisture begins to collect in minute drops. If the condensation continues for a length of time, the drops become too heavy to be supported by the air, and they fall as rain. A mist or fog is a cloud near the surface of the earth.

25. Lake Sirikol (Sirikul) situated in the Pamir Plateau, in East Turkestan. This plateau is also called Pameer by some geographers, and the lake is given as the source of the Amoo River. Sirikol is 15,600 feet high. Lake Titicaca in Peru is but 12,846 feet above the sea level.

26. The degree of inclination of the axis of the earth to the plane of its orbit. The axis is inclined from a vertical to the plane of the earth's orbit, 23½ degrees, and consequently the polar circles are located 23½ degrees from the poles, and the tropics 23½ degrees from the equator. If the axis of the earth were vertical to the plane of its orbit, there would be neither tropics nor polar circles.

27. Castellon in Spain. Madrid is generally given in answer to this question, but Madrid is one-half degree north of the 40th parallel north latitude.
28. The vertical angle contained between the sensible horizon and a line to the visible horizon.
29. The point in the heavens directly over head.
30. The nadir is the point directly under foot, or opposite the zenith.

31. According to English reckoning it has no longitude, the prime meridian passing through the Royal Observatory situated in Greenwich Park. Reckoning from the meridian of Washington, it is 77° east. Its latitude is 51° 23' north. Besides the Royal Observatory, it is noted for the Greenwich Hospital for superannuated sailors, and the Academy for the education of the sons of sailors. It is a

popular resort for Londoners from April till September.
32. In one revolution around the sun, the earth makes 366¼ rotations.
33. (a) Ascii is a term applied to the inhabitants of the torrid zone, and means shadowless.
(b) Amphiscii is applied to the inhabitants of the same region, and means double-shadowed.
The reason for the application of these terms is because at midday in the torrid zone the inhabitants either cast no shadow, or when they do, it falls at one period northward, and at another, southward, according as the sun is north or south of the equator.
34. They are called Heteroscii, meaning other-shadowed, because at midday they cast their shadows in different directions. That is, those inhabiting the north temperate zone always cast their shadows towards the north pole, and those inhabiting the south temperate zone always cast their shadows towards the south pole.
35. The inhabitants of the frigid zone during the period in which the sun is visible to them, cast their shadows toward every point of the compass, and hence are called Periscii, meaning circle-shadowed.
36. Planets are those heavenly bodies, including the earth, which belong to the solar system and revolve in elliptical orbits around the sun. The term planet means originally, wanderer.
37. The planetoids may properly be called little planets. They are also known as asteroids, and occupy space in the solar system between Mars and Jupiter.
38. The earth rotates on its axis in 24 hours, and every point on its surface describes a circle, or 360 degrees, in that time. If it requires 24 hours for a point to move through 360 degrees, it will require 1 hour for it to move through 15 degrees.
39. North by Wyoming Territory and the State of Nebraska; east by Nebraska and Kansas; south by Indian

Territory and New Mexico; and west by Utah. Denver is its Capital.

40. (a) It is the circle about the earth which marks the intersection of the plane of the earth's orbit with the earth's surface.
If the axis of the earth were vertical to the plane of its orbit, this line of intersection would correspond to the equator. But the axis is not vertical, and hence the plane of the earth's orbit cuts the equator at an angle of as many degrees as the axis is inclined from a vertical, which is 23½. This is termed the obliquity of the *ecliptic*.
(b) The ecliptic is so called because eclipses can take place only when the moon is at or near its plane.

41. The length of the earth's orbit is about 577,000,000 miles.
42. The earth travels in its orbit at the rate of 68,400 miles an hour, or about 19 miles a second.

43. Darwin's theory of the formation of coral islands is now generally accepted by scientific men, and briefly, is as follows: The coral formation begins as a *fringing* reef on the border of a slowly sinking island, and the upward growth of the reef, keeps pace with the subsidence of the island. The lateral growth is limited by the temperature of the water, and does not extend from the coast beyond where the water greatly exceeds 100 feet in depth, and thus the formation will gradually extend around the island, until it forms an *encircling* reef. The original island finally disappears, but the outline of its coast is marked by a low rim of coral enclosing a body of water called a lagoon.

44. Coal in the great Appalachian bed covering parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Iron in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Alabama. Gold in California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Montana.

45. It supposes the matter composing the solar system to have been originally a vast body of highly luminous matter called nebula; that this matter began to accumulate around a center, and took a rotary form of motion; that it gradually cooled and contracted, and according to certain mechanical and physical laws, threw off ring-like portions of itself, which subsequently, under the same laws, formed the planets, and in like manner from detached portions of the planets their satellites were formed. Under this hypothesis the form and motions of the planets and their satellites can be proven on strict mechanical principles.
46. (a) Lightning is the result of electrical discharges from the clouds. The electricity of the clouds is developed principally by evaporation on the earth's surface, and by the friction of large volumes of air of different densities against each other. (b) Thunder is produced by the air, which has been separated by a current of electricity, rushing together.
47. It depends upon the latitude, elevation above the sea level, and the proximity of large bodies of water. The character of the surface with regard to forests, deserts, and mountain ranges also influences the temperature of a region.
48. The prevailing winds blow from the northeast over Mexico, and they are deprived of their moisture in rising over the high ranges of the Sierra Madre, leaving the narrow coast plains along the Pacific almost rainless.
49. It is due to the fact that the parts of the north parallels illuminated, exceed in length the parts in shadow. And the greater the excess of the lighted part of a parallel over that in shadow, the nearer the north point of the horizon will the sun rise and set, and in like ratio will the length of day exceed that of night. To illustrate, suppose a person to be at the arctic circle on the 20th of March. At that point, as at all places on the earth, the sun will be observed to rise due east, and to set due west. On each successive day, as the inclination of the axis towards the sun increases, the great circle of illumination will reach farther beyond the pole, the parts of the parallels in light will correspondingly exceed in length the parts in shadow and the sun will rise and set farther and farther to the north of due east and west. On the 21st of June the sun reaches the northern tropic, the great circle of illumination extends beyond the pole to the arctic circle, and the sun will be observed, at that time, to rise directly in the north point of the horizon, and to set at the same place. Then as the axis begins to turn from the sun, the line separating the light and shadow will gradually return to the poles, until September the 22d, when the days and nights are equal, and the sun will again be seen to rise directly in the east and to set directly in the west.

50. (a) Tides, waves, and currents.
(b) Tides are caused by the attraction of the sun and moon.
(c) Waves are produced principally by the action of the wind on the surface of the water.
(d) Currents are formed by the rotation of the earth on its axis, the unequal heating of the vast areas of water, and by the presence of animalculæ in the tropical portions of the ocean. The influence of the little coral animal in setting the oceanic waters in motion has not received due attention from many geographers until of late.

51. Sidereal year is the space of time intervening between the departure of the earth from a fixed star, and its return to the same. Its length is 365 days, 6 hrs., 9 min., 9.6 sec.
Tropical year, the time between two successive passages of the sun through the vernal equinox. Its length is 365 days 5 hr., 48 min., 49.7 sec.
Anomalistical year, the space intervening between the passage of the earth from perihelion to perihelion again. Its length is 365 days 6 hr., 13 min., 49.6 sec.
Civil year, the year legalized by any nation. In the United States, for instance, the year is understood to begin on January 1st., and to end on December 31st.
52. They are generally believed to be owing to the force exerted by highly heated gases in the interior of the earth.
53. Aphelion is that point in the earth's orbit marking its greatest distance from the sun.
Perihelion is that point in the earth's orbit marking its nearest approach to the sun. The earth is at aphelion in June, and at perihelion in December.
54. The mathematical zones are bounded by mathematical lines on the earth's surface, namely: the equator, the tropics and the polar circles.
The north torrid zone lies between the equator and the tropic of cancer; the south torrid between the equator and the tropic of Capricorn; the north temperate zone lies between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle; the south temperate between the tropic of Capricorn and the antarctic circle; the north frigid zone is bounded by the arctic circle; the south frigid by the antarctic circle.
55. (a) Lines that connect places on the earth's surface having the same mean annual temperature.
(b) Lines that connect places beneath the earth's surface having the same mean temperature.
56. The Torrid Zone is bounded by the isotherm marking a mean annual temperature of 70 degrees, Fahr.
The Temperate Zones lie between the isotherms of 70 degrees and 32 degrees, north and south.
The Frigid Zones, north and south, are bounded by the isotherms of 32 degrees, and extend to the poles.
57. It is the March or spring equinox. It occurs on March 20th, when the sun is on the equator; then the days and nights are equal.
58. The sun crosses the equator March 20th, and again September 22d, making two equinoxes in a year.

59. Because of the diversity of character of the earth's surface. If the surface of the earth were uniform in character, the lines bounding the physical and the mathematical zones would coincide.

60. The Casiquiare River is in the southern part of Venezuela, and connects the Orinoco with the Guainia River, a tributary of the Amazon. It is peculiar in the formation of its channel, which is so level that the water flows a part of the time in one direction, and the remainder of the time in the opposite direction. The course of the current changes with the rise and fall of the head waters of the Orinoco.

61. The West Indies, the China Seas, and the Indian Ocean.

62. The rotary movement of cyclones in the northern hemisphere is from right to left, or opposite the movement of the hands of a clock. Their progressive movement in this hemisphere is northwest to about latitude 30 degrees, and then northeast to 40 or 45 degrees. In the southern hemisphere their rotary motion is with the movement of the hands of a clock, and their progressive motion is southwest to about the 30th parallel, when the course is changed to the southeast, and does not reach beyond the 45th parallel.

63. From 2 to 11 degrees north latitude, over the oceanic waters. It is caused by the ascending currents of air neutralizing the lateral currents. In mid ocean, where the polar currents encounter the equatorial, are found the regions known as the Calms of Cancer, and the Calms of Capricorn.

64. Hail is frozen rain. The rotary theory is probably the best solution of the formation of hail. It supposes that two clouds, one of snow, and the other of rain exist, the one above the other, and that a current of air rotating about a horizontal axis, catches up the rain-drops, and whirls them alternately from the rain-cloud, to the snow-cloud above, until the drops fall as hail. This explains the alternate coats of ice and snow of which the hailstone is formed.

65. The greater portion of the entire country would become a scorching desert, because the southeast trades which carry moisture over the continent would be deprived of it in rising over the Andes. The Pacific slope of Peru is a desert because the southeast trades are deprived of their moisture in rising over the Andes.

66. (a.) Vesuvius in Italy, near the city of Naples. (b.) On account of its great eruption in A. D. 79, when three cities, Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, were entirely destroyed.

67. Stromboli on one of the Lipari Islands north of Sicily. It has given out lava for 2,000 years, and from its constant light, is called the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean."

68. Coal.
69. Iron.
70. Gold.
71. In several countries of Europe, and in the States of Wisconsin, Missouri, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
72. (a) The iron ore, as it runs in seathing streams from the furnace, is conducted off through earthen gutters into hollow molds of sand, about three feet long and three inches wide and deep. These, from their lying side by side like a litter of pigs, are called pig-iron. (b) Charcoal is formed by burning wood under a cover of earth and sod. It is almost pure carbon.

73. It is obtained by heating coal in an air-tight vessel. The gas generated is conducted off into a tank, from which it is carried to houses and shops to furnish light. The remaining portion of the coal is called coke.

74. In England; they are more than 2,000 feet beneath the surface of the earth.
75. (a) The great rapids, and Murchison Falls 120 feet high in the upper course of the river.
(b) The annual overflow which has occurred year after year for ages, rising each year within a few hours of the same time, and within a few inches of the same height.
(c) It receives no tributaries for a distance of more than 1,500 miles up its course from its mouth.
(d) Its waters render fertile the whole length of the land of Egypt.
(e) It is one of the longest rivers of the world, and at its mouth has formed one of the largest deltas on the globe.
(f) The question of its source has received the attention of geographers for hundreds of years.

76. It is a kind of meal obtained from a species of palm found principally in Borneo, Sumatra, and various islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is valuable as a food for man, one tree producing enough to supply the want of one person a year. It is extensively used in the manufacture of starch for the calico manufactories.

77. It is a kind of hard, black coal that burns very readily in sticks or splinters. From its use for candles, comes the name "cannel coal," a corruption of "candle coal."

78. (a) From New York across the Atlantic to Gibraltar, through the Mediterranean Sea, through the Suez Canal, Red Sea, and Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, across the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to Bombay.
(b) Across the Atlantic, down the African coast, doubling Cape Horn and Agulhas, through Mosambique Channel, across the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea to Bombay.

79. (a) In Brazil, Arabia, Abyssinia, Java, West Indies, Central America, Venezuela, Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, and Ceylon.
(b) It takes its name from Kaffa, a region south of Abyssinia.

80. New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Mississippi, and North Carolina.
81. (a) The Mammoth Cave, the largest known cavern in the world, in Edmonson County, Ky., on the left bank of the Green River.
(b) The National Yellowstone Park in the northwest part of Wyoming.
(c) The Yosemite Valley and Park in California.
82. All places on the equator.
83. On the prime meridian, or at the poles.
84. (a) Bounded north by Wyoming Territory and the State of Nebraska; east by Nebraska and Kansas; south by Indian Territory and New Mexico; west by Utah.
(b) Because it became a State August 1, 1876, the year of the Republic's first Centennial.
85. It gives rise to a variety of vegetable and animal life, and makes a narrow coast plain on the Pacific with no navigable rivers, and forms lofty table lands and vast prairies traversed by mighty rivers on the opposite slope.
86. In the North Sea between England, Germany, and France.
87. Near the Island of New Zealand in the South Pacific.
88. The waters of the Mediterranean would spread over a great portion of the Sahara, forming vast lakes in the depressions of the desert. The climate of southern Europe would become colder, and portions of the Sahara would become fertile plains.
89. The moon completes its revolution around the earth in about 27 days, and there being 365 days in a year, it follows that "thirteen moons" are seen in a year. The time of a revolution as here given is not that of an exact lunar month, which is 29½ days.
90. Because the clouds prevent great radiation of heat from the surface of the earth, and objects do not become cold enough to condense the moisture of the atmosphere.

91. From 150 to 200 miles wide. The tide flows up this river over 500 miles.
92. Opium, hasheesh, and tobacco.
93. Suez, between the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Suez. Panama, between North and South America. Tehuantepec, between Campeachy Bay and the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Kraw, uniting the Malay Peninsula with Siam. Perekop, connects the Crimea with the mainland of Russia.
94. New York on Manhattan Island, Brooklyn on Long Island, and Galveston on Galveston Island.
95. Bounded north by the St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, Niagara River, and Lake Erie; east by Vermont, Lake Champlain, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean; south by the Atlantic, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, and the Niagara River.
96. Thunder-storms are the result of great electrical discharges from the clouds. The development of electricity depends upon changes of temperature of the atmospheric vapor, chemical action upon the earth's surface, and evaporation. As these are greater in summer than in winter, it is seen that thunder-storms will be more frequent at that season of the year, than at the latter.
97. It is an electrical phenomenon which occurs in high latitudes. It is due to the electric discharges passing through highly rarefied air in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Aurora australis is a like phenomenon seen in high southern latitudes.
98. By some it is supposed to be due to the ether filling the space between our atmosphere and the sun. Others believe it is caused by the double reflection of the white light of the sun, which producing a *polarized condition of the light, imparts to vision the sensation of a delicate blue.
99. It is a faint glowing of the waters as seen at certain times, and is owing to the presence of myriads of animalcules, which have the power of emitting a momentary glow similar to that of the "lightning bug."
100. It is a rainbow produced by the light from the moon, and is fainter than the solar phenomenon because the reflected light of the moon is less intense than the direct rays of the sun.
101. From east to west, or opposite to the earth's axial motion.
The velocity of the moon in its revolution around the earth is not so great as the earth's axial velocity, the moon losing in one rotation of the earth, a space equal to about 50 minutes time, and as the tide wave, when not deflected by the continents, keeps pace with the moon, it will of necessity move from east to west.
102. The degree of inclination of the earth's axis from a vertical to the plane of the orbit of the earth determines the location of the tropics and the polar circles; whatever the degree of inclination, that will be the distance of the tropics from the equator, and the distance of the polar circles from the poles. In the case supposed, the latitude of the tropics would be 15 degrees from the equator, and that of the arctic and antarctic circles 75 degrees.
The torrid zone would be 30, the frigids each 15, and the temperates each 60 degrees wide.
103. Thirty degrees each, reckoning a north and a south torrid.
104. The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, the annual revolution of the earth, and the convexity of its surface.
* Polarized light is light which has been subjected to compound refraction.

105. Within the torrid zone. Because the sun's rays are vertical over some portion of this zone throughout the year.

106. (a) On March 20th, and September 22d, or at the vernal, and autumnal equinoxes.
(b) Because at these times the great circle of illumin-ation passes through the poles.

107 Corsica, to France; Candia, to Turkey; Sardinia and Sicily, to Italy; and Majorca, to Spain.

108. By rail to New York via Chicago and Cleveland; by steamer from New York to Alexandria via Harve and Gibraltar; by steamer from Alexandria to Canton via Suez Canal, Red Sea, Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Strait of Malacca, Singapore, and South China Sea.

109. The Dead Sea in Palestine, Great Salt Lake in Utah, Aral Sea in southwest Siberia, Caspian Sea in south-east Russia, and Lake Tsad in the Soudan.

110. They are more or less saline, except Lake Tsad which contains fresh water. Having no outlets their wa-ters evaporate rapidly, and leave the saline matter carried into their basins by the streams entering them, as sediment, which yearly increases the saltness of their waters.

111. In summer the land masses become warmer than the waters of the ocean, and in winter the land becomes colder than oceanic regions.

112. An eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon pass-ing over the sun's disc, either totally or partially obscuring it.
An eclipse of the moon is caused by the shadow of the earth falling upon it, either partially or entirely obscuring it.

113. The vapor rising from the water flowing from the Gulf Stream comes in contact with the cold winds blow-ing from the Arctic regions, and is condensed into mist or fog.
114. Land, air, water, plants, and animals, as also, civilization and government, and the earth's relation to the other planets.
115. In their modes of formation, lines of trend, and size; oceanic islands as a rule being much smaller than continental island. They differ also in their productions.

116. Thirteen: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

117. There are thirty-eight.
118. Russia is an unlimited monarchy, England is a constitutional monarchy, and France is a republic.

119. On the north coast of Ireland. It is a remarkable rocky formation, composed of huge hexagonal columns arranged vertically, and forming a kind of platform or bridge extending into the sea. Its name comes from the popular tradition that giants formed it in order to cross over to Scotland.

120. They are winds that prevail over the Indian Ocean, blowing from the southwest from April to October, and then after a short period of variable winds and storms, they change and blow from the northeast until April.

121. Antipodes are those inhabitants of the earth that are diametrically opposite to each other. Their seasons and times of the day and night are opposite.

122. In the St. Lawrence River near Lake Ontario. There are about 1500 of these islands, and from their picturesque situation, they have become a famous summer resort.

123. Switzerland bounded north by the German Empire, east by the Tyrol; south by Italy; and west by France. Andorra lying in the Pyrenees between France and Spain. France bounded north by the English Channel and Belgium; east by the German Empire, Switzerland and Italy; south by the Mediterranean and Spain; west by the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean.

124. One nearly inclosed by land.
125. The Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Africa; Gulf of Mexico between Mexico and the United States; Hudson Bay in British America; and the Black Sea between Europe and Asia.

126. The peculiarities of its animal life are:
The absence of large quadrupeds.
The number and variety of marsupials.
No large or venomous serpents.
The swan are black.
The brilliancy of plumage of its birds.
The peculiarities of its plant life are:
Trees without branches or leaves.
The giant lily, tea tree, and arborescent ferns.
Few of the trees and shrubs produce edible fruit.
The trees do not form forests, but are thinly planted.
Of 8000 species of plants, nine-tenths are unconnected with the vegetation of the other parts of the world.

127. Apogee is the point of the moon's orbit farthest from the earth.
Perigee is the point of the moon's orbit nearest the earth.

128. The earth in perihelion travels faster than in aphelion, hence the terms the sun "slow" or "fast."

129. It is the accepted line from which every date on the earth is reckoned, and where, so to speak, time makes a leap of 24 hours, or one day. Such a line might be considered as coinciding with any meridian on the earth, but for convenience it has been fixed in the Pacific, touching no land area, but the small dot on the map known as Chatham Island. The inhabitants of this small island have earliest time on the earth.
The date line as given on charts begins at the north pole, passes south through Behring Strait, then bears off toward the coast of Japan, crosses the 240th meridian at its junction with the 20th parallel north, then curving between Manila and Borneo, crosses the equator north of New Guinea, and passing north and east of New Zealand, crosses Chatham Island, and thence south to the pole. Places on the western side of this line, have time 24 hours in advance of places on the eastern side of it. When for instance, it was Tuesday, May 26th on the west of this line, it was Monday May 25th on the east of it.

130. At Cherrapongi in India, where the annual rain-fall is over 600 inches.

131. The refraction or bending of the rays of light in passing obliquely from the sun to the earth through the air. A ray of light so penetrating the atmosphere, is bent more and more towards the perpendicular, as it reaches denser layers of air, and so we are enabled to receive the light of the sun when it is far below the horizon.

132. Because of the variation of the sun's altitude at any given place, and the consequent change of obliquity of its rays.

133. All tropical countries have little or no twilight.

134. (a) Appearance of objects at sea.
(b) Circular form of the horizon.
(c) Circumnavigation.
(d) Appearance of Polar Star.
(e) Force of gravity.
(f) Shadow of the earth during lunar eclipse.
(g) Measurements of celestial and terrestrial arcs.

135. On March 20th, and September 22d. Because the sun is then on the equator, the great circle of illumination passes through the poles, and the parts of the parallels in light, equal the parts in shadow. (See answer to question 49).

136. It is due to the extreme rareness of the air at great elevations, and to the small area of radiating surface.
137. The Empire of Japan.
138. If a shadow were cast, it would fall south. At any place within the arctic circle except the pole, objects (during the period in which the sun is visible to them) successively cast their shadows towards every point of the compass.
139. It will be 2 o'clock P. M. at St. Augustine, difference of latitude not being considered in reckoning time but only difference of longitude. Since Cleveland and St. Augustine lie under the same meridian, their time is the same.
140. Azoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, and Age of Man.
141. Azoic Age, the period of no life. Palaeozoic Age, the period of ancient life. It is subdivided into the age of mollusks, the age of fishes, and the age of coal-plants, or the carboniferous. Mesozoic Age, the period of reptiles. Cenozoic Age, the period in which animals and plants resemble those on the earth at present. It is distinguished by the predominance of mammals. Age of Man, the period marked by the creation of man, and in which the present animals and plants were introduced.
142. It is the line marking the height above the sea level, below which all the snow that falls annually, melts during the summer. It may properly be defined as the line marking the region of perpetual snow.
143. Missouri and Tennessee.
144. The most extensive tin mines are those of Cornwall, the extreme southwest county of England
145. Borneo, Sumatra, and Celebes.
146. (a) The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit;
(b) The constant parallelism of the earth's axis, or the fact that its north pole always points to the north star;
(c) The revolution of the earth around the sun.
147. (a) The land hemisphere.
(b) Because the heat of the sun is lost on the vast expanse of the water hemisphere, which is traversed by powerful currents from the Antarctic Ocean.
148. (a) In the State of New York, on the Hudson River, 52 miles north of New York City.
(b) It is noted for the United States Military Academy, and as being the place of Arnold's treason.
149. (a) In June.
(b) The earth's path around the sun is an ellipse, and the sun being in its foci, the earth must necessarily be farther from the sun at certain times than at others.
150. Ninety-one and one half millions of miles.
151. The level of the Dead Sea being about 1,400 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean, the water of the latter would flow into the former.
152. (a) In reckoning latitude and longitude in connection with time.
(b) In the study of the motions of the earth with regard to the sun and the planets.
(c) In the study of the crust of the earth, as to its formation, composition and so forth.
(d) In the study of the fauna of a country.
153. (a) In West Virginia, at the junction of the Shenandoah with the Potomac River, about 53 miles northwest of Washington City.
(b) As the place of the treason of John Brown, Oct. 16, 1859.
154. (a) In the Pacific, west of California;
(b) In the Atlantic between Florida and the Canary Islands;
(c) In the southern hemisphere between the Indian Ocean and the Antarctic.

They are formed by the collection of masses of seaweed in the great swirling bodies of water among the oceanic currents.

155. (a) About 1,650 miles. (b) Valentia Bay, Ireland, and Heart's Content, Newfoundland.
156. The surface current flows from the Pacific into the Arctic Ocean.
157. Lake Tsad. Lake Ngami in South Africa, also, has no outlet.
158. (a) It is the harbor of Constantinople. (b) From the magnificent view the harbor and city presents.

159. Gibraltar, the strongest fortification in the world; The Island of Malta, the chief station of the British Mediterranean fleet, on which there is an extensive arsenal and dock-yard.

160. Pittsburgh, originally Fort Duquesne, afterwards Fort Pitt. New York, at first called New Amsterdam, later New Orange.

161. (1) A pendulum vibrates faster near the poles than near the equator, and as its vibrations depend upon the force of gravity, it is inferred that the surface at the poles is nearer the center of the earth, than at the equator. This necessarily would make the polar diameter shorter than the equatorial, and the earth an oblate spheroid.
(2) A degree of latitude as measured by the stars is longer near the poles than near the equator, thus proving that the earth is flattened at the poles. This proof will readily be understood, when it is stated that a degree of latitude is the distance traveled along a meridian, either north or south, towards a fixed star, which will cause it to rise one degree in altitude in the heavens. For example, at the equator, the north polar star is just visible on the horizon. When we travel along a meridian toward it, until it appears one degree above the horizon, we have passed over one degree of the earth's surface. (See answer 183.)
(3) The rotation of the earth on its axis would cause the matter composing it, while in a semi-fluid condition, to gather about the equator.
162. (a) In mountainous regions; near the border of sinking oceans where the line of fracture separates the ocean bed from the coast; or wherever the crust is greatly flexed or traversed by deep fissures.
(b) Because in these places the crust is weakest, and the highly compressed gaseous matter within can here more readily escape.
163. The Atlantic.
164. It is co-extensive with the State of Panama, one of the States of Colombia.
165. First, the right of its people to participate in the general authority of the nation;
Second, the right of its inhabitants to govern themselves in matters of State;
Third, the people are granted and pledged a republican form of government.
166. North Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Caspian Sea, Sea of Azof, Black Sea, Sea of Marmora, Adriatic Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.
167. Its coast-line.
168. A loch is a lake as termed in Scotland;
A lough is a lake as written in Ireland;
A naze is a head-land or promontory;
A cape is a narrow point of land extending into the sea.
169. Of the House of Representatives chosen directly by the people, and the House of Senators chosen by the legislatures of the States.
170. About 3,800, of which Niphon, Yesso, Kiusiu, and Sikoke are the largest.
171. Over the region bounded by the tropics.

172. (a) In the Himalaya Mountains, a peak of which, Mount Everest, is over 29,000 feet high.
(b) In the region of the Dead Sea—1,381 feet below the level of the Mediterranean.

173. It is a great commercial depot in the trade between Russia and China. It is situated south of Lake Baikal, on the boundary between Siberia and Mongolia.

174. On the southeast coast of Massachusetts.

175. It is controlled by a Stock Company entitled the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez, incorporated in France and Egypt, and of which Ferdinand de Lesseps, the originator of the scheme, and engineer of the canal, is President (1885).

176. (a) It is the narrow entrance to the land-locked harbor of San Francisco.
(b) It is the Pacific entrance to the great gold fields of California, the city of San Francisco being the principal emporium of the gold mining districts of that State.

177. (1) The character of the surface as regards forests and deserts;
(2) The altitude above the sea level;
(3) Oceanic currents;
(4) The trend of mountain ranges;
(5) Large water areas.

178. The Dead Sea. It has been asserted of late that small fishes have been seen below the surface of the Dead Sea, but it is yet a matter in dispute.
179. Lake Superior. Its surface area is about the same as that of the State of Indiana.
180. By the accumulation of great masses of snow in elevated regions, which, from the enormous pressure to which it is subjected, forms a vast field of slowly moving ice.

181. At Moscow in Russia. It is called the Czar Kol-okol, or king of bells, its weight being 432,000 pounds.
182. Llanos are treeless regions of north-west South America. They have a wet and a dry season, and during the former period they resemble deserts. Selvas are extensive tracts along the Amazon in South America, which are covered with gigantic trees and an undergrowth of vines, and other vegetation, forming a forest so dense as to be almost impenetrable.
183. At the equator the north polar star is just visible on the horizon. In passing along a meridian from the equator towards the north pole, the polar star increases in altitude until the pole is reached, when it is seen in the zenith, or it has apparently passed through an arc of 90 degrees. Then since a degree of latitude is the distance required to be traveled along a meridian far enough to cause the polar star to rise one degree in altitude, it is clear that near the poles where the surface is slightly flattened, a greater distance would be traveled to elevate the polar star one degree, than near the equator where the surface is greatly curved. (See answer 161).
184. The Caspian Sea is over four times as large as Lake Superior.
185. Iceland, New Zealand, and Montana and Wyoming.
186. Prof. Bunsen supposes the water in the lower portion of the geyser tube to become heated to such a degree as to overcome the pressure of the column of liquid above, when it is discharged in a boiling stream. This gives temporary relief, and the waters again fill the tube, the lower portions gradually heat until the expansive force overcomes the pressure of the mass above, when another discharge takes place; and so the gathering and discharging of the waters continually succeed each other until the geyser becomes extinct.

187. In North America, Mount St. Elias, 17,900 feet. In South America, Aconcagua, 23,910 feet. In Europe, Mount Blanc, 15,787 feet. In Asia, Mount Everest, 29,100 feet. In Africa, Mount Kenia, 20,000 feet. In Australia, Mount Kosciusko, 6,500 feet.
188. The 20th meridian west, and the 160th meridian east of Greenwich.
189. The Gulf Stream is a current of warm water which issues from the basin of the Mexican Gulf and Caribbean Sea into the Atlantic, through Florida Strait. Thence it flows northward parallel to the coast to the Carolinas, when it deflects to the northeast, skirting the Banks of Newfoundland on the south, and then taking its course towards the British Isles, washes their western and northern border, and passing to the west and north of Norway, is lost in the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. It is over fifty miles wide in its narrowest place, and flows at a rate of from four to five miles an hour. Its temperature in the region of its origin is 86 degrees Fahr. It causes the climate of Great Britain, as all of northwest Europe, to be comparatively mild, and very moist.
190. They are due to the heated interior, and the contractions and flexions of the crust while it was comparatively thin.
191. The heat of the sun is lost on the vast body of water in the southern hemisphere; and, the cold currents from the Antarctic regions, bearing numerous icebergs, have an influence in making the region colder than at the same latitude in the land masses of the northern regions.
192. It is situated partly in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, but most of it lies in the north-west angle of Wyoming. The region was explored by a party sent by the government, in 1870, under the direction of Prof. Hayden, and at his suggestion it was set aside by Congress as a National Park.
It is the center of the most wonderful volcanic formations in North America. In it are numerous geysers and mineral hot springs " with decorations more beautiful than human art ever conceived, and which have required thousands of years for Nature's hands to form." Within its borders is the celebrated Yellowstone Lake, from which rises the river of the same name, whose cañons, and waterfalls have been the admiration of artists, tourists, and others, since the discovery of this region.

193. The State of Iowa.

194. (a) The high temperature and great evaporation of the equatorial waters;
(b) The influence of marine animals, the coral insect in particular;
(c) The rotation of the earth upon its axis.

195. Kansas. To show this, trace a line from the northeast part of Maine to the southwest corner of California; then trace another from the northwest part of Washington Territory to the southeast point of Florida, and the State in which these lines cross each other will be the geographical center of the United States.

196. The Republic of Switzerland. Its capital is Berne.

197. Holland, according to its area. China, the greatest length in miles.

198. St. Peter's at Rome, Italy.

199. There are about 270. Of these, 175 are on islands and 95 on the coasts of the continents.

200. The tobacco plant.

201. (a) The India-rubber tree found in Brazil and Central America;
(b) The pine-tree which grows extensively in the Carolinas, Canada, and Sweden.
(c) The sugar-maple tree found in extensive forests in many parts of North America.

202. Camphor is obtained from the wood and bark of
camphor trees in China, Borneo, Sumatra, and Japan.
Opium, from the white poppy of India and Persia.
Hasheesh, from a hemp grown in Russia.
Castor-oil, from the seeds of the castor-oil plant of Africa,
America, and Europe.

203. In China, as early as the year 65 A. D.

204. Between New York and Brooklyn, over the East
River.

205. Deciduous, those that shed their leaves in Autumn.
Endogenous, those that increase in size by internal growth.
Indigenous, those that are native of a certain country or climate.

206. Amsterdam and Venice.

207. In the province of Ontario; it connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario.

208. They are deep borings in the earth, from which water issues on the surface.
The name comes from Artois a province of France, where they were first bored.

209. It makes the strip of country bordering it across the land of Egypt, extremely fertile. Besides, it supplies
the whole population along its course with fresh water, and furnishes a highway for commerce between the Mediterranean
and the countries of the Upper Nile. (See answer 75).

210. (a) Silt is eroded material carried from the upper to the lower courses of rivers.
(b) Drift timber carried from wooded regions, and lodged along the course of a river.
(c) The Red and Mackenzie Rivers.

211. A dry-dock is one from which the water may be shut out, so that vessels may be repaired. The finest one in the United States is at Brooklyn, New York.
212. A point on the equator moves through a distance of 25,000 miles in 24 hours, or about 1,042 miles an hour.
213. The change of day and night. Oceanic Currents.
214. The Mississippi; 3,560 miles.
With the Missouri which is the parent stream, the Mississippi is 4396 miles in length.
215. Mount Everest in the Himalaya Mountains; 29,100 feet.
216. The Chinese Empire is the most populous: perhaps the British Empire is the greatest in the true sense of the term.
217. (a) Borneo; area 300,000 square miles. Late authorities give Papua, or New Guinea, a greater area than Borneo.
(b) London, England; population in the year 1881, 4,764,312 souls, or over one and a half millions more people than the State of Ohio had at that time.
218. (a) The science which teaches the constitution of the whole system of worlds.
(b) The description of a particular place, city, town, parish, country, or tract of land.
219. In Turkey in Europe. They extend southward into Greece.
220. (1) The area of its basin exceeds that of any other river on the globe.
(2) The tide flows up its mouth for 500 miles.
(3) Its estuary is nearly 200 miles wide.
(4) It receives more large and navigable tributaries than any other river.
(5) It is navigable for about 3,000 miles.
(6) It is one of the largest, if not the largest, river in the world.
221. South. All places on the earth are south of the north pole.

222. December 21st, 12 o'clock M. (See answer 49.)
223. About one-seventeenth; or 3,000,000 of the 53,-000,000 square miles of land surface on the globe.
224. The principal anthracite beds are between Potts-ville and Wyoming in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania exceeds any other State of the Union in deposits of bituminous coal, the total area of her coal-fields being 20,000 square miles, or as great as that of all West-ern Europe.
225. By the crumbling of rocks through the agency of heat, moisture, and freezing. The upper covering of the surface known as mold, has been formed by decayed vegetable matter.
226. The apparent path of the sun through the heavens in the course of a year. At the equinoctial points.
227. (a) Wight is a small isle south of England, fa-mous as the site of Osborne House, the favorite marine re-sort of Queen Victoria.
(b) Scilly Islands lie off Lands End, England.
(c) Anglesea is an island and county of England lying north of Wales in the Irish Sea.
228. Extensive caverns are supposed to exist beneath the surface of the earth, in which huge masses of rock hang suspended overhead, and projecting masses shelve from the sides, and it is thought that when a portion of these detach and fall, the shock is so great as to produce a trem-bling or quaking of the crust in that region. This theory is not generally received by scientific men.
229. On the tropic of Capricorn, 23½ degrees south.
230. It is derived from the Latin, sol, meaning the sun, and stiti, to cause to stand, and the word means “the sun stands.” That is, the solstice is the point in the ecliptic at which the sun is farthest from the equator, north or south, and where it seems to stand a short time, and then gradually return to the equator.

231. Icebergs are detached masses from glaciers which have extended into the sea and become undermined by the warmer waters, and then carried by the currents out into the ocean. As glaciers can be formed only on land, ice-bergs drifting from a region indicate the presence of land at the place from which they come.

232. Lines passing through places having the same mean summer temperature.

233. (a) The most eastern of the Windward Islands.
(b) To Great Britain.

234. (1) The action of streams;
(2) The agency of man;
(3) The force of winds;
(4) The moisture of the atmosphere;
(5) The action of Ocean waves.

235. Boston, Massachusetts; population 362,639, in 1880.
236. Germans, Slavonians, and Magyars.
237. About 16,000 feet high.
238. The form of the coast; river estuaries; and the shape of gulfs and bays along the continents.
239. In the Bay of Fundy where the tide-wave is forced up a narrow gulf with high shelving shores, the tides rise to the height of 75 feet.
240. The length of day at any place will be such a part of 24 hours, as the part of its parallel in light is of the part in shadow. (See answer 49.)

241. (a) Calcareous, or those containing lime.
(b) Silicious, or those containing silicon.
(c) Sulphurous, containing sulphuretted hydrogen.
(d) Chalybeate, containing iron.
(e) Acidulous, containing carbonic acid gas.
(f) Petroleum, containing rock or coal-oil.
(g) Bituminous, or those from which pitch issues.
(h) Brines, or those containing common salt.

242. England, Germany, and France.
243. For places near the level of the sea the limit of snow-fall may be said to be southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico; northern Mexico, southern Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. In the old world, northern Africa, and Arabia, central Persia, northern India, and central China. The line corresponds to the 30th parallel, with more or less variation in different regions.
244. All animal life is dependent, either directly or indirectly, upon plant growth for nourishment. Plants take up the elements from the earth, air, and water, and convert them into food suitable for animals. Animals in turn supply plants with carbon which sustains the growth of their woody parts.
The carbon is supplied from carbonic acid gas thrown out by animals in breathing. This being absorbed by the leaves of plants, its carbon is retained to form their stems and branches, and the oxygen composing it is returned to the air to supply the wants of animals.
245. That branch of natural science which treats of the phenomena of the atmosphere as regards weather and climate.
246. (a) Niagara between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. (b) The Bridal Veil in California. (c) Victoria in the Zambese River in Africa. (d) Staubbach in Switzerland.
247. The Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the evaporation from its surface carries away only fresh water, leaving the saline matter washed into its basin by the rivers, thus annually increasing the degree of its saltness.
The rivers received into the Black Sea are fresh water streams, and a strong current flows from it through the Bosphorus, Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles into the Mediterranean Sea.

248. The latitude, the direction of the prevailing winds, the elevation above the sea level, the extent of forest growth, and proximity to the sea.

249. The legislative, the executive, and the judicial.

250. The north magnetic pole is at Boothia Felix in the Arctic Archipelago, North America. It was located by Captain James Ross. The south magnetic pole has not been definitely located, but is supposed to be diametrically opposite the north magnetic pole.

251. It is due to the rotation of the earth on its axis, while the matter composing it was yet in a semi-fluid state.
REMARK:—Take a strip of sheet tin about 15 inches long and 1 inch wide, and form a band from it by uniting the ends with solder. Then punch two holes diametrically opposite each other in this band or hoop, and insert a small rod as an axis about which the hoop may turn. Then holding the rod in one hand, and twirling the hoop with the other, it will be seen to flatten more and more at the poles, and to increase its equatorial diameter, so to speak, with the increased velocity about its axis. This illustrates the law under which the earth took the form of an oblate spheroid.

252. (a) It means "nearly inclosed by land," "lying between," or "intermediate," i. e., Medi-terranean.
(b) Its length from east to west is about 2,320 miles.

253. It is in the southern part of Syria, and bounded north by the Lebanon Mountains, east by the valley of the Jordan, south by the desert of Sinai, and west by the Medi-terranean Sea. It is about 190 miles long by an average breadth of 75 miles. Within its limits are the Dead Sea, and Lake Tiberias. The surface is rough and mountainous; Mt. Hermon in the Lebanon chain being 9,381 feet in altitude. The government is under Turkish rule, and the inhabitants are Jews, Mohammedans, Turks, Syrians, and Christians.

Palestine was anciently the land of Canaan, and here was the flourishing kingdom of David and his son Solomon.
254. (1) Alexandrina-Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India; (2) Alexander III., Czar of Russia; (3) Alfonso XII., King of Spain; (4) Franz Joseph I., Emperor of Austria; (5) William I., Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia.
255. It is a submarine plateau extending across the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland. The water along its course is comparatively shallow, and the indications are that the Atlantic was at one period divided in that region. It was first pointed out by Captain Maury of the United States Navy, and named by him the Telegraphic Plateau. Along its course the first trans-Atlantic cable was successfully laid, July 28, 1867.
256. It is in the Irish Sea.
257. The upper current flows from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean. There is an under current flowing the opposite way.
258. It is a huge granite boulder at the water's edge, at the town of Plymouth, Massachusetts, on which it is said the crew of the Mayflower landed, in December, 1620.
259. Along the coast of Mississippi and Alabama, and on the southeastern coast of California, at which places it is 65 inches.
260. Lake Chautauqua.
261. At Rome, Paris, and Naples.
262. One is now in Central Park, New York City, having been brought from Alexandria, Egypt, to New York, in 1881, the expenses being defrayed by William H. Vanderbilt. Another obelisk known as "Cleopatra's Needle" stands on the Thames Embankment, London, England.

263. (a) Ireland, (b) England, and (c) The United States.
264. By the union of oxygen and hydrogen gases, which surrounded the earth as highly heated bodies, until the cooling of the crust, when the vapors became condensed and fell as water.
265. Massachusetts.
266. They are formed by the occurrence of powerful whirlwinds over the oceanic waters. The rapid rotary motion of the wind dashes the clouds down near the surface, and around the center of motion there forms a funnel-shaped mass which lowers to the water, when the spray and cloud unite, and form what is termed a water-spout. To the observer at sea, water-spouts present a formidable appearance, but the stories of their destructive effects are more fable than truth.
267. The power in which paramount authority should be vested, as regards the government of Afghanistan.
268. For the celebrated “Leaning Tower,” ranked as one of the seven wonders of the world. It is 179 feet high, 50 feet in diameter, and leans from a perpendicular about 13 feet. 330 spiral steps reach the summit, and 7 large bells are so balanced at the top, as to counteract the force of gravity of the leaning column.
269. In England, as early as 1814. George Stevenson was the inventor. The “steam wagon” invented by him could make only about 6 miles an hour, while at the present day, steam locomotives have attained a speed of over 75 miles an hour.
270. 23½ degrees from a perpendicular to the plane of the earth's orbit; or, 66½ degrees to the plane of the earth's orbit.
271. (a) Probably Suakim on the Red Sea. Cairo in Egypt is one of the hottest cities on the globe. (b) St. Petersburg is the coldest city.

A small trading post named Turnchansk in Siberia is probably the coldest town on the globe.

272. Beds of saline matter at the bottom of the ocean, and various salts carried into the seas by rivers, together with the constant evaporation from the surface.

273. Most of the surface lies below the level of the sea, the country being protected by dykes. The extensive canal system of the country is another noticeable feature, since most all the canals lie above the general level of the regions through which they are built.

274. It is in Chautauqua County in the western extremity of New York. It is noted as a place of resort during the months of July and August. Many literary societies and other bodies hold annual conventions there within the period mentioned. It is also celebrated as being the highest lake navigated by steam in the world.

275. (a) They modify the summer's heat and the winter's cold. (b) It is shown by the abundant crops of apples, grapes, and other fruits grown in their vicinity annually, while further south where their effect is not felt, these crops frequently are killed by the severe freezing late in winter, and in the early spring.
276. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. That portion of Minnesota lying east of the Mississippi was a part of the Northwest Territory.
277. It is of the greatest commercial advantage in forming safe harbors for sailing vessels. It also modifies the climate.

278. Salt lakes generally receive the drainage of a scope of country of more or less extent, but they have no visible outlets. The waters drained into their basins carry with them a per cent. of mineral salts, and as these are not removed by the evaporation which takes place from the surface, the waters of the lakes yearly become more salty.
279. Boston, Massachusetts.
280. The Caucasian.
281. Mountains exist either as single peaks, or in a continuous chain.
282. On the shores of Great Britain and Ireland.
283. From the bark of the cork tree in Spain and Portugal.
284. It is the change in position of the equinoctial points along the ecliptic, the entire circumference being passed over in about 26,000 years.
285. (a) A description of its plant life; (b) A description of its animal life.
286. From the shells of "pearl oysters" found principally along the coast of Ceylon, and the shores bordering the Gulf of Persia.
287. About 52 minutes.
288. A planet is in its descending node when it is in that portion of its orbit, which lies below the plane of the ecliptic. It is in its ascending node when it is in that part of its orbit which lies above the plane of the ecliptic. To illustrate, take an apple or an orange and mark with a knife a circle around its center. Call the apple the sun and the circumference marked, the ecliptic. Now mark another circle oblique to the first one, i. e., with its one half lying above the first circle, and its other half lying below its plane : call the circle last marked the orbit of the earth. Now move the point of a pencil along this circle; when the pencil point is traversing that portion of the earth's orbit, so called, which lies above the plane of the so called ecliptic, it is in the ascending node. When it is traversing that portion below the plane of the ecliptic, it is in the descending node.
289. The Sahara is about three and one-third times the area of the Mediterranean Sea. Area of Sahara 3,293,000 square miles; Area of Mediterranean less than 1,000,000 square miles.
290. From the greater diversity of surface in the northern hemisphere.
291. The Hoosic Tunnel intersecting the Hoosic range of mountains, in Massachusetts. Its length is nearly five miles.
292. Bounded by the arctic circle on the north, and the antarctic circle on the south; by the continents of Asia and Australia, and the meridian of South Cape in Tasmania, on the west; and by the western shore of America and the meridian of Cape Horn, on the east.
293. The cirrus, or hair-like cloud, formed in the upper regions of the atmosphere.
The cumulus, or heap cloud, formed in the lower regions of the atmosphere.
The stratus, or horizontal-layer cloud, seen in the early morning and evening.
The nimbus, or storm cloud, consisting of heavy, dark masses of vapor.
294. Level, treeless plains extending over most of southern Russia east of the Dnieper River, and from the Black Sea to the Ural Mountains.
295. (a) That branch of natural history which treats of the classification, structure, and habits of animals.
(b) That branch of natural history which treats of the classification, form, and habits of birds.
(c) The science that treats of the classification of fishes.
(d) The science that treats of the classification and origin of the races of men.
296. Russia, the Czar; Egypt, the Khedive; Turkey, the Sultan.
297. Each tribe residing in its allotted district within the Indian Territory, is under its own system of government. The form of government of the more civilized tribes, resembles that of the States. The Cherokee nation, which may be taken to illustrate this, since it is the most civilized of all the Indian tribes, is governed by a national committee and council elected for two years. The Executive whose title of office is the "Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation," holds his office for a term of four years. Talequah is the capital of the Cherokee country. All cases of crime in which a citizen of the United States is involved, are tried in the United States courts of the ad-joining States of Arkansas and Missouri. The Indians cannot trade or sell their lands except to the United States through the agents of the government. Matters pertaining to the United States are conducted by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, who acts under the instruction of the Secretary of the Interior. (See History, 295 and 296.)

298. The Mediterranean Sea, and the Gulf of Suez, an arm of the Red Sea. Menzaleh Lake is often named as the Mediterranean terminus of the canal, but it is built through the lake to Port Said on the Mediterranean.

299. It is a small Island on the south-west coast of Ireland. It is noted for Valencia Harbor, the most west-ern of Ireland, where there is a telegraph station for four Atlantic cables.

300. (a) The tropics and polar circles.
(b) Because then the vertical rays of the sun would always fall on the equator, and the oblique rays would reach to the poles. (See answers 26 and 102.)

301. Because they come from the arctic and sub-arctic regions where there are large areas of ice and snow.
302. Some clouds are said to be a mile in thickness and to have as much as twenty square miles of surface. Others again contain but a few feet of surface.
303. Hazy, dry vapors which give the atmosphere a dull, opaque appearance.

304. Because then the heat has radiated from objects until their temperature is lower than the air which comes in contact with their surfaces.
305. (1) The electrical condition of the atmosphere; (2) The direction and force of the wind; (3) The temperature of the air.
306. Thick foliage prevents rapid radiation of heat from objects beneath it, and reflects back to them the heat which is evolved, thus keeping the temperature of the air above the dew point.
307. Visible 102 days; invisible 98 days, or from 2d of November till the 8th of February.
308. (a) Those who live on opposite sides of the equator, and on opposite meridians; or those who are diametrically opposite each other, their feet pointing to-gether.
(b) Those who live on the same parallel, but on opposite meridians. Their times of day and night are opposite.
(c) Those who live in opposite latitude, but the same degree from the equator, and who have the same meridian.
309. In the first point of cancer.
310. Zenith and nadir.
311. The State of Connecticut.
312. It is a sheet of water 12 miles long and 4 miles wide, formed by the expansion of the Hudson River, about 27 miles north of New York City.
Tarrytown on its bank is famous as the place of capture of Major André in the War of the Revolution.
313. In the State of Vermont.
It is one of the highest peaks of the Green Mountains.
314. New Hampshire.
315. On December 21st. (See answer 6.)
316. At the International date line. (See answer 129.)
317. By the force of gravity acting upon the mass composing the earth while it was in a fluid or semi-fluid state. "That very law that molds a tear And bids it trickle from its source; That law preserves the earth a sphere, And guides the planets in their course."

318. Louisiana, Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oregon, Nebraska, parts of Colorado and Minnesota, Indian Territory, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, and most of Wyoming. Washington, Oregon, and Idaho were included in the "Louisiana Purchase" as defined and bounded in the Florida Treaty with Spain in 1819. (See answer to question 211 in United States History.)

319. As to condition : stratified and unstratified. As to origin : aqueous, igneous, and metamorphic.

320. Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.

321. The inhabitants of the region were denominated barbarians, when the country was first discovered by the civilized nations of southern Europe. After colonies had been planted there, the section was called the Barbary States, in contradistinction to the older States of North Africa.

322. N, north; N b E, north by east; NNE, north north-east; NE b N, north-east by north; NE, north-east; ENE b E, east north-east by east.
323. Rock-salt is mined principally in Virginia. The most celebrated salt-wells are those of Geddes, Syracuse, and Salina, in the State of New York. The wells are owned by the State, and it receives therefrom one cent royalty on every bushel of salt mined.

324. From fifteen to twenty-four miles.
325. It is 363 miles long, and has 87 locks along its course.
326. It lies south of the eastern portion of Australia, and is separated from that continent by Bass Strait. To it Great Britain until the year 1853, sent most of her con-

victs. This gave it the name, "English Siberia." The name Tasmania, comes from the discoverer of the island, Janssen Tasman. The capital is Hobart Town.
327. The people of Holland.
328. To the absence of moisture in the intensely hot winds that blow over its surface.
329. The people of the Chinese Empire.
330. B is east of A. Their difference of time being 1 hr. 50 min., their difference of longitude must be 27½ degrees.
331. Minorca, Majorca, and Iviça.
332. The word means "southern," or "lying to the south." So named from the position of the continent, it being the southern grand division of the globe.
333. In a geographical sense, it is a narrow tract of land over which goods of commerce are carried from one body of navigable water to another. The Isthmus of Panama with its railroad from the Pacific to the Atlantic, is a noted portage.
334. Lake Pepin is in Wisconsin. It is an expansion of the Mississippi. Lake Borgne is in the southeastern portion of Mississippi. Lake Constance is near the source of the Rhine River, on the boundary between Switzerland and Germany. Lake St. Clair lies between Lake Huron and Lake Erie. Lake Tulare is in central California, and is drained by the San Joaquin River. Lake Peoria is in Illinois; it is an expansion of the Illinois River.
335. In summer, December being the warm month in that zone. The seasons are opposite those of the north temperate zone.
336. The word means "land of men with large feet." The name originated with Magellan, who discovered the region, and he so named it from the enormous size of the feet of the natives. The size was, in appearance, greatly augmented by a kind of shoe worn by the natives.
337. A body of water enclosed within a coral island.
338. It is more or less briny.
339. It is not a complete circle.
According to authority, the diameter of the equator “which pierces the meridian 14 degrees east of Greenwich is two miles longer than the one at right angles to it.”
340. The St. Mary's ship-canal.
341. It is about a mile in length, and circumvents the water-fall in St. Mary's Strait.
342. They lie in the middle of the Pacific, about 20 degrees north of the equator.
The capital is Honolulu, on the island of Oahu. It is a constitutional monarchy. King Kalakaua is (1885) the present ruler.
343. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, and the earth is in perihelion in December, and in aphelion in June.
344. The two points marking the intersection of the celestial equator with the ecliptic. (See answer 288.)
345. The two points in the ecliptic which mark the sun's greatest distance from the equator, north and south. They are marked on the terrestrial globe by the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer.
346. Hammerfest.
347. Their great length, and the volume of water discharged through their channels. They all have their origin in the central portion of the continent.
348. That of Lisbon in 1755, and that of Iquique in 1868. At the latter date all the Pacific coast of South America was greatly agitated.
349. The East Indies, and the West Indies.

350. Because they pass through a stratum of atmosphere thinner than that traversed by the oblique rays, and they are spread over a less area of surface.
351. An irregular ring with the center at the north pole. Each continental area is more or less triangular in form, except Australia, which approaches a quadrilateral.
352. Lowlands and highlands; or plains and mountains.
353. (a) Coral islands are found only in tropical regions. (b) Because the coral insect cannot live and propagate itself in water of a temperature much below 68 degrees Fahr.
354. In the Central Alps of Europe. The island of Spitzbergen, and the Arctic Archipelago are well known glacier regions.
355. In the temperate zones. Guyot says “in the temperate zone, in western Asia, the geographical center of the old world.”
356. By the explosive force of steam generated in the lower portion of the geyser tube. (See answer 186.)
357. (a) They are remains originally animal or vegetable, but which by being buried in moist earth, have become, through chemical and mechanical changes, mineral in composition, but still retain the exact outline of the original animal or plant. (b) They help us to determine the various stages of development of the earth’s crust, and enable us to tell the kinds of animals and plants that flourished in each formative period of the crust.
358. On the western continent: St. Johns, Quebec, Halifax, Boston, New York, Charleston, Rio Janeiro, and Beunos Ayres. On the eastern: Liverpool, Amsterdam, Havre, and Bordeaux.

359. In the South Atlantic, over 1,200 miles from the nearest point on the coast of Africa. This island is noted as the place of banishment and death of Napoleon I. Here the celebrated “Emperor of the French,” after his defeat at Waterloo, resided under British guardianship until his death in 1821.
360. It is bounded on all sides by the State of Mary-land, except on the southwest, where the Potomac River forms a portion of the boundary. Its area is 60 square miles. In 1878 Congress passed an act putting the control of the District under a board of three Commissioners, two of whom to be appointed by the President and Senate for three years, and the third to be an officer from the Corps of Engineers of the Army, selected by the President. All municipal officers of the District are appointed by this Board.
361. It is a small village 12 miles from Brussels in Belgium. It is celebrated as the site of the great battle fought in 1815 between the army of England and her allies, com-manded by Wellington, and the French under Napoleon I. (See answer 359.)
362. It is the most magnificent palace in Europe, ad-joins St. Peter's at Rome, and is the actual residence of the Pope. Its great library, and numerous paintings, pieces of statuary, rare vases, and other works of art, make it the most noted building in the world.
363. On the island of Staffa, one of the Hebrides, on the coast of Scotland.
364. New York on Manhattan Island, 1,206,299; Phila-delphia, Pennsylvania, 847,170; Brooklyn, on Long Island 566,663; Chicago, Illinois, 503,185.
365. The Kur, Arax, Atrek, and Emba which flow into the Caspian Sea; The Syr and the Amoo, into the Aral Sea; The Ili, into Lake Balkash; The Helmund, into Lake Hamoon; The Jordan, into the Dead Sea; and many other small rivers empty into inland seas and lakes.

366. The chief cause is the rotation of the earth on its axis. The winds, and the polar currents, are secondary causes.

367. The waters of the lakes become great reservoirs of heat during the summer, and in autumn and winter this is given off, and the temperature of the air in the vicinity of the lakes is kept above that at a distance from them.

368. Although both regions are in the same latitude, the shores of Alaska are much warmer than those of Greenland. This is due to the influence of the oceanic currents flowing along their coasts. The Japan Current which washes the coast of southern Alaska is a warm stream, while Greenland is washed by a cold Arctic Current, bearing numerous icebergs along its course.

369. Subterranean streams which rise near enough the surface to influence vegetation; at places the water issues forth from springs, thus sustaining both vegetable and animal life.

370. The chief vegetation is the palm tree. Coarse grasses furnish a scant pasturage for the camel and other quadrupeds. In parts where the land is irrigated, various kinds of fruits and plants grow in abundance.

371. In 1840, on the 39th parallel, directly south of Clarksburg, W. Va. In 1850, on the 39th parallel, southeast of Parkersburg, W. Va. In 1860, on the 39th parallel, north of Portsmouth, Ohio. In 1870, ¼ of a degree north of the 39th parallel, near Georgetown, O. In 1880, on the 39th parallel, near Covington, Ky. Thus "the march of Empire westward takes its course."

372. The State of Minnesota.
373. Their planes intersect each other at an angle of 23½ degrees.
374. From the verdure of the island; studding the waters of the ocean like an emerald.
375. At the occurrence of the vernal and the autumnal equinoxes.
376. It is one degree of longitude, measured on the equator. Its value is 69.16 statute miles.
377. It is a tract of country which was purchased from Mexico by the United States in 1853. It is bounded north by the Gila River, east by the Rio Grande, south by Mexico, and west by the Rio Colorado. The purchase was negotiated by Senator Gadsden, at a cost of $10,000,000.
378. Quicksilver principally at New Almaden, California. Nickel chiefly in Pennsylvania, where the government obtains nickel to coin cents from. Kentucky is also noted for mines of nickel. Mica is found in the Appalachian and the Rocky Mountain States. The deposits are rich in some of the New England States.
379. The Sahara and the region bordering the Red Sea, the Pacific shore of Mexico, the coast of Peru, the interior plateaus of Asia, and the Great Interior Plateau of the United States.
380. Straits, sounds, channels, and passages.
381. Belgium. The ratio is about 450 persons to the square mile.
382. A place of anchorage for ships some distance from the shore. As Hampton Roads off the coast of Virginia.
383. It is celebrated for the great naval engagement between the Merrimac and the Monitor, March 9, 1862. This was the first battle in the world between iron ships.

384. There are quarries of fine marble in California, and the adjoining States, and quarries of red marble in Tennessee. The most celebrated quarries are those of the New England States, particularly the Rutland, Vermont, quarries.
385. The Pacific States and Territories, and the New England States are noted for granite. Quincy, Massachusetts, is famous for granite.
386. Rio Janerio. About 23 degrees.
387. It is a light raft formed by placing a platform on inflated bags made from skins of animals, and is used in loading and unloading vessels which cannot approach the shore on account of breakers.
388. Lake Reys in Peru, according to some authorities, from which flows the Ucayale River, considered the main branch of the Amazon. Other authority gives the source of the Amazon in western Peru, latitude 10 degrees south, and within 60 miles of the Pacific coast.
389. On the coast of Chili, between the parallels of 23 and 27 degrees south.
390. They are extensive submarine plateaus, over which the water is comparatively shallow, lying to the south and east of Newfoundland. One of these, the Great Bank, is over 600 miles long by 200 miles wide.
391. For the great siege laid there by the English and French armies against the Russians in what is known as the Crimean War.
392. It is the countries and tributary principalties under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Turkey.
393. It is in western Arabia, and is famous as the place of birth of Mohammed, the prophet of Islam. It contains the famous Mosque of El-Haram, which thousands of pilgrims visit annually.

394. Lead, silver, and copper mines are worked, and there are deposits of gypsum and coal, beds of roofing slate, and quarries of marble and limestone.
395. It is on the Hudson River in the State of New York, and is noted as the place of Washington's headquarters in the northern campaign of the Revolution.
396. It is an expansion of the Jordan River in its upper course, and lies in the northern portion of Palestine. It is an insignificant body of water, and is celebrated only from the Scriptural scenes which transpired on its borders. It is sometimes called Lake Tiberias, and was anciently known as the Sea of Gennesaret.
397. The Middlesex Canal, in 1814.
398. For its picturesque situation, its delightful climate, and its celebrated surroundings as regards historical events. Near it towers Vesuvius, and at its base lie the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed in the great eruption of that volcano in A. D. 79. The public buildings are massive and grand, and the Museum contains one of the finest collection of works of art, archæological remains, and other objects of interest, found on the continent.
399. It is an immense pile of buildings in the heart of the city of Moscow, the former capital of Russia. It contains within its bounds, the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin, the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, which contains the tombs of the Czars down to the time of Peter the Great, the Church of the Annunciation, paved with jasper, agate, and cornelians, the Tower of Ivan Veliki, and the "Czar Kolokol," the famous great bell of the world, the weight of which is 432,000 pounds.
400. Mt. Owen Stanley, over 13,000 feet high.
401. The Mount Cenis Tunnel connecting the railways of France and Italy. It is on the direct line running from Paris to Turin, and is nearly eight miles long.

402. The Vermillion Sea is a name frequently applied to the Gulf of California.
403. It is a famous summer resort on South Bass Island in Lake Erie, a few miles from the city of Sandusky. The harbor received the name from its being the place where Commodore Perry's fleet “ put in,” at the time of the battle of Lake Erie.

404. Humboldt, Agassiz, and Maury.
405. New Orleans, “ Crescent City ”; Brooklyn, “ City of Churches”; Washington, “City of Magnificent Dis-tances”; New Haven, “City of Elms”; Philadelphia, “City of Brotherly Love”.

406. The city of Athens in Greece.
407. The “City of Spindles” is Lowell, Massachusetts. The “City of Notions” is Boston, Massachusetts.
408. Limerick, Ireland.
409. The Geyser Springs of California, Hot Springs in Arkansas, The Yellowstone National Park, Estes Park and Middle Park in Colorado, and the Yosemite Valley in California.

410. Coney Island, Long Branch, Niagara Falls, Lake of the Thousand Isles, Newport on the island of Rhode Island; The White Sulphur Springs, Virginia; The Berkshire Hills, White Mountains, and the Highlands of the Hudson.
411. Lieut. Lockwood reached 83 degrees and 24 min-utes north latitude, or within 458 miles of the north pole.
412. Charleston became the capital.
413. It is the region of calms in the Atlantic Ocean, known as the “Calms of Cancer”. The name is said to come from the fact that vessels in early days bound from New England to the West Indies, with a deck load of horses, were often delayed in the region of the Calms of Cancer, when the animals perishing for want of water were thrown overboard.
414. "It is that department of physical geography which treats of the varieties of the human race, and their distribution."
415. The Natural Bridge in Rockbridge County.
416. The Empire of Brazil. The Republic of France.

QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why so called?
2. What is meant by government and agreement of words in a sentence?
3. What parts of speech are capable of inflection?
4. What is the inflection of nouns and pronouns called?
5. What is the inflection of verbs called?
6. What is the inflection of adjectives and adverbs called?
7. Define grammar as a science.
8. Define grammar as an art.
9. Can a noun in the first or second person ever be used as subject?
10. How are words inflected?
11. What is the base of inflection of a word?
12. What is the base of inflection of verbs? Of nouns? Of adjectives?
13. What is meant by the stem, root, theme, and crude form of a word?
14. What is English grammar?
15. What is the basis of the English language?
16. What is the office of authors on English grammar?
17. What is the complement of a verb?
18. Define sentence, clause, and phrase.
19. Give the auxiliary verbs, and the number of tenses of each.
20. What properties have verbs?
21. How is the passive voice of verbs formed?
22. State the difference between a personal and a relative pronoun.
23. What are the principal elements of a sentence?
24. How many elements may a sentence have?
25. With reference to their use or position in sentences, how are clauses classified?
26. What are the accidents of nouns and pronouns?
27. Can a preposition and its object ever become the predicate of a sentence?
28. What is a substantive?
29. What is inflection?
30. Why are nouns and pronouns inflected?
31. How many cases have nouns and pronouns?
32. Name and define the interrogative pronouns.
33. What are indefinite pronouns?
34. What is the difference in the use of which and what when used adjectively?
35. What is the preterit tense? The pluperfect tense?
36. Name the simple relative pronouns and state the office of each.
37. What is language?
38. Define defective, and redundant verbs.
39. What are the coördinate forms of conjugation?
40. What is a reflexive verb? An impersonal verb?
41. Into how many classes are prepositions divided?
42. What may be predicated of a subject?
43. What is analysis?
44. What is synthesis?
45. What is a paradigm?
46. What is the new conjugation?
47. What is the old conjugation?
48. To which conjugation do the new verbs coming into the English language belong?
49. What is a factitive predicate? Give example.
50. How are adjectives classified as to use? Give example.
51. How are sentences classified as to form?
52. How are sentences classified as to use?
53. What is meant by the genitive case?
54. What is the dative case of a noun or pronoun?
55. Name the classes of adverbs.
56. How many participles are there?
57. What number is the verb when used with the pronoun "you" as subject?
58. What are responsives?
59. What parts of speech are used as connectives?
60. What words are used to bind sentences together?
61. Name the relative adjectives.
62. How do you determine what part of speech a word is?
63. What is enallage as used in grammar?
64. How are letters, marks, signs, and figures made plural?
65. What is it to make a verb?
66. What is the distinction in use between shall and will?
67. Define case.  Name the different cases in English grammar.
68. What is a word?  A letter?  A syllable?
69. When pronouns of different persons are used how should they be arranged?
70. By what parts of speech are adjective clauses introduced?
71. By what parts of speech are adverbial clauses introduced?
72. What are diminutive nouns?  How are they formed?
73. What is the difference between analysis and parsing?
74. What is the fundamental difference between an adjective and an adverbial modifier?
75. State what modes of the verb are used in principal, what in subordinate, and what in abridged propositions.
76. What is a figure of speech ? A figure of syntax ?
77. Name the different methods of distinguishing the masculine and the feminine genders.
78. Why is the Anglo-Saxon said to be the basis of the English language ?
79. What is universal grammar ?
80. In grammar, does gender mean sex ?
81. How are nouns classified as to gender?
82. What may the possessive indicate ?
83. Why do we add self or selves to the simple personal pronouns ?
84. What is a dialect ?
85. Name some dialects of English.
86. From what languages is the English chiefly derived ?
87. What are some of the special uses of the pronoun "it" ?
88. Give the rules governing the uses of a and an.
89. Why do we say an hour, a university, a ewe, many a one ?
90. What is a verb ? Whence the name ?
91. What is a verb-phrase? Illustrate your answer.
92. How is the progressive form of verbs made ?
93. How is the emphatic form of verbs made ?
94. Why are infinitives so called ?
95. Have verbs a subjunctive mode ?
96. What forms of the verb are called composite ?
97. What parts of speech are never modified ?
98. Define a period in grammar.
99. What is the person and number of phrases and clauses?
100. What does the expression of a thought involve?
101. How is a verb in the active voice changed into the passive?
102. Name three objects or advantages in the use of the passive voice, and illustrate with examples.
103. What is the syntax of a word?
104. What verbs may be resolved into a copula and predicate.
105. What are the chief points of difference between nouns and pronouns?
106. What is the difference between pleonasm and expansion?
107. What is the difference between ellipsis and abridgement?
108. Can a noun be used as predicate in any case other than the nominative?
109. How does "If I was" differ from "If I were"?
110. When should a common noun begin with a capital letter?
111. What is a finite verb?
112. Define these terms as used in grammar: epigram, sincope, and oblique.
113. What determines the time expressed by a participle?
114. What are categorical propositions?
115. Which modes are used interrogatively?
116. What is the difference between a predicate adjective and an attributive adjective?
117. How do you distinguish between a verb and a participle having the same form?
118. Name the absolute and the relative tenses.
119. From what sources arise errors in language?
120. What are epicene nouns?
121. What is scanning? To what division of grammar does it belong?
122. Define hyperbaton, allegory, and hyperbole.
123. Define a verse, paragraph, and stanza.
124. What is a foot in poetry?
125. Name the principal kinds of feet used in poetry.
126. Which expression is proper, "the two first", or "the first two"?
127. State when this, that, these, and those should be used.
128. What would be a logical classification of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs?
129. State the contrast between the number-forms of nouns and of verbs.
130. Name and give example of the principal punctuation marks.
131. What are infinitives and participles?
132. Which of the dependent clauses is the simplest in construction?
133. What is the object of the preposition "to" in the sentence "I went up to where it lay"?
134. Parse "when" in this sentence: "We found the date when Rome was founded."
135. What is the grammatical subject of a sentence?
136. What is the logical subject of a sentence?
137. How many tense-forms have verbs?
138. Illustrate the formation of the tenses of the verb give in the indicative mode, active.
139. Of what is the adjective clause the equivalent?
140. By what are co-ordinate clauses joined together?
141. What are co-ordinate clauses?
142. What are cognate objects?
143. What is meant by vernacular language?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. The present indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect participle.
These are called the principal parts of a verb because they form the basis of verbal inflection. No verb can be conjugated without them.
2. By government is meant the power one word has over another to change its form.
By agreement is meant the change of form a word undergoes to indicate its relation to the governing word.
In the sentence, "A man reads," the subject being singular, the verb is compelled to assume the singular form to mark its agreement with its subject, "man." Again, in the sentence, "The men read," the plural subject, "men", compels the verb to assume the plural form "read".
3. The noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, and adverb.
4. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension.
5. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation.
6. The inflection of adjectives and adverbs is called comparison.
7. Grammar, as a science, embraces knowledge of the principles and usages of language.
8. "Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking correctly."
9. It can not. The subject in the first or second person must always be a pronoun.
10. By adding something on at the end; as, tall, taller. By changes made in them; as, man, men. By both adding something and altering the sound of the original word; as, kneel, kneeled, or knelt; brother, brothers, or brethren. By substituting wholly different words; as, I, my, we, and us.
11. It is usually the simplest and briefest form of the word. It is the starting point from which the derived forms are made.
12. Of verbs it is the present infinitive; of nouns, the nominative singular; of adjectives, the positive degree.
13. They are terms each of which means the same as “base of inflection;” the starting point from which a word is inflected. The term “root” is applied to verbs only.
14. English grammar is a description of the principles of the English language as used by good speakers and writers of the present day.
15. The Anglo-Saxon. (See 78.)
16. To report the facts of good language—as it is used in the present day—in an orderly form, so that they may be easily referred to, or learned by any one who has occasion to do so.
17. The complement of a verb is its “completing part,” namely: a word added to the verb to complete the assertion or predication made by it. As, “I feel tired.” “The door stands open.”
18. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. A clause is a dependent sentence. “A phrase is an assemblage of words forming a single expression, but not making complete sense.”
19. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. They have two tense forms, *present* and *past*, with the exception of *must* which is used in the *present* only.

20. Voice, mode, tense, person, and number.

21. It is formed by *prefixing* some form of the verb to *be* to the perfect participle, or third root, of a transitive verb.
22. A personal *pronoun* always stands for the same grammatical person. A relative pronoun may stand for any grammatical person. A personal pronoun may be the subject of an independent clause; a relative pronoun cannot be so used. A personal pronoun is never used conjunctively; a relative pronoun is always so used.

23. The principal elements of a sentence are those necessary in its construction. They are the *subject* and the *predicate*.

24. A sentence may contain five distinct elements; two principal and three subordinate. The subordinate elements are *adjective*, *objective*, and *adverbial* in use. Each of these may *be first*, second, or *third* class in form.

25. As *subject*, *predicate*, *relative*, *appositive*, *interrogative*, *objective*, and *adverbial* clauses.

26. Number, gender, person, and case are called the *accidents*, or accidental properties of nouns and pronouns.
27. Yes, since the phrase is equivalent to an adjective predicate. As “George is without a penny” = “George is penniless.”
28. A *substantive* is a noun.
29. *Inflection* is the change of form of a word, depending on differences of its meaning and use.
30. To show differences of case and of number.

31. Three: *nominative*, *possessive*, and *objective*. The objective case of nouns is always the same form as the nominative. The nominative case, by address, is sometimes called the vocative case. Again, the nominative independent is called the absolute case.

32. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. Their office is to ask a question, or to make an interrogative sentence.
Who is used of persons;
Which is used both of persons and things;
What is used of everything, whether living creatures, or inanimate things.
Whether was formerly an interrogative. As, in the sentence, "Whether is greater, the gift or the altar?"

33. They are words that occupy a position intermediate between real pronouns on the one hand, and nouns and pronouns on the other. Such as the words, each, either, both, many, all, none, anyone, something. Noble Butler calls "who" an indefinite pronoun in the sentence, "I know who built the house."

34. Which differs from what in being selective.

35. (a) Preterit is a Latin word for "gone by, past," hence the preterit tense is the past tense.
(b) The pluperfect tense is what some authors call the past perfect tense.

36. Who, which, what, and that.
Who, used to represent persons.
Which, and what, to represent things.
That, to represent both persons and things.
Harvey and others call "as" a relative after the words such, many, and same. And, Noble Butler says, if "as" is a relative according to the above statement, "than" is a relative after words in the comparative degree. "This is more lead than I can carry." Here "than" refers to "lead," and is the object of "carry."

37. Language is any method of communicating thought or feeling. In the study of grammar it is the method of expressing thought by means of printed or oral speech.

38. (a) Defective verbs are those which want some of the principal parts. They are ought, beware, would, quoth or quod, wit, wis, wot.
(b) Redundant verbs are those which have more than one form for their past tense or perfect participle.
39. The co-ordinate forms of conjugation are the progressive, the emphatic, and the interrogative.
40. (a) A reflexive verb is one that has for an object the same person or thing as its subject. " She admires herself."
(b) An impersonal verb is one whose subject, " it," refers to no particular antecedent, but only helps express that some action or process is going on. "It rains." "It is cold."
41. There are three classes of prepositions: simple, complex (preposition-phrases), and compound.
In the sentence, "The well is twenty feet deep," a late author on the subject of English grammar supplies a supposed ellipsis, making it read, "The well is deep [to the extent of] twenty feet." The phrase enclosed in brackets is called a "complex preposition, which takes for its object the noun, " feet." Mr. Harvey in his " English Grammar" says the noun, "feet," is "in the objective case without a governing word" [expressed]. Dwight Whitney in his admirable "Essentials of English Grammar," says: "We may best call this use of the noun an adverbial objective: that is, an objective case used with the value of an adverb." There is no need of supplying the so-called "complex preposition" in sentences like the above example. The original sentence is " good English," and it should not be marred and weakened by inserting between its elements such clumsy phrases as "to the extent of," "to the distance of," and the like.
42. Of a subject we may predicate:
(a) What it does;
(b) What qualities it possesses;
(c) What it is.
Of these predicates, (a), is always a verb, (b), an adjective, (c), a noun or pronoun.

43. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements.
44. Synthesis is the construction of sentences from words.
45. A paradigm is a scheme, or model form by which to inflect words.
46. The new conjugation is the "regular," or as sometimes called, the "weak" conjugation.
47. The old conjugation is the "irregular," or "strong" conjugation.
48. All new verbs coming into use are of the regular or weak conjugation. The past tense and perfect participle of verbs of the new conjugation are spelled alike, and end in ed.

49. A factitive predicate is an adjective or noun brought by a transitive verb into relation with its object, as qualifying or describing that object. "They planed the board smooth." "They made him their leader." In the first sentence "smooth" belongs to "board." In the second example, "leader" modifies "him."

50. Adjectives are classified according to use into three divisions: attributive, appositive, and predicate. "The old man knelt by her side;" attributive. "The man old and weary walked slowly on;" appositive. "The man was old and careworn;" predicate.

51. As to form: simple, complex, and compound.
52. As to use: assertive, interrogative, and imperative.
53. The so-called "genitive case" is what is commonly called the possessive case.

54. The "dative case" corresponds to the indirect object of transitive verbs, or to the objective case with the preposition "to" or "for." It is often called the dative-objective."

55. With respect to their meaning and use adverbs are divided into five classes; adverbs of time, place, cause, manner, and degree. To the above may be added modal, interrogative, and conjunctive adverbs.

56. There are three participles: the present, the perfect, and the compound.
57. It is always plural, even though only one person is addressed. Avoid such forms as, "Was you at the lecture last evening, Mr. Hinton?"
58. The words yes and no when used in replying, or responding to a question, are called responsives.
59. Conjunctions, prepositions conjunctive adverbs, relative pronouns, relative pronominal adjectives, and relative conjunctions.
60. Conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, relative pronouns, relative adjectives, and relative conjunctions.
61. Which and what are the only relative adjectives.
62. By its form, and its meaning and use in a sentence.
63. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modification for another. As, "than whom [who] a fiend more fell is nowhere found." "It was me [I] at the door."
64. By adding the sign, 's: as, t's, 4's, +'s, 7's and 9's.
65. To put it in any required form.
66. Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third future tenses, are used to denote futurity. Will, in the first person, and shall in the second or third, denote necessity, or determination.

67. Cases are forms of nouns and pronouns that indicate their relations to other words.

There are three case-forms—distinguished as nominative, possessive, and objective. Of these, the nominative singular is the base of inflection from which the others are derived: as,
Boy, nominative. He, nominative.
Boy's, possessive. His, possessive.
Boy, objective. Him, objective.

It will be observed that the objective case-form of nouns is the same with the nominative, while most of the pro-nouns have a special case-form for use when the word is the object of a verb or preposition. And it is "partly by analogy with the pronouns, and partly because many other languages related with English, and even the En-glish itself in earlier times, do distinguish the object from the subject in nouns as well as in pronouns, that we us-ually speak of nouns as having an object case."

68. (a) A word is the sign of an idea; (b) a letter is a character used to represent an elementary sound; (c) a syllable is a letter or combination of letters capable of being uttered by a single impulse of the voice.

69. The second person should precede the third, and the third should precede the first; as, "You, he, and I were playmates."
70. By relative pronouns and relative conjunctions. The relative conjunctions are where, whence, whither, when, why. They are also called relative adverbs.
71. By conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs; also, by prepositional phrases; and, not unfrequently, compound relatives introduce propositions equivalent to adverbial elements; as "Carry out my orders whoever may interpose."

72. (a) They are nouns that mark the things which they signify, as small of size. (b) They are formed by adding to nouns the suffixes, kin, let, ling, ock, el, erel, et; as, lambkin, brooklet.

73. Analysis deals with sentences; parsing, with words.

In analysis, a sentence is separated into its elements, and their relations and dependencies are given.
In parsing, words are classified as certain parts of speech, and their properties and relations are stated.
74. The difference lies in their use, depending upon the part of speech they are made to modify; as, "He stands firm." Here the word "firm," may be an adjective belonging to the subject "he," or it may be considered an adverb modifying the verb "stands." Adjective elements modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbial elements modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs.
75. The indicative, the imperative, and the potential, in principal sentences; the subjunctive, the indicative, and the potential, in subordinate sentences; the infinitive and the participial, in abridged sentences.
76. (a) A departure from the ordinary use of words, either in form, construction, or literal signification.
(b) A departure from the ordinary construction of words.
77. (a) By using different words; as, boy, girl.
(b) By different terminations; as, priest, priestess.
(c) By prefixes and suffixes; as, man-servant, maid-servant; turkey-cock, turkey-hen.
78. Because Anglo-Saxon words predominate in the writings of modern English authors.
On examination of passages selected from standard English works, it is found that of every hundred words, about sixty are of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the most of the remainder are from the Latin and Greek, in the proportion of six of the former to one of the latter.
79. By universal grammar is meant those laws of language that are common to all tongues.
80. It does not.
Gender, in the proper use of the term, means that form (spelling) of nouns (and of pronouns) which indicates the sex of the person or thing which they represent. For example, the noun "man," and the pronoun "he," show that a person of the male sex is meant: the noun "woman," and the pronoun "she," show that a person of the female sex is meant: the nouns "person," "child," and "individual," and the pronoun "it," show that no particular sex is meant, sex not being taken into consideration in the mind of the speaker when using these terms. Hence, these words have no gender, since they do not indicate by their form the sex of the objects which they represent.

81. They are, properly, divided into two classes, viz.: gender-nouns and non-gender nouns. This classification is based on the principles stated in the above answer (80). Grammarians, as a rule, classify nouns under the subject "gender," into four classes; masculine, feminine, common, and neuter.

82. We may indicate by the possessive case, ownership, authorship, origin, or kind.
83. Self (singular), and selves (plural), are added to the simple personal pronouns to form their compounds which have two principal uses. First, to mark emphasis; as, "I, myself, did it". Second, as the reflexive object of a verb; as, "She admires herself".

84. It is the form of speech peculiar to the people of different regions of a country, who speak essentially the same parent language.
85. The English of Ireland, or of Scotland, is a dialect of the English language.

86. Taking the Anglo-Saxon as the basis of English, the languages from which the English words have been chiefly derived are the German, Latin, French, and Greek. Or, it may be said the chief sources of origin of English words are the Latin, the German, and the Greek, since French is a Latin language.
87. As subject, it may represent a predicate of any gender, person, or number. And, it frequently stands as apparent subject of a verb instead of a phrase or clause which is the real subject. Again, it is often used as subject without reference to any particular antecedent. In this use it is called an impersonal subject.

88. A should be used before words beginning with a consonant sound. An should be used before words beginning with a vowel sound. A and an are used with nouns in the singular number only.

89. We say an hour because h in the word "hour" is silent, consequently the first sound is a vowel sound. A is used before the other words mentioned, because they begin with a consonant sound, either that of y or u.

90. A verb is a word that asserts or declares. The name "verb" comes from the Latin "verbum," meaning word. A verb, as the name indicates, is the word of a sentence, since no sentence can be formed without a verb.

91. A verb-phrase is an expression composed of one of the roots of a verb and an auxiliary to show either tense or mode, or both; as, am writing, may have been writing, had been written, etc.

In the phrase, am writing, the base is the fourth root (write, wrote, written, writing,) of the verb [to] write, and to it is prefixed the present (first root) of the verb, [to] be, to form the present progressive of the verb [to] write.
In the phrase, may have been writing, "have been" is prefixed as an auxiliary to express time, and "may" is used as an auxiliary to express mode, the potential.
In the phrase, had been written, the third root of the verb [to] write is the base, with "had been" as a prefix to express time; "been" being the perfect of [to] be, and "had," the past of [to] have, the two words forming the so-called past perfect of [to] be, and the entire phrase, the past perfect passive of [to] write.

92. By prefixing either the present or the past root of [to] be to the present participle (fourth root) of a verb; as am writing, was writing.
93. By prefixing either the present or past root of [to] do to the present indicative of a verb; as, do write, did write.
94. Because such verbal expressions are not limited in form (spelling) to mark agreement in person and number with their subjects. For illustration, "A man reads," "Men read:" "I read," "Thou readest." In the first two sentences the number of the subject governs the form (spelling) of the verb. In the last two, the person of the subject governs the form (spelling) of the verb. Or, in other words, the person and number of the subject govern the form of the verb. But some verbal expressions are not so governed, their form being the same whatever the person and number of the subject used with them; as, "I desire you to go, him to go, them to go, herself to go, everybody to go." Such forms are called infinitives, since they are not limited or restricted in form, by their subjects, to mark agreement in person or number.
95. There is but one verb in the English language that has a subjunctive mode, that is, a form distinct from the indicative. The verb referred to is the copula, "to be."
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
I am. (if) I be.
I was. (if) I were.
I had been. (if) I had been.
"The subjunctive form of the subjunctive mode is obsolescent."
96. Verb-phrases formed by uniting auxiliaries with infinitives or participles.
97. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
The interjection is not called a "part of speech" by some authors.

98. A sentence so constructed that its meaning is suspended till the close.

99. All phrases and clauses are of the third person and singular number; as, " Three times five is fifteen." " That he intended to defraud his creditors is now clearly shown."

100. The expression of a thought involves the selection of a subject, and the predication of either:
(a) What it does;
(b) What it is; or,
(c) What qualities it possesses.

101. Change the verb into the passive form; then make the subject in the active the object of a preposition, and the object in the active the subject in the passive.

102. First, to conceal the actor; as, " My pen was broken at recess."
Second, to give prominence to an act; as, "All things were created by God."
Third, to state an act when the agent is unknown; as, "A horse was stolen last night."

103. By the syntax of a word is meant its construction in a sentence.

104. Every verb may be resolved into a copula and predicate, or " into a copula and attribute."

105. A noun as subject is always of the third person, a pronoun may be subject in any person.
A noun never has a conjunctive use, a class of pronouns (relatives) always has.
A noun may be modified by an attributive adjective, a pronoun never can be so modified.

106. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary to the full construction of a sentence. Expansion

changes the class of an element, but its full force as a modifier is retained.

107. "In ellipsis, words are omitted because the connection between the elements of a sentence can be grasped by the mind without using them, but they must be supplied in parsing and analysis." In abridgement, the class of the element is changed by substituting an equivalent expression for an entire proposition; but a sentence shortened by abridgement retains its original force as a modifier, and it is not necessary to expand it in parsing or analysis.

108. A noun may be used as predicate in the nominative, the possessive, or the objective case.

109. "If I was" is indicative: "If I were" is subjunctive. The sign "if" does not determine the mode of a verb, mode being a form (spelling) of the verb alone. But one verb (to be) in the English language has a subjunctive form.

110. When it begins a sentence after a full pause.
When the object it represents is personified.
When it comes from a proper noun through the application of a particular name to each of a class or group of objects.
When it becomes a word of special importance.

111. A finite verb is one that is limited (finited) in form to mark agreement in person and number with its subject.

112. "Epigram is a sentence in which the form of the language contradicts the meaning conveyed."
Syncope is the omission of a letter or letters in the middle of a word.
Oblique is a term by which the other cases are distinguished from the nominative in its various constructions.

113. The time expressed by the principal verb in the sentence in which the participle is used.
114. They are principal propositions; those that are assertive in form,

115. The indicative, and the potential.
116. A predicate adjective is joined to a noun or pronoun by a copulative verb. An attributive adjective is joined to a noun without the aid of a connective. A predicate adjective may modify a pronoun: an attributive adjective can not do so.
117. By the way they are used in a sentence.
118. The absolute tenses are the present, the past, and the future. The relative tenses are the present perfect, the past perfect and the future perfect.
119. From hearing language used improperly, and from a lack of knowledge of orthography and syntax.
120. Those nouns which when construed as either masculine or feminine, may be considered as virtually including both sexes; as, “Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south?”
121. Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which it is formed. It belongs to the subject of Prosody.
122. (a) An inversion of words from the natural order of arrangement. (b) A figurative discourse in which fictitious events represent and illustrate realities. (c) “An extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth.”
123. A verse is a single line of poetic composition. A paragraph is a sentence or a number of sentences of prose, on a branch of a subject. A stanza is a number of lines in poetry, arranged according to the laws of versification.
124. A foot is a number of syllables grouped according to the laws of metrical composition.
125. The principal feet are the iambus, the trochee, the anapest, and the dactyl.

126. Most grammarians of the present day state that usage justifies the employment of either expression. But logically, "the first two" is the better arrangement of the phrase.

127. This and its plural these should be applied to objects nearer than others of the same class in view. That and its plural those should be applied to objects farther away than others of the same class in view.

128. Each of the parts of speech named could be logically and naturally grouped under three heads, viz.: SIMPLE, DERIVATIVE, and COMPOUND.

129. Nouns add the letter s to the singular to make the plural; verbs drop the letter s from the singular form to make the plural. The contrary of these rules is of course true.

130. The comma (,), the colon (:), the semi-colon (;), the period (.), the question mark (?), the curves (()), the dash (—), the exclamation point (!), and the quotation marks ("").

131. The infinitive is a VERBAL NOUN expressing in noun-form that which the verb asserts. The participle is a VERBAL ADJECTIVE.
132. The adjective clause.
133. The clause, "where it lay".

134. "When" is a relative conjunction, and joins the clause "Rome was founded," to "date". "When Rome was founded" may be called an appositive clause, limiting "date".

135. The grammatical subject is the "apparent" subject, that which stands in the relation of the real subject. The pronoun it, is often used as the grammatical subject of a sentence in which it represents a phrase or clause which is the real subject; as, "It is wrong to tell a lie." Here "it" is the grammatical or apparent subject, while the true or logical subject is "to tell a lie." Some grammarians call "it" the real or logical subject in sentences like the above, and parse the phrase or clause which it represents, in apposition with "it," making the sentence read, "It, to tell a lie, is wrong."

136. It is the real subject. (See 135.)

137. Verbs have but two tense-forms, present and past, the other tenses being represented by verb-phrases. Thus, I see, I saw, I shall see; of which, "see" is the present tense-form, "saw" the past, and "shall see" a phrase made up of the present "see," and "shall" as auxiliary, and represents the future of "to see."

138. The divisions of time are—
PRESENT Made on (1st root.)
PAST (2d root.)
FUTURE (1st root with auxiliary.)
Imperfect or Absolute Tenses.
PRESENT PERFECT Made on (3d root with auxiliary.)
PAST PERFECT (3d root with auxiliary.)
FUTURE PERFECT (3d root with auxiliary.)
Perfect or Relative Tenses.

INDICATIVE MODE.
1st 2d 3d 4th
To GIVE : roots—give, gave, giv(e)en, giv(e)ing.
PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE.
I give. I gave. I shall or will give.
PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT.
I have given. I had given. I shall or will have given.

139. It is always the equivalent of an attributive or appositive adjective.
140. By co-ordinating conjunctions.
141. Those that are of the same rank with one another, either as being alike dependent, or independent, with the same construction.
142. Objects that are "allied" or "related" in meaning to the verbs that govern them; as, "I dreamt a dream." "He sleeps the sleep that knows no waking."
143. A person's native language. "One's mother tongue."

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
SOME SUGGESTIVE PARSINGS.
[SENTENCES SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM "WHITNEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH."]

ADJECTIVES.

1. The sun seemed shorn of his beams.
2. Few and short were the prayers we said.
3. Ambition makes my little less.
4. John has the letter written.
5. You see him running.
6. She wrings the clothes dry.
7. With him lay dead both hope and pride.
8. They all, with one consent, began to make excuse.
9. He was a far-seeing, and a high-minded statesman.
10. The last impossible, he fears the first.
11. The children came running and shouting.
“Shorn” is an adjective, derivative, from the verb shear, cannot be inflected, and is predicated of the subject, “sun.”
“Few” and “short” are adjectives, simple, can be inflected, positive degree, and are predicated of the subject, “prayers.”
“Less” is an adjective, derivative, from the adjective little, can be inflected, comparative degree, *factitive predicate of the noun, “little.”
“Written” is an adjective, derivative, from the verb write, cannot be inflected, †appositive, and belongs to “letter.”
“Running” is an adjective, derivative, from the verb run, cannot be inflected, appositive, and belongs to “him.”
“Dry” is an adjective, simple, can be inflected, positive degree, factitive predicate of “clothes.”

*Brought into relation with the direct object by the verb.
†Same relation as a noun or pronoun in apposition.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

"Dead" is an adjective, simple, cannot be inflected, *adverbial predicate, and belongs to "hope" and "fear."
"All" is an adjective, simple, cannot be inflected, appositive, and belongs to "they."
"Far-seeing" is an adjective, compound derivative, can be inflected, attributive, and belongs to "states-man."
"Impossible" is an adjective, simple, cannot be inflected, appositive, and belongs to "last."
"Running" is an adjective, derivative, cannot be inflected, adverbial predicate of "children."

NOUNS.

1. The proud countess was only a beggar-girl in her childhood.
2. The lambkin skips playful o'er the lawn.
3. James is taller than his sister.
4. The last impossible, he fears the first.
5. She walks a very queen.
6. Who broke this slate? William.
7. He is liked as a teacher.
8. His being a boy saved him.
9. We read of Cæsar's crossing the Rubicon.
10. That book is John's.
11. John's book lies by Harry's.
12. That book of John's is well bound.
13. The well is ten feet deep.
14. They watched all night long.
15. They called him a coward.
16. He gave his friend a book.
17. They made him their leader.
"Countess" is a gender-noun, feminine, derivative, singular, nominative, subject of "was."
*Modifies both subject and verb.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

“BEGGAR-GIRL” is a gender-noun, feminine, compound, singular, nominative, predicate of “countess.”
“LAMBKIN” is a noun, derivative, diminutive, singular, nominative, subject of “skips.”
“SISTER” is a gender-noun, feminine, simple, singular, nominative, after the comparative “than.”
“LAST” is a noun-adjective, simple, singular, nominative, pendant.
“QUEEN” is a gender-noun, feminine, simple, singular, nominative, predicate of “she.”
“WILLIAM” is a gender-noun, masculine, proper, singular, nominative, by position
“TEACHER” is a noun, derivative, singular, nominative, by apposition with “he.”
“BOY” is a gender-noun, masculine, simple, singular, nominative, predicate with “being.”
“CÆSAR’S” is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possessive, limits “crossing.”
“JOHN’S” is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possessive, predicate of “book.”
“HARRY’S” is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possessive, object of “by.”
“JOHN’S” is a gender-noun, masculine, singular, possessive, object of “of,” and limits “book.”
“FEET” is a noun, simple, singular, objective, adverbial object, limits “is deep.”
“NIGHT” is a noun, simple, singular, objective, adverbial object, limits “long.”
“COWARD” is a noun, simple, singular, objective, factitive predicate of “him.”
“FRIEND” is a noun, simple, singular, objective, dative, object of “gave.”
“LEADER” is a noun derivative, singular, objective, factitive predicate of “him.”

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PRONOUNS.

1. I know who broke the window.
2. He has more books than he can read.
3. He has as many books as he can read.
4. It is fine weather, Mr. Blodston.
5. They asked him to leave.
6. I knew it to be them.
7. The lad hurt himself with a knife.
8. I made the book his.
9. That boy is a friend of mine.
10. That book is hers.
11. That horse of yours looks old.
12. It is wonderful how she can sing.
"Who" is a pronoun, indefinite, nominative, * subject of "broke".
"Than" is a pronoun, relative, antecedent "books", objective, † object of "can read".
"As" is a pronoun, relative, antecedent "books", objective, object of "can read".
"It" is a pronoun, ‡ impersonal, nominative, subject of "is".
"Him" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent name of person spoken to, objective, dative object of "ordered".
"It" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent "them", objective, objective subject of "to be".
"Them" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent name of persons or things spoken of, objective, predicate of "it".
"Himself" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent "lad", objective, reflexive object of "hurt".
* The clause "who broke the window" is the object of "know".
† "Than," originally a comparative conjunction.
‡ The office of "it", when used as above, is to enable the speaker to make an assertion when no definite agent can be named.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

"His" is a pronoun, † possessive, factitive predicate of "book".
"Mine" is a possessive pronoun, objective, object of the preposition "of".
"Hers" is a possessive pronoun, nominative, predicate of "book".
"Yours" is a possessive pronoun, objective, object of the preposition "of".
"It" is a pronoun, personal, antecedent "how she can sing", nominative, grammatical subject of "is".

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.

1. To be contents his natural desire.
2. It is more blessed to give than to receive.
3. The teacher told them to begin.
4. The very earth seemed to tremble.
5. We have studied long enough to rest.
6. They saw her depart.
7. He was about to call a cab.
8. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die.
9. We are so delighted to go.
10. Leaves have their time to fall, and flowers to wither.
11. Tom's being here was a lucky thing.
12. We read of Cæsar's passing the Rubicon.
13. It stands firmly planted.
14. He, being weary, has retired for the night.
15. We, standing on the summit of the peak, beheld the broad valley below.

"To be" is the present infinitive of the verb be, used as a noun, nominative, subject of "contents."
"To give" is the present infinitive of give, used as a noun, nominative, logical subject of "is."

† The words "his", "mine", "hers", "yours", as used above, are forms of the personal pronouns used in the relation of adjectives. They are classed by different authors as "possessive pronouns", "possessive adjectives", or simply "possessives".

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

"To RECEIVE" is the present infinitive of receive, used as a noun, nominative after the comparative "than."
"To BEGIN" is the present infinitive of begin, used as a noun, dative object of "told."
"To TREMBLE" is the present infinitive of tremble, used as an adverb, modifies "seemed."
"To REST" is the present infinitive of rest, and used as an adverb, modifies "enough."
"DEPART" is the present infinitive of depart object of "saw," and adjunct to "her".*
"To CALL" is the present infinitive of call, used as a noun, object of "about."
"To DIE" is the present infinitive of die, used as a noun, nominative, predicate of "to live."
"To GO" is the present infinitive of go, used as an adverb, and belongs to "delighted."
"To FALL" is the present infinitive of fall, used as an adjective and limits "time."
"BEING" is the present participle of be, used as a noun, nominative, subject of "was."
"PASSING" is the present participle of pass, active, transitive, used as a noun, objective, object of the preposition "of."
"PLANTED" is the perfect participle of plant, † adverbial predicate of "stands."
"BEING" is the present participle of be, used appositively, and with "weary" limits "he."
"STANDING" is the present participle of stand, used as an adjective, appositive, limits "we."

* "Her [to] depart" is the object of "saw," "[to] depart" being a kind of adjunct to "her."
† Modifies both subject and verb.

QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY.

1. Define letter, syllable, elementary sound.
2. What is a digraph? A trigraph?
3. What is a diphthong? A triphthong?
4. What is an aphthong? An alphabet?
5. What are the organs of the voice?
6. What are the organs of articulation?
7. What is a word? What is accent?
8. What is the basis of a syllable?
9. What are silent letters?
10. What is the use of silent letters?
11. How are words classified as to origin?
12. How are words classified as to form?
13. How many syllables in a word?
14. What is a prefix? What is a suffix?
15. What are prefixes and suffixes called collectively?
16. How many kinds of accent?
17. What words have accent?
18. To what does every consonant in a word belong?
19. How are the consonants divided with respect to their powers?
20. How are consonants classified with reference to the organs of speech?
21. Which letters are never silent?
22. What are subvocals, semivowels, linguals?
23. What are labials, sibilants, aspirates?
24. What is phonology?
25. What is orthography?
26. What is orthoëpy?
27. What faculties of the mind are called into use by the study of orthography?
28. When does one letter become a substitute for another?
29. What are cognates?
30. What are the primary elements of the English vocabulary?
31. How many elementary sounds in the English language?
32. What is the power of a letter?
33. What is the name of a letter?
34. What is a permanent compound word?
35. What is a temporary compound word?
36. When a word is divided at the end of a line, what rule applies?
37. When is a consonant in a word said to be antecedent?
38. When is a consonant in a word said to be subsequent?
39. Name the double consonants.
40. Which letters are liquids, and why so called?
41. Name the labials.
42. Name the dentals.
43. Name the palatals.
44. Name the linguals; the linguo-dentals.
45. What is said of the letter h?
46. What is said of w and y?
47. By what is q always followed?
48. What is a derivative word?
49. What is a primitive word?
50. What is a simple word?
51. What is a compound word?
52. What part of a derivative is the radical ?
53. What is it to syllabify a word ?
54. Give rules for the use of the hyphen.
55. What is a word of one syllable called ?
56. What is a word of four or more syllables called ?
57. What is a word of two syllables called ? Of three syllables ?
58. Name the letters that have no sound of their own.
59. Name the vowel letters.
60. Which letters are always vowels ?
61. Name the consonant letters.
62. When is i a consonant ?
63. When is u a consonant?
64. Which consonants are never doubled ?
65. How is x pronounced when initial ?
66. How distinguish th aspirate from th subvocal?
67. When is b silent?
68. When is c silent ?
69. When is d silent?
70. When is g silent ?
71. When is h silent?
72. When is k silent?
73. When is l silent?
74. When is m silent ?
75. When is n silent ?
76. When is p silent?
77. When is s silent ?
78. When is t silent ?
79. In what word is v silent ?
80. When is w silent ?
81. In what word is z silent?
82. What is an aphthong ?
83. What is the last syllable in a word called ?
84. What is the last syllable but one called ?
85. What is the last syllable but two called ?
86. What is the base of a compound word ?
87. What is the modifier in a compound word ?
88. Name three kinds of spelling.
89. How are nouns and verbs having the same spelling distinguished from each other ?
90. What are synonyms ?
91. What are antonyms ?
92. What are homonyms?
93. Give the rules for spelling words ending in e.
94. Give ten rules for the use of capital letters.
95. Give rules for doubling the final consonant in a word.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY.

1. A letter is a character used to represent an elementary sound made by the organs of speech. A syllable is a sound or combination of sounds uttered by a single impulse of the voice; or a letter or combination of letters representing sound so uttered. An elementary sound is a simple sound.
2. A digraph is a combination of two letters representing a single sound. A trigraph is a combination of three letters representing a single sound, or forming one syllable.
3. A diphthong is a combination of two vowels forming one syllable or sound. A triphthong is a combination of three vowels forming one syllable or sound.
4. (a) A letter or combination of letters representing no sound in words in which they occur. (b) The letters of a language constitute an alphabet.
5. The essential organ of the voice is the larynx. It is assisted in the production of voice by the lungs, trachea, and mouth.
6. The tongue, teeth, lips, and palate
7. (a) A syllable or a combination of syllables symbolic of an idea. (b) A stress of voice given a syllable of a word to distinguish it from others in the same word.
8. Some vowel or combination of vowels.
9. Those that have no sound in the words in which they occur.
10. Either to modify the power of other letters or to determine the signification of words.
11. Into two classes; primitives and derivatives.
12. Into two classes; simple and compound.
13. In every word there are as many syllables as there are vowel sounds.
14. (a) A significant syllable or word joined to a word at its beginning to modify its meaning.
(b) A significant syllable or syllables joined to the end of a word to modify its meaning.
15. The collective name of prefixes and suffixes is affixes.
16. Two kinds, viz: primary and secondary.
17. Every word of more than one syllable has one of its syllables accented.
18. Every consonant, unless it is silent, belongs to some vowel or combination of vowels.
19. Into two general classes, namely: semi-vowels and mutes.
20. The principal divisions are linguals, palatals, dentals, and labials. Other classifications are linguo-dentals, palato-nasals, etc.
21. F, j, q, r, x, y, v (except in sevennight), and z (except in rendezvous.)
22. (a) Consonants whose sounds are obstructed by the vocal organs.
(b) Consonants whose sounds may be prolonged.
(c) Consonants whose sounds are modified chiefly by the tongue.
23. (a) Consonants whose sounds are modified chiefly by the lips.
(b) Consonants that are uttered with a hissing of the voice.
(c) Consonants that are produced by mere emissions of breath.
24. That branch of science which treats of the elementary sounds uttered by the human voice.
25. It is that division of grammar which treats of letters, syllables, and spelling.
26. It is that department of grammar which treats of the correct pronunciation of words.
27. The perceptive faculties and memory; or, chiefly form and memory.
28. When it represents the sound of another letter.
29. Those letters whose elements are produced by the same organs of speech in nearly similar positions.
30. Words of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and French-Latin origin.
31. There are forty-one elementary sounds in the English language.
32. The elementary sound which a letter represents.
33. The term by which it is known.
34. One whose parts are united without a hyphen.
35. One whose parts are united with a hyphen.
36. Use a hyphen to mark the division. A syllable must not be broken at the end of a line.
37. When it precedes the vowel or diphthong to which it belongs.
38. When it follows the vowel or diphthong to which it belongs.
39. Ch, gh, ph, sh, th, wh, and ng.
40. L, m, n, and r. They are called liquids on account of the fluency of their sounds; i. e., the readiness with which they unite with other sounds.
41. B, f, m, p, v, w, and the double consonant wh.
42. J, s, z, ch, sh, c and g soft. These are classified in the table of consonants in this work as linguo-dentals.
43. K, q, x, h, ng, c and g hard: x is properly a palato-dental, and ng is a palato-nasal.
44. Linguals, l and r; linguo-dentals, d, j, s, t, z, ch, sh, th sub-vocal, th aspirate, c and g soft. N is a linguo-nasal, and y is a linguo-palatal.
45. It is a mere breathing, and is silent after g initial, or when preceded by r: also after a vowel in the same syllable. It is also silent in the words, heir, hour, herb, honor, and their derivatives.
46. W as a vowel corresponds with u. Y as a vowel corresponds with i. They are consonants when followed by a vowel heard in the same syllable.
47. It is always followed by the letter u.
48. It is one formed from some other word as a base with one or more formative elements.
49. It is one not derived from any other word in the language to which it belongs.
50. It is one not composed of more than one word.
51. It is one formed by the union of two or more simple words.
52. It is the base to which the formative elements are joined.
53. To separate it into syllables according to approved pronunciation.
54. The hyphen is used (a) to join the parts of words or expressions temporarily compounded; (b) to syllabify words; (c) to mark the division of a word at the end of a line.
55. A monosyllable.
56. A polysyllable.
57. (a) A dissyllable; (b) a trisyllable.
58. They are c, x and q.
59. A, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.
60. The letters a, e, and o; i and u are usually vowels.
61. They are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, y, z, and sometimes i and u.
62. When it has the consonant-sound of y; as in alien.
63. When it has the consonant-sound of w; as in quit.
64. The letters x, j, and h.
65. At the beginning of words x has the sound of z, except in words from the Spanish or German when it is pronounced as th aspirate (Sp.), ts (Ger.).
66. We distinguish between th aspirate and th sub-vocal by uniting t and h in the sub-vocal with a bar, thus th.
67. When preceded by m or followed by t in the same syllable. It is also silent in bdellium.
68. It is silent in the words czar, victuals, indict and their derivatives; also, in muscle, and other words having the termination scle.
69. This consonant is silent only in the words Wednesday and handkerchief.
70. Before m and n final, and when initial followed by n.
71. After g initial, or when preceded by r; also after a vowel in the same syllable. It is also silent in the words heir, hour, herb, honor, and their derivatives.
72. Before n in the same syllable; it is likewise silent after c.
73. In many words, especially before a final consonant.
74. It is silent when it precedes n in the syllable; as in mnemonics.
75. When final after l or m.
76. When initial before n, s, or t; likewise in the words, raspberry, receipt, semptress, and corps.
77. It is silent in the words aisle, isle, island, demesne, puisne, viscount; and generally at the end of French words adopted into English.
78. Before ch in the same syllable; also in Christmas, éclat, mortgage, hostler, mistletoe, chestnut, and a few others; it is likewise silent in the terminations ten and tle after s and f; as in fasten, soften, listen, etc.
79. In the word sevennight (sen'-nit).
80. It is always silent before r in the same syllable, as in write; it is likewise silent in the words sword, answer, two, toward, and whoop.
81. In the word rendezvous.
82. An aphthong is a letter or combination of letters having no sound; a silent letter.
83. The ultimate syllable.
84. The penultimate syllable, or penult.
85. The antepenultimate syllable, or antepenult.
86. It is the word which represents the fundamental idea of the compound.
87. It is the word which describes the other member of the compound.
88. Phonic, oral, and written.
89. By their accent; as, con'-tract, (n), con-tract' (v). By their use; as, this is a sure cure for headache (n); cure him of his evil habits (v).
90. Words of like significance in the main, but with a certain unlikeness as well.
91. Words that are opposite in meaning to other given words.
92. Words having the same sound but differing in meaning, and usually in spelling.
93. (a) Words with e final usually drop it on taking an additional syllable beginning with a vowel.
(b) Words ending in e drop it before the termination able, unless e is preceded by c or g, when it is retained.
(c) Words ending in e silent generally retain it on taking an additional syllable beginning with a consonant.
(d) All adverbs ending in ly, and nouns ending in ment, retain e final of the primitives.
94. (1) The first word after a full pause should begin with a capital letter; and,
(2) Proper names and their derivative adjectives;
(3) Every line of poetry;
(4) The pronoun I and the interjection O;
(5) All titles of honor;
(6) All appellations of Deity;
(7) Words of special importance in a sentence, or heading;
(8) Days of the week, and months of the year;
(9) The names of objects personified;
(10) Direct quotations.
95. (1) Derivative words of more than one syllable, with the accent on the last, and ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final letter.
(2) Words ending in l, double it on taking the termination ly
(3) Words of one syllable ending in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, generally double the final letter.

WORDS IN COMMON USE OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED.

To Teachers:—Select daily five words from the following list and write them on the blackboard for pupils to copy into blank-spellers prepared specially for such exercises. See that the pupils have access to an unabridged dictionary from which to determine diacritical marks, pronunciation, and etymology. The following day review critically the work of each pupil.

Abdomen. aforesaid. ancient.
absorb. again. antipodes.
accent. aged. apex.
acclimate. agriculture. apodosis.
acorn. alias. apostle.
adult. ally. apparatus.
advertise. almond. arctic.
advertisement. ameliorate. arithmetic.
arsenic. chagrin. dénouement.
ate. chaldron. depot.
attaché. chastisement. derisive.
aunt. children. desiccate.
axiom. clapboard. dessert.
bade. clerk. destine.
balm. coadjutor. devoir.
barrel. coffee. diamond.
been. cognomen. diphtheria.
beneath. Colosseum. discern.
bequeath. column. disfranchise.
bestial. comptroller. distich.
bifurcate. concise. docile.
billet-doux. conduit. dolce.
biography. conquest. donkey.
bird. conspiracy. eastward.
blackguard. cooper. éclat.
bleat. cordial. edile.
bombshell. costume. either.
bouquet. coupé. élite.
breeches. courteous. elm.
bronchitis. creek. elysium.
buoy. cucumber. English.
cachet. cuirass. ennui.
café. cuisine. envelope.
caisson. cupola. epoch.
calf. curtail. equerry.
Calliope. cynosure. equipage.
camelopard. dahlia. equitable.
camphor. deaf. ere.
canine. débris. European.
caret. début. executive.
catch. decisive. executor.
cemetery. deficit. exhibit.
cerement. demonstrate. exorable.
exposé.
falcon.
fascia.
favorite.
February.
feoff.
fertile.
film.
finale.
finance.
financier.
flaccid.
forbade.
forehead.
formidable.
fortnight.
fricassee.
frontier.
gallant.
gangrene.
gaol.
gape.
ghoul.
governor.
granary.
gratis.
grease.
guardian.
gum-arabic.
handkerchief.
harem.
heard.
hearth.
heinous.
helm.
history.
horse-radish.
housewife.
hovel.
humble.
hundred.
hymeneal.
hyperbole.
idea.
idiosyncrasy.
illustrate.
impiously.
Indian.
inertia.
infecund.
inquiry.
integral.
interesting.
inventory.
iron.
irrational.
irreparable.
isinglass.
isolate.
Italian.
italic.
jalap.
joist.
jovial.
Julia.
kiln.
knout.
landau.
lang syne.
lapel.
laryngeal.
laugh.
legislature.
leisure.
lenient.
lettuce.
liaison.
lichen.
listen.
litigious.
Lutheran.
luxury.
lyceum.
mademoiselle.
marital.
maritime.
Mary.
mausoleum.
mayoralty.
memoir.
menagerie.
mercantile.
milch.
minute.
mirage.
misogyny.
mistletoe.
mobile.
mongrel.
monsieur.
much.
museum.
mustache.
my.
myself.
nape. it. rheumatism.
national. poem. rise.
ne'er. position. romance.
nephew. preface. roof.
new. pretext. root.
niche. pretty. route.
nuisance. privacy. routine.
nuptial. produce ruffian.
obligatory. profile. sacrament.
oblige. progress. sacrifice.
obscenity. protégé. sagacious.
odeon. provost said.
office. prussic. sapphire.
often. pumpkin. saucy.
only. put. saunter.
opponent. quadrille. sausage.
orchestra. quarrel. says.
orthoepy. quay. scallop.
oxide. quinine. séance.
palm. qui vive. seigneurial.
papier maché. quoit. sepulcher.
parabola. radish. sergeant.
parent. rapine. silhouette.
partner. ratio. simultaneous.
partridge. rational. sirrah.
patent. recess. sirup.
pathos. recognize. slabber.
patron. régime. sleek.
patronize. reparable. slough.
pedestal. reputable. soirée.
Penelope. resin. solder.
peony. respite. soot.
pianoforte restaurant. sough.
pincers. résumé. souvenir.
placard. retail. squalor.
stalwart. the. veterinary
stamp. theater. violent.
steelyard. their. waft.
strategic. them. waistcoat.
suavity. therefore. wary.
subtle. thereof. weapon.
such. tiny. wharf.
suite. tortoise. whether.
superfluous. toward. which.
supple. treble. whole.
sword. tribune. wiseacre.
syringe. trio. with.
tapis. tuberose. women.
tarpaulin. Tuesday. world.
tassel tune. wrestle.
taunt tyranny. yacht.
teat. umbilicus. yet.
tedious. uncourteous. yew.
telegraphy. unheard. yonder.
tenet. uninteresting. your.
tepid. usurp. zenith.
Terpsichorean. varioloid. zoology.
tête-à-tête.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING.

The following classification of the consonants is intended to facilitate the learner's progress in ORTHOGRAPHIC PARS-ING.
The student should prepare a small chart showing the diacritical markings of the vowels and consonants to use in connection with the table given below.

MODEL FOR PARSING.

Mate, a monosyllable: spelled orthographically m-a-t-e; phonically m-a-t.
M is a consonant, subvocal, labial, semi-vowel, antecedent to its vowel a. [When is m silent?]
A is a vowel, long sound, indicated by writing a macron over it.
T is a consonant, aspirate, linguo-dental, mute, consequent to its vowel a.
E is a vowel, silent, indicated by drawing a straight oblique line across it. [When is e silent?]

TABLE OF CONSONANTS.

b, subvocal, labial, mute ; silent before m or after t in the same syllable, and in the word bdellium.
c, hard (before a, o, u, l, r, and k, s, or t final), aspirate, palatal, mute, substitute for k. C is silent in czar, victuals, indict, and the termination scle; as in muscle.
c, soft (before e, i, or y), aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel, substitute for s or z.
d, subvocal, linguo-dental, mute ; silent in the words Wednesday and handkerchief.
f, aspirate, labial, semivowel ; never silent.
g, hard (before a, o, u, h, l, r, and sometimes before e, i, or y), subvocal, palatal, mute. G is silent before m or n final, and when initial followed by n.
g, soft, (generally before e, i, or y), subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel ; substitute for j.
h, aspirate, palatal, semivowel ; silent after g initial, a vowel in the same syllable, or when preceded by r or t.
j, subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel ; never silent.
k, aspirate, palatal, mute; silent before n or after c in the same syllable.
l, subvocal, lingual, semivowel ; usually silent before a final consonant, and always after a, when followed by f, m, k, or v, (except in the word valve).
m, subvocal, labial, semivowel ; silent before n in the same syllable.
n, subvocal, linguo-nasal, semivowel ; silent when final after l or m.
p, aspirate, labial, mute ; silent when initial before n, s, or t.
q, aspirate, palatal, mute ; never silent, has the power of k, and is always followed by u.
r, subvocal, lingual, semivowel ; never silent.
s, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel ; silent in the words corps, belleslettres, isle, puisne, viscount, and a few others. (See answer 77).
t, aspirate, linguo-dental, mute ; silent before ch, in the same syllable, and in the terminations ten and tle.
v, subvocal, labial, semivowel ; silent in sevennight (sennit) only.
w, subvocal, labial, semivowel ; silent before r in the same syllable.
x, aspirate, palato-dental, semivowel ; never silent, equals cs or gs.
y, subvocal, linguo-palatal, semivowel ; never silent.
z, subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel ; silent in rendez-vous only.
th, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel.
th, subvocal, linguo-dental, semivowel.
ch, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel.
sh, aspirate, linguo-dental, semivowel.
wh, aspirate, labial, semivowel.
ng, subvocal, palato-nasal, semivowel.
ph, aspirate, labial, semivowel, substitute for f or v.
gh, aspirate, palatal, mute when a substitute for k.
gh, aspirate, labial, semivowel when a substitute for f

QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC

1. Define problem, solution, and demonstration.
2. The sum and product of two numbers given, how find the numbers?
3. The product and quotient of two numbers given, how find the numbers?
4. What is a standard unit? A scale? A radix?
5. Why are U. S. bonds better investments than individual notes?
6. Define direct proportion; inverse proportion.
7. What is a power of a number? The third power? The first power? The zero power?
8. What relation exists between similar figures as to their linear dimensions? As to their areas? As to their solidities?
9. Define a prime number? Give the largest possible prime number.
10. Give a short method for squaring numbers ending in 5.
11. What are the principles of factoring?
12. What is the reciprocal of a number? Give a practical illustration.
13. State the shortest rule for squaring a number composed of 9's.
14. What is the difference between a common, and a decimal fraction? What is a decimal?
15. Give a rule for writing decimals.
16. What is a point? A line? A surface? A solid?
17. What is the standard unit of weight? How determined?
18. Why does it take 10 feet more of hewn than of round timber to make a ton?
19. What is meant by the terms plane, plane figure, perimeter, and apothegm?
20. What is the difference between interest and percentage?
21. What is a set of exchange?
22. What is meant by re-insurance? What are "short rates"?
23. What is the difference in reckoning time in simple interest and in partial payments?
24. What is a legal rate of interest? What is usury?
25. What rate of interest does unpaid annual interest bear? What is the legal rate on debts due the United States?
26. What is annual interest?
27. Which is the more profitable to the discounter, notes given for short or for long time? Why?
28. Define a straight line, a curved line, parallel lines, concentric circles.
29. Define prism, cylinder, parallelopiped.
30. What are the fundamental principles of Arithmetic? Why?
31. Which mathematical signs take precedence?
32. Which should be taught first, long or short division? Why?
33. What is the unit of a fraction? A fractional unit?
34. What is the face of a note? What is the amount?
35. What is a concrete number? An abstract number?
36. What is a denominate number? A simple denominate number? A compound denominate number?
37. What is a rule in Arithmetic?
38. Define arithmetical analysis.
39. What is the simple value of a figure? The local value?
40. Upon what principles is the Roman notation based?
41. Define interest, and give a general formula for computing it.
42. What is the difference between true and bank discount? Which is the more equitable?
43. Define chord, tangent, and secant.
44. Name and define four kinds of triangle
45. What is the standard unit of angles?
46. What is salvage?
47. Can private banks issue their own currency?
48. Define equated time and focal date.
49. What is money? What is the standard unit of value?
50. What is a mint? Locate three in the United States.
51. Which years are leap-years?
52. How find the volume of an irregular solid?
53. What is meant by the "money of account" of a nation?
54. What is the standard unit in the Metric System?
55. What is the unit of length in the Metric System? Of capacity? Of weight? Of solidity? Of area?
56. What is the origin of the sign $?
57. What is a company? A corporation? A charter?
58. Define a tax, poll tax, inventory, and assessor.
59. What is the complement of a number? The supplement?
60. What is a perfect number? Give the largest perfect number that can be written.
61. What are duodecimals?
62. What are the fundamental operations of Arithmetic?
63. What is the fundamental synthetic process of Arithmetic ?
64. What is the fundamental analytic process of Arithmetic ?
65. What is the unit of land measure ? What are its dimensions ?
66. What do the characters 1', 1², and 1³ represent in business transactions ?
67. What are trade discounts ?
68. What is meant by the terms "long" and "short" as used by stock brokers ?
69. When is a note said to go to protest ? What is a protest ?
70. What is general average ? Jetson ? Flotsam ? Ligan ?
71. What is ratio? What are its divisions? Its symbol?
72. In reckoning time in interest should the day a note begins, or the day it matures, or both, be included ?
73. What do you understand by "the 47th problem of Euclid" ? State a practical application of its principles.
74. Define proportion. What is its symbol?
75. Define simple, compound, partitive, and conjoined proportion.
76. What is a mean proportional ? What are homologous terms ?
77. What is the sign of cancellation ?
78. What is the base of computation in brokerage ? In commission ?
79. What is the value of π (pi)? How obtained? What is its reciprocal ?
80. How many degrees in arc of length equal to radius? How determined ?
81. What is a pyramid ? A cone ? The frustum of a pyramid or cone ?
82. What is an ellipse? Its diameters?
83. What is the surface relation between a circumscribed and an inscribed square?
84. What is the surface relation between a circumscribed and an inscribed equilateral triangle?
85. What is a factor of a number? How find one of three equal factors composing a number?
86. On what should the interest deducted from a draft be computed? Why?
87. What in mathematics is meant by a typical figure?
88. What is a sphere? A spheroid?
89. Define medial and distributive proportion.
90. What are United States bonds?
91. How many classes of United States bonds? Define each class.
92. How are the different issues of United States bonds named?
93. How are registered bonds transferred?
94. Name the issues of United States bonds now in circulation.
95. What is a national bank-note? A greenback?
96. When and for what purpose were greenbacks issued?
97. Which is preferable, national bank-notes or greenbacks? Why?
98. Define arithmetic as a science. As an art.
99. What is a continued fraction?
100. Why invert the divisor in the division of fractions?
101. What is the standard unit of time?
102. Define duty. How many kinds? What is a tariff?
103. Define surd, radical, and irrational quantity.
104. What is the radical sign? What is its origin?
105. When and by whom was the decimal point introduced? The multiplication table?
106. What is a draft? Name the parties to a draft.
107. Define acceptance, endorsement, and days of grace.
108. What is arbitration of exchange ?
109. What are the systems of notation in use? Of numeration ?
110. Write the present year (1885), in the Roman notation.
111. What is a repetend ? A perfect repetend?
112. How find the true remainder by dividing by factors ?
113. What is the standard unit of length ?
114. What is the standard unit of surface ?
115. What is the standard unit of volume ? Of capacity ?
116. How do you cast the 9's or 11's out of a number?
117. For what purpose do we cast out the 9's or 11's?
118. When are fractions reduced to higher terms?
119. What things are considered in arithmetical progression ?
120. What things are considered in geometrical progression ?
121. Define evolution and involution.
122. When is a number divisible by 3 ? By 9 ?
123. When is a number divisible by 11 ? By 37 ? By 25 ?
124. Given the time of sunrise, or sunset, how find the length of the day and the night ?
125. Explain the "Indian method" of determining the number of days in any month.
126. Upon what day of the week will a 30 day note fall due ? A 60 day note ? A 90 day note ?
127. Will an "acceptance" or an "endorsement" written with a pencil hold good in law ?
128. A boy found a knife and sold it for twenty-five cents ; what per cent. did he gain ?
129. What is a ratio ? A proportion ?
130. What are the terms of a proportion ?
131. How many methods of solving problems in proportion ? Name them.
132. Find the solidity of the frustum of a cone the radii of whose bases are 9 and 5 respectively, altitude 15.
133. Find the diameter of a sphere whose surface contains as many square units as there are cubic units in its volume.
134. Give the formulas for interest.
135. Give the formulas for arithmetical series.
136. Give the formulas for geometrical series.
137. Give formula for solving "time problems."
138. A tree 80 feet high breaks at such a distance from the ground, that the broken part clinging to the stump, strikes the ground 25 feet from the root of the tree ; how find the height of the stump ?

139. A tree 80 feet high breaks at such a distance from the ground, that the broken part clinging to the stump, strikes the ground 25 feet from the root of the tree : how find the length of the part broken off?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC.

1. (a) A question proposed for solution ; (b) a process by which a required result is obtained ; (c) a process of reasoning by which the truth of a proposition is proven.
2. Extract the square root of the difference between the square of the sum and four times the given product, and divide by 2 to obtain the greater number.
3. Divide the product by the quotient, and extract the square root of the result, to obtain the less number.
4. (a) The original unit of weight, measure, or value, deposited among the archives of the government, and from which all legal standards are copied ; (b) the law of relation between the successive orders of units in any system of notation ; (c) the arbitrary number expressing the law of the scale.
5. Bonds run for longer periods of time, are better secured, and are exempt from taxation. (See 97.)
6. (a) A proportion in which each term increases or diminishes, as the one on which it depends increases or diminishes ; (b) a proportion in which each term increases as the term upon which it depends diminishes, or diminishes as it increases.
7. (a) The product of unity as a base, and a certain number of factors each equal to the number ; (b) the continued product of the base and three factors each equal to the number; (c) the product of the base and one factor; (d) the base (unity) itself.

8. (a) They are proportional; (b) they are proportional to the squares of their like dimensions; (c) they are proportional to the cubes of their like dimensions.
9. (a) It is one that contains no integral factors except itself and unity: (b) 2,147,483,647.

10. Square the right hand figure, and place on the left of the result the product of the remaining number by itself increased by 1.

11. (a) Every prime factor of a number is an exact divisor of that number.
(b) The only exact divisors of a number are its prime factors, or the product of two or more of them.
(c) Every number is equal to the product of its prime factors.
(d) A factor of two or more numbers is a factor of their sum or difference.
(e) A factor of a number is a factor of any multiple of that number.

12. (a) Unity divided by that number.
(b) Inverting the divisor in the division of fractions.

13. Begin at the left and write one less than the number of 9s in the number, one 8, as many ciphers as 9s written, and one 1.

14. A common fraction is one the denominator of which may be any number other than 10.
A decimal fraction is one the denominator of which is 10 or some product of 10's.
A common fraction has its denominator expressed; a decimal fraction may or may not have its denominator expressed; if not expressed, it is called simply a decimal.

15. Write the quantity as a decimal fraction (with the denominator expressed), then make as many decimal places in the numerator (beginning at the right to point) as there are ciphers in the denominator. Thus, 10000 = .0257.

16. (a) That which has position but not magnitude.
(b) A magnitude generated by a point in motion, having length only.
(c) A magnitude generated by a line in motion, having length and breadth.
(d) A magnitude generated by a surface in motion, having length, breadth, and thickness.
17. (a) The Troy pound containing 5,760 grains.
(b) By taking the weight of 22.7944 cubic inches of distilled water at its maximum density, or 22.8157 cubic inches at 62° Fahrenheit, the barometer in both cases being at 30 inches.
18. Because an allowance of ⅓ is made for waste in sawing.
19. (a) A surface such that any two points within it, can be joined by a straight line lying entirely within that surface. (b) A limited portion of a plane. (c) The boundary of a figure. (d) A perpendicular let fall from the center of a polygon upon a side.
20. The chief difference is that time is a factor of interest, and not of percentage.
21. A bill of exchange drawn triplicate, and so expressed that when one of the bills is paid the other two become void.
22. (a) "A contract by which an insurer of property obtains indemnity against loss by his insurance from some other insurer." (b) Rates charged by companies when the time is less than one year.
23. In simple interest a month is considered 30 days; in partial payments, the actual number of days the month contains.
24. (a) The rate fixed by statute. (b) Interest computed at a higher rate than the law allows. Is 4% legal in the State of Ohio ? Is 8% ? Is 9% ?
25. (a) The legal rate of the State in which the note is given. (b) 6 per cent.

26. It is the simple interest on the principal and on any interest which is not paid when due. To collect annual interest, the note must bear the words "with annual interest," or "interest payable annually."
27. (a) Long notes. (b) Because the discount on all notes varies as the time to run, and if it were referred to the same principal, the rate of interest would be the same on long and on short notes; but as the amount of discount increases, the proceeds or principal diminishes, and the rate of interest correspondingly increases.
28. (a) The shortest distance between two points, or a line that does not change its direction. (b) A line changing its direction at every point. (c) Lines that are in the same plane and equi-distant from each other throughout their whole extent. (d) Those that have a common center, or parallel circumferences.
29. (a) A solid having two parallel polygonal bases, and other faces parallelograms. (b.) A prism whose bases are bounded by an infinite number of sides. (c) A prism whose faces are parallelograms.
30. Addition and subtraction; since multiplication is a short method of addition, and division is a short method of subtraction, the fundamental principles are necessarily reduced to the two given above. (See 62.)
31. Multiplication and division; when these are used together they have their particular effects in the exact order of their occurrence. As "96 ÷ 12×4=32". Ray's Higher Arithmetic. Other authorities would make 2 the correct result in the above, thus giving the sign × precedence over all others.
32. Long division; because short division is a mental performance of the written operations of long division.
33. (a) The unit which is divided into equal parts. (b) One of the equal parts into which a unit is divided.

34. (a) The sum for which a note is given. (b) The face with the interest. Many authorities call "the sum promised to be paid" the face of a note. This definition virtually includes both the sum for which a note is given and the interest which may accrue thereon.

35. (a) A number that designates the kind of unit; (b) A number that does not designate the kind of unit.
36. (a) A concrete number expressing a particular kind of quantity. (b) A number composed of units of the same denomination. (c) A number composed of units of two or more denominations.

37. A particular description of a process deduced from a demonstration.

38. The process of solving problems by comparing the conditions and principles involved, independent of set rules.

39. (a) The value expressed when standing alone, or when occupying unit's place in whole numbers, or the extreme right in decimals. (b) The value given a figure depending upon the position it occupies. Thus, 7 in unit's place represents the simple value of the digit, but 7 in hundred's place represents its local value, "local" being a derivative of "loco" meaning place.

40. (1) The repetition of a letter repeats its value. (2) A letter placed to the left of one of greater value is subtracted from it, but placed to the right, is added to it. (3) A bar drawn over a letter or number increases its value a thousandfold.

41. (a) Money, or its equivalent, paid for the use of anything. (b) P X R X T = I.
42. (a) The interest on the true discount for the given time. This interest amounts to considerable when the debt is large and the time long. (b) True discount.
43. (a) A straight line connecting the extremities of an arc of a circle. (b) A line which has but one point in common with a curve. (c) A line which cuts a curve in two or more points.

44. Right angled triangle; one having an angle of 90 degrees. Equilateral triangle; one whose sides are equal. Isosceles triangle; one having two of its sides equal. Sca-lene triangle; one having no two sides equal.

45. The right angle, or 90 degrees.
46. A compensation allowed to parties who voluntarily assist in saving a ship or cargo from destruction by fire or water.
47. They can, but not advantageously, owing to the heavy tax imposed upon their circulation.
48. (a) The date at which several debts due at different times may be equitably discharged. (b) The date from which time is reckoned in averaging accounts.
49. (a) Money is the measure of value. (b) The dollar is the standard unit for the United States and Canada.
50. (a) The place where money is coined. (b) Philadelphia, New Orleans, and San Francisco. The name mint is derived from Moneta, a surname of Juno, at whose temple Roman money was first coined.

51. All years exactly divisible by 4, except those ending with two ciphers, which must be exactly divisible by 400.

52. Fill with water a vessel whose capacity is easily determined: immerse the solid; then remove it and compute the volume of the water displaced, which will equal the volume of the solid.

53. The standard monetary unit of the nation: as, the Dollar of the United States, the Pound Sterling of England, the Franc of France, and the Mark of Germany.
54. The meter, which is equal in length to 39.37043 inches.
55. (a) The meter; (b) the liter; (c) the gramme; (d) the stere; (e) the are.

56. The origin of the symbol $, or the United States dollar mark, has been ascribed to several sources. By some it is supposed to represent the U written upon the S, denoting U. S. (United States). Some think it is a modification of the figure 8, having reference to 8 reals, or piece of Eight, as the dollar was formerly called; others, that it represents the Pillars of Hercules, which were stamped on the Pillar Dollar; and others, still, that it is a combination of the initials P. and S., from the Spanish Peso Duro, signifying Hard Dollar. As it is used in Portugal to note the thousand's place, it is probable that it originated in that country; a Mil-reis or thousand reis, is written thus, 1$000.—Crittenden.
57. (a) An association of two or more persons to transact business as an individual. (b) An association of persons authorized by law to transact business as an individual. (c) A code of laws granted by the legislature of a State, defining the powers of a corporation.
58. (a) An assessment on persons and property for the support of government; (b) an assessment on male citizens of legal age; (c) a list of the names of taxable inhabitants, and the value of each person's property; (d) an officer appointed to estimate the value of taxable property.
59. (a) The difference between that number and a unit of the next higher order; as the complement of 94 is 6, or 100 - 94. (b) The difference between that number and a unit of the next lower order; as, the supplement of 105 is 5, or 105 - 100.
60. (a) A number, the sum of whose divisors is equal to that number; as 28, the divisors of which are 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, the sum of which equals 28. Is a number a divisor of itself? If so, is the definition of a perfect number as given above correct? (b) 230,584,390,813,952,128.

61. Numbers of the radix of whose scale is 12. The subject of "duodecimals" is one of very great importance, and it is to be regretted that it is not treated of in many works on arithmetic, in use in our common schools.

62. Numeration and notation, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. (See answer 30.)
63. Addition. Because it involves the building up of numbers.
64. Subtraction. Because it involves the separation of numbers.
65. (a) The acre. (b) It is a square, one side of which is 3.16 chains, 12.64 rods, or 209 feet.
66. They are symbols for 1/4, 1/2, 1/3 respectively. When used with any number these exponents represent 1/4, 1/2, 1/3, etc.
67. They are deductions made from the wholesale price-list of goods, and are represented as so many per cent. off: as, 25, 10, and 5% off.
68. (a) A broker buys "long," when he buys in anticipation of a rise : (b) A broker sells "short," when he sells below the market price, for future delivery, expecting to purchase in the interval, at lower figures.

69. (a) Upon non-payment when due. (b) A written notice served by a notary on the indorsers or security of a note, advising that the note was not paid when due.
70. (a) A method of apportioning loss incurred at sea, among the owners of ships, freight, and cargo. (b) A term applied to goods thrown overboard that sink and are lost. (c) A term applied to goods thrown overboard which float and may be recovered. (d) A term applied to goods thrown overboard, and which are fastened to a buoy.

71. (a) The measure of the numerical relation of like quantities. (b) Arithmetical and geometrical. Arithmetical ratio is the relation expressed by a quotient; geometrical

cal ratio is the relation expressed by a difference. (c) The single colon (:). The horizontal line separating the numerator from the denominator of a fraction is, in reality, a symbol of ratio.
72. The day of maturity only, except in Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia, where both the day of date and the day of maturity are counted.
73 (a) That the square constructed on the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle, equals the sum of the squares constructed on the base and the perpendicular.
(b) In finding the length of rafters when the width of a building and the pitch of roof are given. Or in "squaring the foundation" of buildings.
74. (a) An equality of ratios. (b) The double colon (::). The sign, =, is also frequently used.
75. (a) A proportion composed of simple ratios; it is sometimes called "THE SINGLE RULE OF THREE." (b) A proportion composed of one or more compound ratios; it is sometimes called "THE DOUBLE RULE OF THREE."
(c) The process of separating a number into parts having a given ratio to each other. (d) The process of arranging quantities of equal value in the form of an equation, making each consequent of the same kind, the next antecedent: this is also called the "chain rule of arbitration."
76. (a) A term the square of which equals the product of the extremes: as, 12:6:3. (b) Terms having the same relative values: as in a proportion, the antecedents, or the consequents.
77. A short straight line drawn obliquely across a number.
78. (a) The par value of stock. (b) The amount of the sale or purchase.
79. (a) 3.1416 nearly : or 22/7, nearly.
(b) By computing the perimeters of an inscribed and a circumscribed polygon of six sides ; from this data the perimeters of polygons of double that number of sides, and so on, until the difference between the perimeters is not appreciable in ordinary mathematical computations, the polygons nearly coinciding with a circle.
(c) .3183.
80. (a) 57.2957. (b) By dividing 180 degrees by π.
81. (a) A solid with one base and a finite number of triangular faces having a common vertex.
(b) A solid with one base and an infinite number of triangular faces having a common vertex.
(c) The solid remaining after cutting off a segment with a plane parallel to the base.
82. (a) A surface generated by passing a plane obliquely through the sides of a cylinder.
(b) Transverse and conjugate.
83. The circumscribed is twice the inscribed in area.
84. The circumscribed is four times the inscribed in area.
85. (a) An integral divisor of a number. (b) By extracting the cube root of the number.
86. On the face, because the purchaser is deprived of that amount of money during the time the draft has to run.
87. A figure used in determining the relation of the parts to each other in similar figures ; the dimensions used as the base of comparison being unity. Thus the relation of a side to a diagonal of a square, is found from a square whose side is unity.
88. (a) A solid generated by the revolution of a semi-circle upon its diameter as an axis. (b) A solid generated by the revolution of a semi-ellipse upon its diameter as an axis.
89. (a) The process of finding the mean or average value of a mixture, or the process of finding the proportion of articles which will form a mixture at a certain average value. It is sometimes called alligation.
(b) It is the process of dividing a number, or quantity, into parts which are proportional to given numbers. It is also called partitive proportion or partnership.
90. They are notes, or promises to pay, issued by the Government, and secured by the sacredness with which we view our deserving credit for financial integrity.
91. (a) Two; coupon, and registered. (b) Bonds transferable by delivery, with interest certificates attached, called coupons. (c) Bonds without interest certificates attached, bearing the name of the owner, and transferable by assignment acknowledged before the president or cashier of a national bank, accompanied with the seal of the bank.
92. By the date of issue, time to run, and the rate of interest which they bear.
93. The currency sixes and the continued sixes, by assignment acknowledged before a Notary Public ; these and all others are also transferable by assignment acknowledged before the president or cashier of a national bank. (See 91.)
94. Currency sixes, 6 per cent. semi-annually, in currency.
Continued sixes of '81, 3½ per cent. semi-annually, in coin.
Continued fives of '81, 3½ per cent. quarterly, in coin.
Four-and-a-half per-cents, 4½ per cent. quarterly, in coin.
Four-per-cents, 4 per cent. quarterly, in coin.
95. (a) A printed note bearing the signatures of the president and cashier of a national bank, promising to pay to the bearer, on demand, a sum of money specified thereon. (b) A non-taxable, legal tender note issued by the Government, at the beginning of the civil war, and so called from the back of the note being stamped in green ink, to prevent counterfeiting.

96. (a) At the beginning of the civil war; (b) to carry on the operations of the Government, there not being at that time sufficient coin with which to do so.
97. (a) Greenbacks; (b) They are non-taxable, while national bank notes are taxable.
98. (a) Arithmetic as a science treats of the nature and properties of number. (b) As an art it teaches the various methods of computing numbers, and of applying a knowledge of such methods to useful and practical purposes.—Sadler.
99. A continued fraction is a fraction whose numerator is 1, and denominator an integer plus a fraction whose numerator is also 1, and denominator a similar fraction, and so on.—Brooks.
A continued fraction is one whose denominator is continued by being itself a mixed number, and the denominator of the fractional part again continued as before, and so on.—Hay.
100. To indicate the number of times the divisor is contained into unity; or, to find the reciprocal of the divisor.
101. The day of twenty-four hours.
102. (a) Duty is a tax laid by the Government on imports. (b) Two: ad valorem and specific. (c) A schedule of duties.
103. They are analogous terms, meaning a quantity whose root cannot be extracted.
104. (a) It is the sign √, used to indicate the extraction of a root. (b) It is a modified form of R, the initial letter of the word root.
105. (a) In 1602, by Lord John Napier, an English mathematician. (b) Pythagoras, the eminent Grecian philosopher.
106. (a) A draft is a domestic bill of exchange; or, it is a written order by one person to another to pay a specified sum of money to a third party named in the writing, or to his order, or bearer. (b) The drawer or maker of the draft, the drawee or the party on whom the draft is drawn, and the payee or the party in whose favor the draft is drawn.

107. (a) When the word “accepted” is written across the face of a draft by the drawee, with date and signature, the bill is called an acceptance. (b) An order of transfer written on the back of a draft by the payee. (c) The number of days allowed by law for the payment of drafts, notes, etc., after they have become nominally due.

108. The process of finding the value of a bill of ex-change which passes through one or more intermediate points.

109. (a) The Arabic, or with figures; the Roman, or with letters; the word-method, or in common language. (b) The French, with three figures in a period; the En-glish, with six figures in a period.

110. MDCCCLXXXV.

111. (a) The figure or set of figures repeated in a cir-culating decimal. (b) It is a repetend formed of as many decimal figures as the number of units, less 1, in the de-nominator of the fraction producing it.

112. By multiplying each partial remainder, except the first, by all the preceding divisors, and then adding these products to the first remainder.

113. The yard, which is identical with the Imperial yard of Great Britain, a copy of which was obtained in 1856, and deposited at Washington. Duplicates of this are deposited at each State Capital.
The Imperial yard was determined by taking 360,000 parts of a pendulum divided into 391,393 equal parts, which vi-brated seconds in a vacuum at the sea level, in the lati-tude of London.

114. The square yard. (See 113.)
115. The cubic yard, for ordinary measurements; the cord of 128 cubic feet, for wood; and the perch of 24.75 cubic feet, for stone. (b) The wine gallon of 231 cubic inches, for liquid measure; the Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, for dry measure.
116. Divide the sum of the digits of the number by 9, or 11, and find the excess.
117. To prove the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
118. When they are changed to a common denomina-tor.
119. The first term, the last term, the number of terms, the common difference, and the sum of the terms.
120. The first term, the last term, the number of terms, the common ratio, and the sum of the terms.
121. (a) The process of extracting roots of numbers: (b) The process of finding the powers of numbers.
122. (a) When the sum of its digits is divisible by 3: (b) When the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
123. (a) When the sum of the digits in the odd orders equals the sum of the digits in the even orders: (b) When it consists of three, or some multiple of three, equal digits: (c) When its two right hand digits are divisible by 25.
124. The length of the day is equal to twenty-four hours minus twice the time of the sun's rising. The length of night is equal to twice the time of the sun's rising; or, The length of the day is equal to the time of sunset plus twelve hours, minus the time of sunrise.
125. Close the hand; begin on the knuckle of the index finger and call it January, the depression following, February, the second knuckle, March, and so on, each knuckle representing a month of thirty-one days, and each depression a month of thirty days, except February.

126. (a) Five days later than the day of the week on which the note was given: (b) On the same day of the week on which the note was given: (c) Two days later than the day of the week on which the note was given.
127. Yes. These are written in ink simply to prevent erasures. They may also be written on any part of a note or draft, or on paper attached to these instruments.
128. Infinity; because as the cost is diminished, the selling price remaining fixed, the rate of gain is proportionally increased; therefore, when the cost becomes infinitely small, or an infinitesimal, the rate of gain becomes infinitely large, or infinity.
129. (a) The relation existing between like quantities, expressed by their quotient or by their difference. (b) An equality of ratios.
130. The means and the extremes.
131. (a) Three; Compound Proportion, Cause and Effect, and "Short Analysis."
132. 9^2 x pi = 81pi = area of lower base.
5^2 x pi = 25pi = area of upper base.
sqrt(9^2 x 5^2 x pi^2) = 45pi = area of mean base.
(81pi + 25pi + 45pi) / 3 x 15 = 755pi = 2371.9 cubic units.
(See 79).
133. By rule, diam.^2 x pi = equal surface of sphere.
By rule, diam.^3 x pi/6 = solidity of sphere.
Diam.^2 x pi = diam.^3 x pi/6, by condition of problem.
Diam. x pi/6 = pi, by transposition and cancellation.
Diam. = 6, by reducing equation.
∴ 6 (units) is the diameter of the required sphere. (See 79.)

134. (1) I = P X R X T.
(2) P = I / R X T
(3) R = I / P X T
(4) T = I / P X R
135. (a) l = a + (n — 1) d.
(b) S = (a + l) / 2 X n.
136. (a) l = ar^n-1.
(b) S = (rl - a) / (r - 1), or for descending series, (a - rl) / (1 - r).
137. Let 100% of a space = distance traveled by hour hand.
Let 1200% of a space = distance traveled by minute hand.
Let 1100% of a space = distance gained by minute hand.
138. Rule: Square height of the tree, square distance from the root of the tree to where the part falling strikes the ground; find their difference, and divide it by twice the height of the tree; the quotient will be the height of the stump.
139. Rule: Square height of the tree, square distance from its root to where the part falling strikes the ground; find their sum, and divide by twice the height of the tree; the quotient will equal the length of the part falling.

PRACTICAL RULES IN ARITHMETIC.
MENSURATION.

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.
When a Side is Given : Side squared multiplied by .433. When Altitude is Given : Divide the square of the altitude by 1.732.
TO FIND THE ALTITUDE OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.
When a Side is Given : Multiply given side by .866. When the area is Given : Multiply the area by 1.732, and extract the square root of the product.
TO FIND THE SIDE OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.
When the Altitude is Given : Divide the altitude by .866. When the area is Given : Divide the area by .433, and extract the square root of the quotient.
TO FIND THE AREA OF A SCALENE TRIANGLE.
When the three Sides are Given : From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side separately ; multiply together the half sum and the three remainders, and extract the square root of the product.
TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRAPEZOID.
Multiply half the sum of the parallel sides by the altitude.
TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRAPEZIUM.
Multiply the diagonal by half the sum of the two perpendiculars falling upon it from the opposite angles.
TO FIND THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM, SQUARE, RECTANGLE, RHOMBUS.
Multiply the length by the perpendicular height.
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE.
Radius given : Multiply radius by 2 π. (See Arth. question 79.)
Diameter given : Multiply diameter by π.

AREA GIVEN : Extract the square root of 4 π times the area.

TO FIND THE RADIUS OF A CIRCLE.
Circumference given : Divide circumference by 2 π, or, multiply the circumference by .1591.
Area given : Divide the area by π and extract square root of the quotient.

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE.
Circumference given : Divide circumference by π.
Area given : Divide area by ¼ π and extract the square root of the quotient.

TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIRCLE.
Radius given : Multiply the square of the radius by π.
Circumference given : Divide the square of the circumference by 4 π, or, the square of half the circumference by π; or, multiply the square of half the circumference by .3183.
Radius and Circumference given : Multiply radius by half the circumference.

TO FIND THE SIDE OF A SQUARE EQUAL TO A GIVEN CIRCLE.
Multiply the diameter by .8862, or, one-half the square root of π; or, multiply the circumference by .2821.

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE EQUAL TO A GIVEN SQUARE.
Multiply the side of the given square by 1.1283.

TO FIND THE SIDE OF AN INSCRIBED SQUARE.
Diameter of Circle given : Multiply diameter by .7071.
Circumference given : Multiply circumference by .2251.
Area given : Multiply the area by .6366.

TO FIND AREA OF AN INSCRIBED SQUARE.
Radius given : Multiply the square of the radius by 2.

TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE FROM AN INSCRIBED SQUARE.
Divide the side of the given square by .2251.

TO FIND THE SIDE OF THE LARGEST INSCRIBED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.
Multiply the diameter by .866.

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN INSCRIBED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.
Area of circle given : Multiply area of circle by .4138.
Radius given : Multiply the square of the radius by 1.299.

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF THE THREE LARGEST EQUAL CIRCLES THAT CAN BE INSCRIBED WITHIN A GIVEN CIRCLE.
Divide the diameter of the given circle by 2.155.

TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE.
Multiply the product of the conjugate and transverse diameters ½ π, or, .7854.

TO FIND AREA OF A SECTOR OF A CIRCLE.
Take such a part of the area of the circle as the arc is of its circumference.

TO FIND THE AREA OF A SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE.
Find the difference between the area of a sector having the same arc as the segment of the circle, and the area of a triangle formed by the chord of the segment and the radii of the sector.

TO FIND THE AREA OF A SEGMENT OF AN ELLIPSE.
Find the corresponding segment of the circle described upon the same axis to which the base of the segment is perpendicular ; then as this axis is to the other axis, so is the circular segment to the elliptical segment.

TO FIND CIRCUMSCRIBED SQUARE FROM INSCRIBED SQUARE.
Multiply the inscribed square by 2.

TO FIND CIRCUMSCRIBED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE FROM INSCRIBED EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.
Multiply the area of the inscribed triangle by 4.

TO FIND THE AREA OF ANY TRIANGLE.
Multiply the perimeter of the triangle by one-half the radius of an inscribed circle.

TO FIND THE AREA OF ANY REGULAR POLYGON.
Multiply the perimeter by one-half the apothegm.

TO FIND THE LENGTH OF AN ARC OF A CIRCLE.
As 180 is to the number of degrees in the arc, so is π times the radius to the length of the arc.

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A CUBE.
Multiply the square of the side by 6.

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE.
Multiply the square of the radius by 4 π; or, multiply the square of the diameter by π; or, multiply the diameter by the circumference.

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A SPHEROID.
Multiply one sixth of the square of the revolving axis by the product of π and the fixed axis.

TO FIND THE SURFACE OF A FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID OR CONE.
To the areas of the two ends add one-half the product of the slant height and the sum of the circumferences of the bases.

TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A SPHERE.
Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236.

TO FIND THE SIDE OF THE LARGEST CUBE THAT CAN BE CUT FROM A SPHERE.
DIAMETER GIVEN: Multiply the diameter by .5773.

TO FIND THE DIAGONAL OF A CUBE.
Multiply the side of the given cube by 1.732.

TO FIND THE DIAGONAL OF ANY RECTANGULAR SOLID.
Square each of the three dimensions and extract the square root of their sum.

TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF ANY IRREGULAR BODY.
(See question 53.)
Immerse the body in a vessel full of water, and measure the quantity of water displaced.

ARITHMETIC.
MISCELLANEOUS.

TO FIND TWO NUMBERS WHEN THEIR SUM AND DIFFERENCE ARE GIVEN.
Add one-half their sum to one-half their difference for the larger number, and take one-half their difference from one-half their sum for the smaller.
TO FIND TWO NUMBERS WHEN THEIR SUM AND QUOTIENT ARE GIVEN.
Divide the sum by the quotient plus 1, will give the smaller number.
TO FIND TWO NUMBERS WHEN THEIR DIFFERENCE AND QUOTIENT ARE GIVEN.
Divide the difference by quotient less 1, for the smaller number.
TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF CORN IN THE EAR IN ANY REGULAR VESSEL.
Multiply the contents in cubic feet by .4.
For shelled corn or wheat, multiply contents by .8.

QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

1. What is government?
2. What does civil government embrace?
3. What is the earliest form of government?
4. Name the most common forms of government.
5. What is a theocracy? An aristocracy? A despotism?
6. What is a democracy? A republic?
7. Name the three kinds of colonial governments.
8. What were the Articles of Confederation?
9. When was our present form of government organized?
10. What is the fundamental law of the land?
11. What is the Federal Constitution?
12. How was it adopted? When?
13. Name the departments of the Federal government.
14. What is the legislative department?
15. How is it divided?
16. What are the necessary qualifications for a Representative?
17. How are Representatives chosen?
18. For how long a term are Representatives chosen?
19. What salary does a Representative receive? By whom paid?
20. What are the necessary qualifications for Senator?
21. How are Senators chosen?
22. For how long a term are Senators chosen?
23. What salary does a Senator receive? By whom paid?
24. Who is the presiding officer of the House? How chosen?
25. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate? How chosen?
26. What is meant by President pro tem.?
27. What sole power is exercised by the House?
28. What sole power is exercised by the Senate?
29. Why are Senators chosen for a longer period than Representatives?
30. Upon what does the number of Senators depend?
31. Upon what does the number of Representatives depend?
32. Must a Representative be an inhabitant of the District which he is chosen to represent?
33. May a Senator change his residence to another State during his term of office?
34. Are the Territories represented in Congress?
35. Are Representatives and Senators eligible to State or Federal offices during their terms of service?
36. What officers are chosen by the House of Representatives?
37. What officers are chosen by the Senate?
38. When has the President of the Senate a vote?
39. Has the Speaker of the House a vote in that body?
40. Has the President pro tempore of the Senate a vote?
41. What is the salary of the President pro tem. while acting as President of the Senate?
42. Under what circumstances would the Speaker of the House become President?
43. When does the Senate assume judicial functions?
44. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate during the impeachment trial of the President of the United States?
45. Who are subject to impeachment by the House of Representatives ?
46. What judgment can the Senate declare against the President in case of his impeachment?
47. Are persons removed from office by impeachment subject to prosecution under the common law ?
48. Is the President deprived of his official powers during his impeachment trial ?
49. Which is the more select body of statesmen as a whole, the House or the Senate ? Why ?
50. For how long a term is a Representative elected who is chosen to fill a seat made vacant by death, resignation, or removal of a member ?
51. What privileges have members of Congress as to arrest ? As to liberty of speech ?
52. What bills shall originate in the House ? Why?
53. Name all the ways in which a bill, having passed both Houses, may become a law.
54. Why was the power to regulate commerce given Congress ?
55. Why was Congress given power to borrow money?
56. In how many, and in what ways, may the general Government raise taxes ?
57. Can Congress lay an export duty ? Why ?
58. What are retaliatory duties ?
59. From what source does most of the national revenue now come ?
60. What is Protection ? Free Trade ?
61. What is a citizen ? An alien ? An elector ?
62. How may an alien become a citizen of the United States ?
63. Who appoints the times, places, and manner of holding elections for Representatives and Senators?
64. What power is given Congress in the matter of elections for members of that body ?
65. How often shall Congress assemble? At what time?
66. When a vacancy occurs in the representation of any State, how is it to be filled?
67. Who are to determine the right of any person to a seat in Congress?
68. Can Congress compel the attendance of absent members?
69. Has Congress the power to expel members for disorderly behavior?
70. When shall the yeas and nays be called? What are the other methods of voting?
71. Can either House adjourn without the consent of the other?
72. What powers has Congress as to coinage? As to weights and measures?
73. By what authority are post-offices and post-roads established?
74. Name five powers granted Congress.
75. Who has the power to call out the militia?
76. What are letters of marque? What is a bill of attainder?
77. What is the writ of habeas corpus? When may it be suspended?
78. Can a State issue letters of marque? Why?
79. How does Congress protect authors and inventors?
80. Why is Congress given exclusive legislative control over the District of Columbia?
81. For what purposes may Congress authorize the President to call out the militia?
82. Has Congress, or the States, control of the militia?
83. What is an ex post facto law?
84. Who has control of the revenues of the government?
85. What are Congressional appropriations?
86. What is a legal tender?
87. What is the highest judicial authority of the na-tion ?
88. Name five dates at which direct taxes have been laid by Congress.
89. When was the first case of indirect taxation, other than duties on imports ?
90. When did Congress first lay an income tax ?
91. Are the children of citizens of the United States, born in a foreign country, aliens ?
92. Are the children of persons duly naturalized, who were under twenty-one at the date of such naturalization, citizens ?
93. Can an alien, with whose native country the United States is at war, become a citizen during that time?
94. Can a naturalized citizen become President or Vice-President of the United States ?
95. What are "bills of credit" ?
96. Who are Presidential Electors ? How chosen ?
97. When, where, and by whom are the electoral votes counted ?
98. What are the qualifications for President ? For Vice-President?
99. What salary does the President receive ? The Vice-President ?
100. What powers are granted the President by the Constitution ?
101. What is the compass of the pardoning power of the President ?
102. Is the power of appointment absolute with the President ?
103. What is the Civil Service ?
104. When does the President exercise a legislative function ?
105. How long would the President pro tempore, or the Speaker of the House serve, should either succeed to the Presidency ?
106. When are the inauguration ceremonies held, and by whom is the oath of office administered to the President ?
107. What officers constitute the President's Cabinet?
108. What is meant by the Senate going into Executive session ?
109. What class of Postmasters is appointed by the President ? By the Postmaster-General ?
110. The President can make appointments only by and with the advice and consent of the Senate : can he make removals from office without the advice and consent of the Senate ?
111. What is the duty of the President in case the Senate takes no action upon a nomination made by him ?
112. Can the President convene either House alone ?
113. Of what does the Judiciary of the United States consist ?
114. Of what does the Supreme Court consist ?
115. What offices under our Government may be held for life ?
116. Who are United States Marshals?
117. What is the extent of the powers of the Supreme Court ?
118. What is said of trials by jury ?
119. What is treason ? What is piracy ?
120. What form of government does the Constitution guarantee to every State ?
121. How may the Constitution be amended?
122. State the Thirteenth Amendment. When passed?
123. State the Fifteenth Amendment. When ratified ?
124. What is the law as regards the quartering of soldiers among the people in time of peace ?
125. How may a new State be admitted into the Union?
126. Can a person charged with crime be compelled to be a witness against himself?
127. Can a person charged with crime be taken from one State into another?
128. What rights are given the people in the Fourth Amendment?
129. What privilege is given the States in the Second Amendment?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

1. In its political significance, the power by which the inhabitants of a State are ruled, and the manner in which that power is exercised.
2. The object, origin, nature, and forms of govern-ment, the character of laws, and the means and manner of their administration.
3. The patriarchal.
4. Monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.
5. (a) A form of government in which the ruler acts under the immediate direction of God.
(b) A form of hereditary government in which per-sons of rank and wealth exercise the chief authority of state.
(c) An absolute monarchy, or a government ruled by one person clothed with despotic powers.
6. (a) A form of government in which the people make and execute the laws.
(b) A representative democracy. That is, the power to make and execute the laws is exercised by representa-tives chosen by the people, instead of the whole mass of the people participating as in a pure democracy.
7. Provincial or royal, proprietary, and charter.
8. The body of laws under which the United Colonies acted previous to the adoption of the Federal Constitu-tion.
9. The present form of government went into operation at the beginning of Washington's Administration, April 30, 1789.
10. The Federal Constitution.
11. The written fundamental law of the United States.
12. (a) By Representatives of the *Thirteen Colonies in convention assembled, and by being afterwards ratified by the people of the colonies. (b) By nine of the colonies as early as June 21, 1788, New Hampshire being the ninth.
13. Legislative, Judicial, and Executive.
14. The law-making body, or Congress.
15. Into two branches, known as the House of Representatives, and the Senate.
16. Twenty-five years of age, seven years a citizen of the United States, and an inhabitant of the State in which chosen, at the time of his election.
17. Directly by the people.
18. For a term of two years.
19. (a) $5,000, mileage (20 cents per mile), and stationery to the amount of $125. (b) By the United States government.
20. Thirty years of age, nine years a citizen of the United States, and an inhabitant of the State for which chosen, at the time of his election.
21. By the Legislatures of the States.
22. For a term of six years.
23. (a) $5,000, mileage (20 cents per mile), and stationery to the amount of $125 : each Senator has the right to appoint for his assistance a secretary whose salary, $1,000, is paid by the Government. (b) By the United States government.
*Rhode Island sent no delegates to the Constitutional Convention.
24. A member of the House chosen by that body, and who is called the Speaker of the House.
25. (a) The Vice-President of the United States, and called the President of the Senate. (b) By Electors chosen by the States.
26. A member of the Senate, chosen by that body to act as its presiding officer in the case of death, absence, or removal of the Vice-President, or on the latter's becoming President in the case of removal, disability, or death of the President of the United States.
27. The House of Representatives exercises the sole power of impeachment.
28. The sole power to try all cases of impeachment.
29. (1) To make the Senate a permanent body, as by the classification of Senators, the terms of service of but one-third of the members can expire at any one period. (2) To obtain a body of wiser and more experienced men than those constituting the House, since when a representative is to be chosen for a long term, more care will be exercised in the selection; (3) "To check too frequent changes in the laws;" (4) "To obtain independence of popular impulses."
30. Upon the number of States, two Senators being chosen by each State.
31. Upon the number of inhabitants of the several States. Congress determines from each census the ratio of representation.
32. A citizen having the necessary qualifications as to age, etc., may be chosen a Representative of any Congressional District in the State of which he is an inhabitant, though for obvious reasons, Representatives are generally residents of the particular Districts in which they are elected.
33. There is nothing to prevent his doing so, since he is a representative of all the States, and not of a particular State.
34. Each organized Territory is allowed by law to send one delegate to Congress, who may participate in the discussions, but cannot vote.

35. "No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office."

36. The Speaker, a Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arms, Doorkeeper, Postmaster, and Chaplain.
37. A Secretary, Chief Clerk, Executive Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arms, Doorkeeper, and Chaplain.
38. The Vice-President of the United States while acting as President of the Senate, has a vote only when the vote of the Senate is a tie.
39. "He is required to vote in case of ballot, and he may vote on other occasions."

40. He has the same rights as other members of the Senate, and may vote on all measures brought before that body. He is simply a member of the Senate acting for the time as presiding officer.

41. He receives the salary of Vice-President.
42. In the case of death or disability of both the President and Vice-President, and if there were no President pro tempore, the Speaker of the House would act as President.
43. When it sits as a Court, as in the case of trials of impeachment.

44. When the President is impeached, the Chief Justice presides, but in other cases of impeachment, the Vice-President. The reason for the Chief Justice presiding when the President is on trial is apparent, as the Vice-President would become President, should the latter be removed from office.

45. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers acting under the United States government, but not those acting under the control of any State. The term "civil" excludes officers of the Army and Navy.
46. "Judgment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy an office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States."
47. They are.
48. He is not. In 1868 during the progress of the impeachment trial of President Johnson, he continued to discharge the duties of his office.
49. (a) The Senate. The object of the framers of the Constitution in dividing the legislative department of our government into two branches, seems to be for the purpose of making the Senate a restrictive power over the House of Representatives. Influences which might impel the direct representatives of the people to pass harmful or unjust laws, would not be likely to influence a body of men who represent the wisdom, wealth, and respectability of the States.
(b) A popular author on civil government says: The causes which make the Senate the more select body are four in number: (1) It has fewer members. (2) They are elected by the State legislatures instead of by the people. (3) The term of office is longer. (4) The qualifications are higher.
50. For the unexpired portion of that member's term.
51. (a) "They shall in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; (b) and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place." This last clause means they shall not be held to answer before a court of justice for any utterances in debate.
52. (a) "All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose, or concur with amendments, as on other bills." The phrase "for raising revenue" is limited in meaning to levying taxes, either direct or indirect. (b) The members of the House are the direct representatives of the people, and as such, are chosen by the people to protect their interests and to promote their welfare in general. Since the people bear the burden of the taxes, they have a right to say through their Representatives when, to what amount, and for what purpose, taxes shall be levied.

53. (a) By receiving the signature of the President; (b) By the President's failure to return it within ten days (Sundays excepted) after its reception by him; (c) By being passed by a two-thirds vote of each House, over the President's veto.

54. (a) "Because it was a matter of general and universal interest; (b) And, because of the benefits that would flow from uniformity. Under the Articles of Confederation the right to regulate commerce was with the States individually. The commercial interests of no two States being the same, divers regulations existed as to matters of trade, which caused much annoyance in commercial affairs. Among the first subjects discussed in the convention that framed the Constitution, was the matter of commerce, and it was agreed by that body that Congress should have power to regulate trade, as is stated in the Constitution.

55. Since Congress was given power "to raise revenue," "to regulate commerce," and "to declare war," it necessarily followed that it should have power to borrow money. Every nation is likely to incur debts which cannot be paid with its ordinary revenues, and then it becomes necessary to borrow on the nation's credit. The usual way of doing this is to issue interest bearing bonds.

56. In three ways: (a) By direct levies, as poll or property tax; (b) by taxing imports; (c) by taxing home products. The latter tax is called Internal Revenues, and is laid chiefly on distilled liquors, manufactured tobacco, etc.
57. No export duties can be laid, because it would be impossible to lay such taxes so as to bear equally on all the States; this is obvious, when we reflect that no two States ever export exactly the same products.
58. They are special taxes laid by the Government upon goods imported from foreign countries into our own, in retaliation for high duties imposed by those countries upon our exports.
59. Most of the revenue of the Government at present comes from duties on imports.
60. (a) It is the policy of laying high duties on certain classes of foreign goods shipped into our country, in order that like home products may be encouraged and protected.
(b) It is the policy opposed to protection, and argues that, while protection fosters manufactures, it greatly injures many other interests.
61. (a) A person born in this country is called a citizen of it. (b) A person born in a foreign country, whether residing in that country or in this, is called an alien; aliens, upon certain conditions may become citizens of this country. (c) A person vested with the elective franchise by the State in which he resides; one who has the right of suffrage.
62. First, the person desiring citizenship must declare on oath before a Court that it is his intention to become a citizen. Second, he must wait two years after the declaration; then, if he has resided in all, five years in the United States, and one year in the State before whose Court he appears, he may be made a naturalized citizen by renouncing before the court his allegiance to his mother country, and by swearing to support the Constitution of the United States

63. Article I., Section 4, of the Constitution, declares that The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof.

64. The regulations of elections for Senators and Representatives are prescribed by the Legislatures of the respective States, but "Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators."

65. "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day."

66. "When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies." This refers to vacancies in the House. Vacancies in the Senate are temporarily filled by executive appointment.

67. The Constitution declares that "Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and the qualifications of its own members; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business."

68. A number less than a quorum "may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each House may provide."

69. A member may be expelled for disorderly behavior, with the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of the House to which he belongs. A commentator on this subject says: "It seems to be settled that a member may be expelled for any misdemeanor which, though not punishable by any statute, is inconsistent with the trust and duty of a member."
70. (a) In all cases of impeachment, and when one-fifth of the members present desire it. (b) Viva voce, and by tellers.
71. "Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the Houses shall be sitting."
72. (a) Congress has power to coin money, to determine the amount of gold or silver which shall be put in a given coin, and to determine the value of foreign coins in our money. (b) Congress also has power to make the standards of weight and measure uniform throughout the States.
73. By the authority of Congress.
74. (a) To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States;
(b) To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes;
(c) To declare war; grant letters of marque and reprisal; to make rules concerning captures on land and water;
(d) To raise and support armies;
(e) To establish post-offices and post-roads.
75. The President of the United States.
76. (a) A commission bearing the seal of the United States and signed by the President, authorizing the commander of a private armed vessel to seize vessels and cargoes belonging to a foreign nation
(b) An act of a legislative body whereby a person is deprived of life or property, without a judicial trial.
77. (a) A writing issued by the judge of a court to deliver a person from false imprisonment, or from illegal detention. (b) In cases of treason, or when the public safety requires it.
78. It cannot. Because it would give one State power to commit deeds which might involve the nation in war with a foreign power.

79. By providing that authors shall be granted copyrights on their productions, and that inventors shall be granted patents on their inventions.

A copyright gives to the author of a book, pamphlet, etc., the exclusive right of publication and sale of the work copyrighted, for a period of twenty-eight years, with the privilege of renewal of copyright for an additional period of fourteen years. A patent gives to the inventor the exclusive privilege to manufacture and sell the articles patented by him, for a period of seventeen years, with the privilege of extending the patent for a period of seven years.

80. For the protection of the Government.

“If the seat of Government were within the jurisdiction of a State, Congress and other public officers would be dependent on the State authority for protection in the discharge of their duties, and the State might refuse them protection.”—Young.

81. (a) To execute the laws of the nation; (b) To suppress insurrection; (c) To repel invasions of the national domain.

82. The President is given power by Congress to call on the Executive authority of the States to muster the militia into the service of the United States. While in the service of the national government, the militia is subject to the authority of Congress, at other times to the authority of the States.

83. A law passed after the commitment of an act, making it a punishable offense. “So a law would be ex post facto that inflicts a greater punishment than the law imposed when the crime was committed.”—Andrews.

84. The Congress.

85. Specified sums of money ordered by Congress to be paid from the treasury of the United States to defray the expenses of the Government. The salaries of officials cannot be paid until Congress makes an appropriation for that purpose.

86. That by which a debt may be paid; or, perhaps it is better to say, that which must be accepted as payment of a debt; such as gold coins, which are made a legal ten-der for all debts.

87. The Supreme Court of the United States.

88. In the years, 1798, 1813, 1815, 1816, 1861. There are at this time (1885) no direct taxes.

89. The act of Congress, March 3, 1791, which laid a tax on liquors distilled in the United States. The collec-tion of this tax caused the '' Whisky Rebellion '' in Wash-ington's administration.

90. By act of August 5, 1861.
91. They are not: they are considered citizens of the United States.
92. They are, if residing in the United States.
93. He cannot.

94. The Constitution declares that '' No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President.'' The same qualifica-tions are required to be eligible to the office of Vice-President.

95. Treasury notes issued by the United States Gov-ernment. They are, at present, a legal tender for all debts public and private, except interest on the bonded debt of the United States, and duties on imports.

96. (a) They are persons (qualified electors of their respective States) chosen by the people to elect the Presi-dent and Vice-President of the United States. (b) They may be chosen directly by the people, or indirectly, that is, by appointment of the State Legislatures. The latter method was formerly approved in several of the States, but at present, the first method prevails in all the States. The Constitution says "that each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature may direct, a number of Electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in the Congress." The Electors constitute what is known as the Electoral College.

97. The Senate and House of Representatives assemble together on the second Wednesday in February, when the Electoral votes are opened by the President of the Senate, and handed to the Tellers, who count them and report the result, which is then announced by the President of the Senate.

98. (a) The Constitution says that "No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States." (b) The same as for President.

99. The salary of the President is fifty thousand dollars a year; that of the Vice-President, eight thousand. These salaries are paid monthly.

100. "The President shall be commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officers in each of the Executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

CIVIL GOVERNMENT. "He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of law, or in the Heads of Departments."

"The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session."

101. The President "shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment." He cannot pardon an offense against a State.

102. It is not. The President nominates persons to fill certain positions, and the Senate either confirms or rejects the nominations, just as it sees proper to do.

103. The Civil Service includes all persons in the service of the United States government (except the Army and Navy) from the Cabinet down to the most trifling post-office.

104. The President exercises a negative legislative function when he makes use of the veto power.

105. Only until a new President could be elected. A special election to elect a President, would be held at the same time of year as the regular elections.

106. On March 4th, unless it occurs on Sunday, in which case the oath is not administered until March 5th. The oath of office is administered at 12 o'clock noon, by the Chief Justice of the United States. The oath of office was administered to Washington by the Chancellor of the State of New York: the same functionary administered the oath to Vice-President Arthur on his succeeding to the Presidency on the death of President Garfield.
107. The Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, Secretary of War, Secretary of Navy, Secretary of Interior, Attorney General, and Postmaster General.
108. When the Senate sits with closed doors, as in the discussion of a treaty, or when considering nominations, it is said to be in Executive session.
109. (a) All those whose compensation is one thousand dollars or more a year: (b) All those whose yearly compensation is less than one thousand dollars a year.
110. He can. But by the Tenure of Office Bill, passed by Act of Congress in March, 1867, it was provided that the President might suspend an officer during a recess of the Senate, but that he must report the same with the reasons for it to the Senate within twenty days after their assembling. Then if the Senate should concur in the removal, another person might be appointed, but if it should not concur, the person removed should be reinstated. This Act was afterwards modified.
111. It is his duty to make the appointment himself.
112. He can; but the House has never been so convened. The Senate is often convened for Executive business.
113. Of three grades of courts; the Supreme, the Circuit, and the District. There are also three grades of judges corresponding to the above named courts.
114. The Supreme Court consist of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices.
115. Judges of the Supreme and inferior Courts hold office during good behavior, which is virtually for life.

116. They are the executive officers of the United States Courts, and their general duties are the same as those of the Sheriffs of the State Courts.

117. "The powers of the Supreme Court extend to all cases involving national questions." "A citizen of a Territory, or of the District of Columbia, cannot bring a suit in a United States Court."

118. "The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed."

119. (a) "Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort."
(b) Seizure by private armed vessels, of property (vessels and cargos), upon the high seas.

120. A republican form of government.

121. "The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing Amendments, which in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress."

122. (a) Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
(b) January 31, 1865.

123. (a) The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
(b) March 30, 1870.

124. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

125. By applying to Congress for admission, and receiving the consent of that body. The new State must have first adopted a constitution securing to its inhabitants a republican form of government, and must have at the time of its admission a population sufficient to entitle it to a Representative in Congress.

126. The Fifth Amendment says that no person shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself.
127. He can be with the consent of the executive authority of the State.
128. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
129. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY.

1. Name the classes into which all matter may be separated.
2. What are organic bodies? Inorganic?
3. What features distinguish organic from inorganic bodies?
4. How are organized bodies classified?
5. How does the nourishment of animals differ from that of plants?
6. What is the head of the animal kingdom? Why?
7. What is anatomy?
8. What is physiology?
9. What is hygiene?
10. Define human anatomy and physiology.
11. Define comparative anatomy and physiology.
12. What is a cell? A tissue? An organ?
13. In what is the primitive cell the starting point?
14. What is a system? An apparatus?
15. How many chemical elements are known to exist?
16. Name the ultimate elements which enter into the composition of the human body.
17. What ultimate elements are found in all plants and animals?
18. What bulk of oxygen is found in the venous blood? In the arterial?
19. How much oxygen does an adult consume in a year?
20. What is the chief office of oxygen in the human body?
21. What is the estimated amount of water taken daily into the system?
22. What part of the entire bulk of the body does the water in it form?
23. What is said of the importance of phosphate of lime in the human system?
24. What amount of chlorid of sodium (common salt), does the system contain?
25. What is the marked distinction between animals and plants?
26. In what parts of the human system is carbonic acid found?
27. Where are these elements found: pepsin, globulin, and osteïn?
28. Define chyle, lymph, and gastric juice.
29. By what organs are these fluids secreted: bile, saliva, and mucosin?
30. Name the tissues of the body.
31. Into what may the fibrous tissues of animals be converted?
32. How are the tissues of the body built up?
33. What is osteology? What are the uses of bones?
34. Give the composition of bone.
35. By what are the bones closely covered? What disease has its seat in this covering?
36. Why are many of the bones hollow?
37. Classify bones according to their shape.
38. How does the strength of human bones compare with that of elm or ash? With oak?
39. How may a bone be tied into a knot?
40. How may the mineral matter in bones be obtained?
41. What are Haversian canals ?
42. What are lacunæ? Canaliculi ?
43. What is the number of bones in the human body ?
44. Name the bones that form the cranium or true skull.
45. Name the bones in the face.
46. How many bones form the spinal column ?
47. Name the sections of the spinal column, and give the number of vertebræ in each.
48. What is the sacrum ? The coccyx ?
49. How many ribs has man ? How are they classified ?
50. Name the bones of the forearm. How many bones in the wrist ?
51. Why are there two bones in the forearm ?
52. What is the longest bone in the human frame? Name the most complicated bone : the hardest bone.
53. Name the bones in the ear.
54. Locate the os hyoid, the patella, the fibula and tibia.
55. What is the use of the patella ?
56. How are the joints lubricated ?
57. Why are there so many bones in the spinal column ?
58. How are the bones in the cranium united ?
59. Why is the socket which holds the head of the femur, so much deeper than that which holds the head of the humerus ?
60. Why are there several bones in the feet and hands ?
61. Why do not the bones of children break so easily as those of grown persons ?
62. What are the three kinds of articulation between the different bones of the body ?
63. Why are not all the ribs attached in front to the sternum ?
64. What is the use of the clavicle ?
65. Why are the lower extremities of such great length ?
66. Why are there but two bones in the thumb? In the great toe ?
67. What is the cause of the rickets ?
68. Describe the movements of the head.
69. How many processes has each vertebra ?
70. How are the vertebræ united ?
71. What is the cavity called into which the head of the femur is inserted ?
72. What bones compose the pelvis ?
73. When one shoulder is elevated for a great while, what is the effect upon the spinal column ?
74. How long after a bone is broken before it begins to re-unite ? What care should be exercised at this time ?
75. What should be the treatment of a joint when sprained ?
76. How many bones in the upper extremities ? How many in the lower extremities ?
77. What is the number of the first set of teeth ? At what age is the first set complete ?
78. What is the number of the second set of teeth? When complete?
79. What bone is completely ossified at birth ? Classify the teeth ?
80. At what age are the bones completely ossified ?
81. What is the number of joints in the human frame ?
82. What is the difference between the exterior and the interior layer of the bones ?
83. What are the parts of a muscle ?
84. What is the origin of a muscle ? The insertion ?
85. With what are the muscles invested ?
86. Give the microscopic structure of muscles.
87. With what are muscles endowed? Where is its seat ?
88. What are flexors? What are extensors?
89. What are the uses of the muscles ?
90. How are the muscles classified as to their form ?
91. How many muscles in the human body? How many single muscles ?
92. How do the muscles contract ?
93. What is the arrangement of the muscles ?
94. Give some examples of muscular strength.
95. What is a fibril? A tendon ?
96. How are the voluntary and involuntary muscles distinguished ?
97. How is muscular development promoted ?
98. What muscles close the eyes? To what class do they belong ?
99. What muscles elevate the inferior maxillary?
100. What muscle bends the arm towards the body? What is its antagonist? What form of muscle are they?
101. Where are the muscles situated that move the hands and fingers?
102. What is the essential muscle of respiration ?
103. What is the tendon of Achilles ?
104. Where are the annular ligaments?
105. Where is the deltoid muscle? What is its use ?
106. Name the muscles of the head and neck.
107. Name the muscles of the front part of the trunk.
108. Name the muscles of the back part of the trunk.
109. Name the muscles of the upper extremities.
110. Name the muscles of the lower extremities.
111. What is the antagonist of the temporal and masseter muscles? Where is its insertion? Its origin ?
112. When should muscular exercise be taken ?
113. Give some instances of the rapidity of muscular contraction.
114. Name some diseases to which the muscles are subject.
115. How is the fleshy part of a muscle affected by contraction.
116 Have the tendons the power of contractility ?
117 Where are the serous membranes found ?
118. Where are the mucous membranes found ?
119. What do the serous membranes secrete ? The mucous ?
120 What is a gland? What is the simplest form of a gland ?
121. Name the principal forms of glands.
122. What do the digestive organs include ?
123. What is the alimentary canal ?
124. What organs aid in mastication?
125. Name the salivary glands.
126. What is the uvula? What are the tonsils ?
127. Locate the pharynx, and the esophagus.
128. How is the food passed along the esophagus ?
129. What is the size of the stomach ?
130. How many coats compose the stomach ? Name them.
131. Name the orifices of the stomach.
132. How is the food digested in the stomach ?
133. What is chyme ? What is chyle ?
134. What secretions are received into the duodenum ?
135. What are the divisions of the small intestine ?
136. What are the divisions of the large intestine?
137. Name the large glands attached to the intestines.
138. What is the largest gland in the body?
139. Why does not the stomach digest itself?
140. What is hunger?
141. What is thirst ?
142. What are the lacteal absorbents ?
143. What are the mesenteric glands ?
144. Describe the thoracic duct.
145. What is the epiglottis ? What is its use ?
146. State the various processes through which the food passes to form living flesh.
147. Upon what does the quantity of food necessary for the system depend?
148. For what purposes does the system require food?
149. What time is required to digest an ordinary meal?
150. Why do young persons require more food than old people?
151. What is the first work of the stomach in digestion?
152. What is the office of the spleen?
153. What is the temperature of the stomach?
154. Describe the lymphatics. What is the lymphatic duct?
155. How often is the entire body renewed?
156. Should food be taken immediately before going to bed?
157. Where does the hepatic duct empty?
158. What are the properties of gastric juice?
159. Does the gastric juice digest fatty or starchy substance?
160. By what are fatty substances digested?
161. Give the amount of the following fluids secreted in twenty-four hours: saliva, gastric juice, bile, and pancreatic juice.
162. Name the organs of the circulating system.
163. Give the position of the heart.
164. What are the divisions of the heart?
165. How are the auricles separated from the ventricles?
166. Where are the semilunar valves?
167. What is the pericardium? The endocardium?
168. What is the fluid capacity of the heart?
169. What is the quantity of blood in the system?
170. Describe the arteries.
171. Describe the veins.
172. Describe the capillaries.
173. What kind of blood is conveyed through the arteries? Through the veins?
174. What arteries convey venous blood? What veins carry arterial blood?
175. In what respects do the auricles and ventricles differ?
176. What are the two kinds of circulation of the blood?
177. Give the circulation of the blood.
178. What is the time required for the circulation?
179. Who discovered the circulation of the blood? When?
180. What forces propel the blood through the system?
181. What are the movements of the heart?
182. What is the pulse?
183. How do you distinguish between wounds of arteries and veins by seeing the flow of blood?
184. What circumstances affect the rate of circulation?
185. What important change of the blood takes place in the capillaries?
186. Why are the arteries deeply imbedded in the flesh, while the veins lie near the surface of the body?
187. To what portion of the body is the most blood sent?
188. What action have the lungs upon the blood?
189. Name the principal arteries.
190. Name the principle veins.
191. What are the uses of the blood?
192. Why is the blood red?
193. Name the respiratory organs.
194. What is the average capacity of the lungs?
195. What is the pleura? What is pleurisy?
196. What is the essential organ of the voice? Of what is it composed?
197. What are the vocal chords? What forms "Adam's Apple"?
198. Upon what does the tone of the voice depend? The pitch?
199. What is the average amount of air taken into the lungs daily by a grown person?
200. What is the quantity of oxygen consumed by a grown person in twenty-four hours? What quantity of carbonic acid is given off by the lungs in that time?
201. When is the air unfit for breathing?
202. What is the temperature of the human body? Does the temperature vary?
203. How is the heat of the body maintained at nearly a uniform temperature in all climates?
204. Explain the process of breathing.
205. What is coughing? What is sneezing?
206. What is hiccough? Sighing? Yawning?
207. What is the office of the skin?
208. Of how many coats is it composed? Name them.
209. Where is the seat of color in the skin?
210. Why do persons of fair complexion become darker when exposed to the sunlight?
211. If the nails of the fingers were not cut or broken, to what length would they grow?
212. What is the use of the epidermis?
213. What amount of waste matter escapes through the skin daily?
214. How often should the body be bathed to promote health?
215. Of what does the nervous system consist?
216. What are the functions of the nervous system?
217. What is the brain?
218. What are the divisions of the brain?
219. What are the convolutions of the brain?
220. What is the medula oblongata?
221. How many lobes form the cerebrum? Name them.
222. Of what is the brain composed? The spinal cord?
223. Name the membranes which envelop the brain.
224. What are ganglia? What are papillæ?
225. Name the cavities of the brain. With what are these cavities sometimes partially filled?
226. How are the nerves classified?
227. How many pairs of cranial nerves? Name them.
228. How many pairs of spinal nerves?
229. Which division of the brain is the seat of motion and sensation?
230. What is the function of the medulla oblongata?
231. Name the coats of the eye.
232. Name the humors of the eye.
233. Where is the seat of color in the eye?
234. What is the cause of near-sightedness? Of long-sightedness?
235. Name the parts of the ear.
236. What are the divisions of the external ear?
237. Of what does the middle ear consist?
238. Describe the eustachian tube.
239. Name the divisions of the labyrinth.
240. What membrane separates the auditory canal from the tympanum?
241. What influence has sunlight upon the nervous system?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY.

1. All matter may be separated into two classes: organic and inorganic.
2. (a) Those that have life, and which are produced by previously existing organized bodies: such are plants and animals.
(b) Those with which life is not associated, and which are not produced by any previously existing body of like kind; such as air, minerals, stones, etc.
3. (a) Organic bodies spring from germs, grow, require food, have the power of reproduction, and are subject to death.
(b) Inorganic bodies do not spring from germs, have no growth, require no food, cannot produce their kind, and are not subject to death.

4. Into two classes: animals and plants.

5. (a) Animals require for their sustenance and growth, organic matter for food: such as flesh and vege-
tables. Animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic acid.
(b) Plants derive their food from inorganic substances.
They absorb carbonic acid and exhale oxygen. Thus it is seen that plants and animals are dependent on each other
for their existence, the matter exhaled by the one being absorbed by the other.

6. (a) Man stands at the head of the animal kingdom.
(b) Because "Man is the end toward which all the animal kingdom has tended from the first appearance of the Palæozoic fishes."—Agassiz and Gould.

(c) The different grades in the animal kingdom are established by placing those having the most complicated nervous system highest on the scale. Man having the largest brain in proportion to the rest of his body, and possessed of the greatest relative amount of nerves, is therefore placed at the head of the animal kingdom.—Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology.

7. The science which treats of the structure of the different organs of animals.
8. The science which treats of the functions or uses of the different organs of animals
9. The science that treats of the laws of health and the means of its promotion and preservation.
10. It is the science that describes the organs of the human body, and treats of their functions or uses.
11. It is the science that treats of the structure and functions of the organs of man, embracing a description of like parts of some of the lower animals.
12. (a) A spheroidal body consisting of a cell wall, of cell contents (protoplasm, bioplasm, etc.), including a smaller spherical mass, the nucleus, which in turn contains one or more smaller bodies, termed nucleoli. (b) The various textures of which the organs are composed, and which are formed from cell growth. (c) Any part of the body composed of one or more tissues, and capable of a special function.

13. The primitive cell is the starting point in the formation of a living body.
14. A system consists of several organs of similar structure taken together; as, the osseous system. Two or more systems or organs differing in structure, taken together are called an apparatus.

15. Sixty-five in all.
16. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, iron, magnesium, and fluorine.
17. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen.
18. (a) About fourteen cubic inches. (b) Nearly ten cubic inches.
19. Between seven hundred and eight hundred pounds.
20. To maintain the animal heat of the body, and to vitalize the blood.
21. About four and a half pounds.
22. Nearly three-fourths.
23. It exists in all the solids and fluids of the body. The bones are more than half made up of phosphate of lime, and the teeth contain a large per cent. of it.
24. It is found in every solid and fluid of the body, except in the enamel of the teeth. The whole amount in the body is estimated to be about 277 grains.
25. The power of voluntary motion; the ability of animals to move at will from place to place.
26. In the blood and alimentary canal. It is passed from the system chiefly through the lungs.
27. (a) In the gastric fluid in the stomach; (b) in the red corpuscles of the blood; (c) it is the essential organic element in bone, and from it gelatin is obtained by boiling in water.
28. (a) A white, coagulable fluid, formed from chyme, and found in the lacteals of the small intestine, being absorbed by them as the food passes along the intestinal canal; (b) a clear, coagulable fluid, found in the absorbents or lymphatics; (c) a thin acid fluid secreted by the stomach during the process of digestion.
29. (a) By the liver; (b) by the parotid, sub-maxillary, and sublingual glands; (c) by the mucous membrane.
30. The fibrous, areolar, cartilaginous, fibro-cartilaginous, elastic, adipose, and muscular.
31. The fibrous tissue of the skin of animals is converted, by tanning, into leather; by boiling, into gelatin or glue.
32. By the various forms of cell growth.
33. (a) That department of anatomy which treats of the bones, their forms, articulations, etc. (b) To furnish a frame-work for the attachment of muscles, to give stability to the body, and to protect its softer and vital parts.
34. Cartilage 33 per cent. Phosphate of Lime 57 per cent. Carbonate of Lime 8 per cent. Fluoride of Calcium 1 per cent. Phosphate of Magnesia 1 per cent.
—Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology.
35. (a) By a tough yellowish-white membrane called the periosteum. (b) The disease known as felon, sometimes called whitlow,
36. In order that they may have great strength with comparatively little weight.
37. They may be divided into four classes: long, flat, short, and irregular.
38. (a) Bones when used as levers are nearly three times as strong as elm or ash; (b) twice as strong as oak.
39. Put one of the long bones of a fowl into a vessel containing diluted muriatic acid, and let it remain several hours. The acid will remove the mineral matter from the bone, and leave the cartilage, which will be so flexible that it can be easily tied into a knot.
40. By burning them; this will destroy the animal substance (cartilage) and leave the mineral salts in the form of white and gray ashes.
41. They are minute tubes or vessels which carry the nutritive and watery portions of the blood through the bones. They penetrate the surface of the bones at the nutritious foramina, and traverse the bony structures in all directions. They are named from their discoverer, Clopton Havers.
42. (a) They are bone corpuscles; (b) bone pores.
43. Two hundred and eight. This is exclusive of the teeth and the sesamoid bodies.
44. There are eight bones in the cranium: 1 frontal, 1 occipital, 2 temporal, 2 parietal, 1 sphenoid, and 1 ethmoid.
45. There are fourteen bones in the face : 2 nasal, 2 malar, 2 palate, 2 lachrymal, 2 turbinated, 2 superior maxillary, 1 inferior maxillary, and 1 vomer.
46. Twenty-four true vertebræ besides the sacrum and coccyx.
47. The divisions are; the cervical or neck, 7 vertebræ; the dorsal or back, 12 vertebræ; the lumbar or loins, 5 vertebræ.
48. (a) A large bone, having the appearance of five vertebræ grown together, upon which the lower lumbar vertebræ rest. (b) The lower extremity of the spinal column.
49. (a) Twenty-four. (b) Into two classes, called the true and the false ribs: of the first class, there are seven on each side of the chest; of the second class, there are five on each side of the chest. These latter are called false, because they do not unite closely in front with the sternum or breast-bone.
50. (a) The ulna and the radius. (b) There are eight bones in the wrist.
51. To give greater freedom of motion than could be secured with one bone. The ulna forms a hinge joint in its articulation with the humerus, but is free at its other extremity to rotate on the radius. The radius articulates with the bones of the wrist, but is free at its upper extremity to rotate on the ulna. So that by this arrangement, the movements of supination and pronation are easily made.
52. (a) The femur; (b) the sphenoid bone; (c) the temporal.
53. The malleus, incus, stapes, and the obicular bone.
54. (a) It is situated at the root of the tongue. (b) On the anterior part of the lower extremity of the femur. (c) They form the lower portion of the leg.
55. It serves as a pulley to give change of direction to the force of the muscles which move the lower part of the leg.
56. The surfaces of the joints are provided with a membrane which, upon the use of the member in which the joint is seated, secretes a kind of lubricating substance known as synovial fluid. Thus the joints are self-lubricating.
57. To make it flexible, to give it a degree of stability which could not be secured if the joints were farther apart, and to furnish a greater number of processes than could be formed on fewer bones occupying the same space.
58. By a kind of union not greatly unlike what in carpentry is styled dovetailing. The ragged edges of the bones are sutures, and where these fit into each other they form a kind of seam called a suture.
59. Because the lower extremities are not designed to have so great a latitude of motion as the upper ones, but are given greater strength and firmness to support the weight of the body.
60. The feet are formed of a great many bones in order to give them elasticity in walking, and to guard against shocks to the frame in running, jumping, and other exercise. The hands are made up of many bones to give them flexibility, and ease of motion.
61. Bones of children are composed mostly of cartilage, hence are more flexible than those of old people, whose bones have a predominance of mineral matter in their composition.
62. Synarthrosis or immovable; amphiarthrosis or mixed; diarthrosis or movable.
63. If the lower ribs were attached in front to the sternum, the chest would be so inflexible as to prevent stooping or bending forward. The lower portions of the chest assist in respiration, which they could not do were they inflexible. From the elasticity of the lower and front portions of the chest, much injury is prevented in cases of blows on those regions.

64. To prevent the humerus from coming forward to-ward the middle portion of the body, and to assist in lifting weights with the hands.

65. To facilitate locomotion.

66. (a) To give greater firmness to this member than to its opposing members, the fingers: and, to make the hand capable of delicate manipulations: (b) to give great strength to the foot in walking.

67. They are caused by a lack of earthy matter in the bones, which renders them so soft as to bend under the to-nicity of the muscles.

68. The forward and backward movement of the head is provided for in the articulation of the skull with the spinal column. The first cervical vertebra, atlas, has two depressions in its upper surface, into which projections from the skull fit, allowing free movement of the head to and fro.
The rotary movement of the head is provided for in the union of the first with the second cervical vertebra, axis. This last named vertebra has a little pivot-like projection which fits into a hole in the first vertebra, thus allowing the head to turn freely from side to side.

69. Each vertebra has seven projections or processes.

70. They are united with each other by ligaments, known as the yellow, the anterior vertebral, and the posterior vertebral. Between the vertebræ are pads of cartilage of from one-fourth to one-half an inch in thickness.

71. The acetabulum.

72. The sacrum, the coccyx, and the two innominata.
73. The pads of cartilage between the vertebræ become compressed on one side and expanded on the other, and the tendency is to produce lateral curvature of the spine.
74. (a) From two to four weeks, depending upon the age of the person: (b) Cutter says, "This is the most important period, as the bone is uniting, and, unless the ends are nicely adjusted, the dressing properly applied, the person will find, on recovery, a shortened and crooked limb."
75. It should be bathed in cold water and given rest.
76. (a) Sixty-four: (b) Sixty.
77. (a) Twenty, ten in each jaw; (b) from the third to the fourth year.
78. (a)Thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw; (b) at about the twentieth year.
79. (a) The petrous portions of the temporal. It contains the organs of hearing. (b) On each side of the upper and of the lower jaw are eight teeth: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 bicuspids, 2 molars, and 1 wisdom.
80. About the twentieth year.
81. There are over two hundred joints in the human frame.
82. The exterior layer is smooth and compact, comparatively thin, and gives strength to the bones: the interior layer is loose and spongy, and helps to reduce the force of falls and blows.
83. The tendons, and belly or swell.
84. (a) That extremity of a tendon of a muscle which is nearest the center of motion: (b) that extremity of a tendon which is most remote from the center of motion.
85. With a membranous sheath called fascia.

86. Fasciculus orbundles of fibers : each of these fibers is made up of ultimate fibers : these are composed of fibrils, and each fibril is composed of cells.
87. (a) Each muscle is endowed with the power of myotility : (d) in the fleshy part or belly of the muscle.
88. (a) Flexors are those muscles which by contraction bend the limbs at the joints: (b) those muscles which by contraction straighten the limbs.
89. (1) To give motion to the various members of the body.
(2) To hold the limbs in position.
(3) To protect the skeleton.
(4) To give form and symmetry to the different members of the body.
90. Radiate, fusiform, penniform, bipenniform, ribbon or band, and sphincter.
91. (a) The number of muscles in man is 540, being more than twice the number of bones. They are nearly all arranged in pairs ; that is, both sides of the body have similar muscles, while the single or unmated muscles are only thirteen.—Hitchcock's Anatomy.
92. The fibrils of the muscles are shortened by a change, in diameter, of the cells of which they are composed.
93. (1) The muscles are all, except thirteen, arranged in pairs, that is, “ both sides of the body have similar muscles.”
(2) Each muscle has an antagonist, that is, one to produce motion in opposite direction.
94. Hitchcock says : “ We read of Milo of Crete who killed an ox with his fist, and then carried it more than 600 feet. Another man is mentioned who could raise 300 pounds by the muscles of his jaw. A flea harnessed will draw from seventy to eighty times its own weight.”

95. (a) A fibril is a primary muscular thread, and is composed of cells. Fibrils form ultimate fibers, and these in turn, form a fasciculus.
(b) They are bundles of white, glistening, fibrous tissue, forming the extremities of the muscles, and by which these are attached to the bones.
96. (1) By their use.
(2) By their appearance.
Those muscles that carry on the vital functions, such as breathing, digestion, etc., are called involuntary; the others, or those under the control of the will, are called voluntary. The involuntary muscles are made up of unstriped or smooth fibers; the voluntary are made up of striped or beaded fibers.
97. By moderate exercise daily for a period of at least four hours.
98. (a) The obicularis palpebræ; (b) they are sphincters.
99. The masseter (chewing), and the temporal muscles.
100. (a) The biceps; (b) the triceps; (c) they are fine specimens of the fusiform muscle.
101. They are situated in the forearm, and form the fleshy portion of that member.
102. The diaphragm.
103. It is the tendon of the large muscle in the calf of the leg, and which raises the heel in walking. Its insertion is on the os calcis or heel bone.
104. They are bands of ligamentous tissue which pass around the wrists and ankles, and serve to hold in position the tendons which move the fingers and toes.
105. (a) It is the large muscle at the upper extremity of the humerus. (b) To raise the arm to a horizontal position.

106. The occipito-frontal, orbicularis palpebræ, orbicularis oris, zygomatic, temporal, masseter, and sterno-cleido-mastoideus.
107. The great pectoral, great serrated, external oblique, and straight abdominal.
108. The trapezius, latissimus, rhomboid, superior serrated, and inferior serrated.
109. The deltoid, biceps, triceps, brachial, radio-carpals, ulno-carpals, flexors and extensors of the fingers.
110. The gluteus, sartorius, quadriceps extensor, biceps flexor, extensors of the toes, tibial, gastrocnemius, and soleus.
111. (a) The digastricus; (b) on the chin; (c) the mastoid processes behind the ears.
112. Early in the morning. Care should be taken not to exercise violently directly after meals, or immediately before them.
113. Some persons can utter 1,500 letters (in words) in a minute, each requiring a change in position of the vocal organs. The common horse-fly can make voluntarily 330 movements of the wing in a second.
114. St. Vitus's dance, lock-jaw, lumbago, and rheumatism.
115. It is shortened in its long diameter, and is increased in breadth and thickness.
116. They have not.
117. “They line all the cavities of the body, which are without any external communication”: as the pleura, the pericardium, and the peritoneum.
118. “They line all the cavities and passages of the body which have an external communication”; as the lining of the alimentary canal, the trachea, and bronchial tubes.
119. (a) A clear, yellowish fluid called serum; (b) a clear viscid liquid called mucus.
120. A gland is an organ which secretes and pours forth a liquid from one or more ducts, or orifices, opening on the surface of the skin, or on the mucous membrane. This liquid is called a secretion, and has various names depending upon its source: thus it is called mucus, from mucous membrane; saliva, from salivary glands; and bile, from the liver. When this secretion is rejected from the body as useless, it is then called an excretion, as the perspiration from the skin. (b) The simplest form of a gland is a straight tube closed at one end, and opening at the other end upon the free surface of the mucous membrane, as in the glands of the small intestine.—Martindale.

121. The follicular, the convoluted, the racemose, and the reticular.
122. The mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, spleen, and liver.
123. The whole length of the tube beginning with the mouth and including the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
124. The teeth, palate, tongue, and salivary glands.
125. The parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual.

126. (a) A small tongue-like body suspended from the middle of the soft palate. (b) They are almond shaped glands in the back and upper part of the throat, which secrete mucus to aid the food in its passage to the stomach.

127. (a) It is the tubular cavity between the base of the tongue and the spinal column, which opens into the esophagus.
(b) It is a tube about eight inches in length, extending from the pharynx to the cardiac orifice in the stomach.

128. By the alternate relaxation and contraction of the muscular bands which form the esophagus, aided by an oily secretion from the esophageal glands.

129. The stomach in its normal condition will contain about a solid quart, but by excessive eating and drinking it becomes greatly enlarged.
130. The stomach is composed of four coats: the serous or outer, the muscular, the fibrous, and the mucous or inner.
131. (1) The upper, or cardiac orifice. (2) The lower, or pyloric orifice.
132. By the gastric juice secreted from the mucous coat of the stomach, aided by muscular action of the middle coats. Hence, stomach digestion is both a chemical and a mechanical process
133. (a) The pulpy mass to which the food is reduced by stomach digestion: (b) The milk like fluid extracted from the food in the duodenum through the action of the bile, the pancreatic fluid, etc.
134. Bile from the liver, and pancreatic fluid from the pancreas; also, intestinal fluid secreted by the duodenum itself.
135. The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
136. The cæcum, colon, sigmoid flexure, and rectum.
137. The liver, the pancreas, the spleen, and the kidneys.
138. The liver; its average weight is four pounds, and its length from ten to twelve inches.
139. Because the gastric juice does not flow until the mucous coat of the stomach is excited by some substance within it. Another reason is, that the gastric juice will not digest living matter. After death, the stomach is acted upon by the gastric juice, and its walls are frequently destroyed.
140. It is the sensation of want of nutriment in the system, made manifest by impressions upon the nerves of the stomach.
141. It is the sensation of the want of water in the system, manifested in the fauces or throat.
142. They are minute vessels, the mouths of which open upon the mucous coat of the small intestine, and which absorb the nutritious fluid called chyle, and convey it to the mesenteric glands.
143. They are small sac-like bodies through which the chyle is conducted by the lacteals to the thoracic duct.
144. It is a small tube, about the size of a goose-quill, lying close along the spinal column, and extending from the mesenteric glands to the left subclavian vein, into which it pours the chyle taken up by the lacteals.
145. It is a valvular arrangement of fibro-cartilage, and is one of essential parts of the larynx. Its use is to close the glottis to prevent foreign matter from entering the wind-pipe.
146. Mastication, insalivation, deglutition, chymification, chylification, separation and absorption, and assimilation.
147. The quantity of food necessary for the system varies. Age, occupation, temperament, temperature, habits, amount of clothing, health, and disease, are among the circumstances which produce the variation.—Cutter.
148. To sustain the growth of the body, to repair the waste, and to keep up the animal heat.
149. From two to four hours. Boiled rice will digest in about one hour, while boiled mutton requires four and one half hours, and roasted pork over five hours to digest.
150. Young persons require food to sustain the growth of the body, and to repair its waste: old people require food to repair waste only.
151. To remove the fluid which has been taken into the stomach with the food. The fluids are absorbed by numerous veins (radicles) the mouths of which communicate with the mucous coat of the stomach.
152. It is not known what the function of the spleen is. It is said by some that it produces blood corpuscles, and uses up those that are no longer of service to the body. Others again, suppose that it absorbs poisons in the system, since it becomes enlarged in cases of malaria.

153. From 98 to 100 degrees, Fahrenheit.

154. (a) They form a system of absorbents connected with every part of the body, resembling the lacteals in structure and use, the chief difference between them being this: the lacteals absorb only nutrient matter, "while the lymphatics give up to the general circulation not only useful products, but all those which are absorbed." (b) It is a small tube corresponding in general structure to the thoracic duct of the lacteal system. It lies on the right side of the spinal column, and enters the venous circulation at the right subclavian vein.

155. In a period of from seven to ten years.

156. Yes, if the system demands it. There is an old time prejudice against eating immediately before retiring, as it is thought that by so doing, the rest required by the system is broken. But physiologists of to-day, claim that eating moderately of digestible food before retiring, promotes the general health, and brings refreshing rest to both mind and body.

157. Into the duodenum.
158. Acid, fermentative, and antiseptic.
159. It does not. Fatty substances are simply melted by the heat of the stomach, and starchy matters are gelatinized by the gastric juice, the same as they would be by water.
160. By the pancreatic juice.
161. Saliva, three pounds; gastric juice, fourteen pounds; bile, two and one-half pounds; pancreatic juice, two pounds.
162. The heart, the arteries, the capillaries, and the veins.

163. It is situated between the lungs in the thorax, and more to the left than to the right of the median line of the body. Its apex points downward and forward to a point opposite the cartilage of the sixth rib.
164. The heart is divided into two general divisions called the right and the left heart. Each of these has an upper chamber called an auricle, and a lower one called a ventricle.
165. The right auricle is separated from the right ventricle by the tricuspid valve. The left auricle is separated from the left ventricle by the mitral valve.
166 In the pulmonary artery where it branches off from the right ventricle, and in the aorta where it springs from the left ventricle.
167. (a) The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac enclosing the heart. It contains a small quantity of fluid like water, in which the heart floats. (b) The endocardium is the smooth inner coat of the heart.
168. The heart ordinarily contains about a pint of blood.
169. The quantity of blood in a man of average weight is about sixteen and a half pints, or twenty pounds
170. They are cylindrical tubes which convey the blood from the ventricles to all parts of the body, and are composed of three coats, viz: an external or fibrous, a middle or muscular, and an internal or serous. The internal coat is very smooth and elastic, and the middle one has the power of contraction.
171. They are tubular vessels, like the arteries, but larger and more numerous. They begin at the capillaries and convey the blood to the heart, and like the arteries, are composed of three coats, the inner one of which contains valvular arrangements to prevent the blood from flowing backward.
172. They form a network of minute blood vessels in all parts of the body, and connect the ends of the arteries with the commencement of the veins.

173. (a) The arteries convey pure or arterial blood: (b) The veins convey impure or venous blood.
174. (a) The pulmonary arteries carry venous blood from the right ventricle to the lungs: (b) The pulmonary veins carry arterial blood from the lungs to the left auricle.
175. (1) The auricles receive the blood, and the ventricles propel it to all parts of the system.
(2) The walls of the auricles are thin and elastic, those of the ventricles, thick and muscular.
(3) The capacity of the auricles is a little less than that of the ventricles.
176. The pulmonic and the systemic.
The first refers to the circulation through the pulmonary arteries, the lungs, and the pulmonary veins. The second includes the circulation through the aorta and the arteries, with their returning veins.
177. The course of the blood through the system is— left ventricle, aorta, arteries, capillaries, veins, vena cava, right auricle, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, lungs, pulmonary veins, left auricle, and left ventricle, the place of beginning.
178. "A portion of the blood will make the tour of the body in about twenty-three seconds," and it is supposed that the entire bulk in the system passes through the heart in about two minutes.
179. (a) William Harvey, an English physician.
(b) The discovery was first published to the world in 1628, although Harvey had believed it for many years previous, but failed to prove it satisfactorily. It is said that he spent twenty years in making the discovery, and then spent nine years additional in perfecting his experiments to prove it.
180. (1) Contraction of the heart.
(2) Elasticity of the arteries.
(3) Capillary force.
(4) Muscular pressure.
(5) Act of inspiration.
(6) Arterialization of the blood.
—Hitchcock.

181. Its systole or contraction, and its diastole or expansion.
The auricles and the ventricles contract and expand alternately.

182. It is the dilation of an artery, caused by the pump-ing of blood into it, at each contraction of the heart, and may be felt where the artery lies near the surface of the body, as at the wrist, or on the temple.

183. The blood from the arteries is a bright red, that from the veins is a dark purple color.
The blood from the arteries spurts at each pulsation, while that from the veins flows in a steady stream.

184. Exercise, state of the mind, condition of health, the time of day, and the position of the body.

185. In the capillaries the blood is converted into living flesh.

186. For their better protection, since they contain the life-fluid of the body.

187. To the brain. It is estimated that this organ receives from six to twenty times the amount of blood sent to any other organ in the system.

188. They purify it. By the principles of endosmose and exosmose, the ox-ygen of the air in the lungs, is exchanged for the carbonic acid in the venous blood.

189. The common carotid arteries on each side of the neck; the subclavian, the axillary, the brachial, radial and ulnar in each upper extremity : the gastric, hepatic, splenic, and renal, supplying the stomach, liver, spleen, and kidneys respectively ; the external and internal iliac, the femoral, popliteal, anterior and posterior tibial in each lower extremity.

190. The external and internal jugular veins which re-turn the blood from the head ; the innominate veins which unite to form the superior cava ; the femoral and iliac veins which terminate in the inferior cava ; the pul-monary veins from the lungs to the heart.

191. It distributes heat and moisture throughout the system, supplies the body with material for its growth, and carries away the waste matters.

192. It is due to the presence of iron in the corpuscles; the degree in which the iron is oxidized determines the tint of the blood.

193. The larynx, the trachea, the lungs, and the mus-cles used in breathing, chiefly, the diaphragm.

194. About three hundred cubic inches.

195. (a) It is the serous membrane which invest the lungs: (b) Inflammation of the pleura.
196. (a) The larynx. It is composed of cartilages, viz : 2 arytenoid, 2 cunei-form, 1 cricoid, 1 thyroid, and the epiglottis.
197. (a) Properly speaking they are not chords, but are membranous sheets attached to the thyroid and ary-tenoid cartilages, the free edges of which vibrate when a current of air is forced between them. (b) The promi-nence on the throat known as " Adam's apple," is formed mostly by the thyroid cartilage of the larynx.

198. (a) The tone of the voice depends upon the size and shape of the vocal organs: (b) The pitch of the voice depends upon the length, breadth, and thickness of the vocal chords.
199. A grown person will consume about three hund-red cubic feet of air in twenty-four hours.
200. (a) About seventeen and a half cubic feet: (b) Nearly fourteen cubic feet.

201. When the carbonic acid in the air is increased to ten per cent., or when the oxygen is decreased to ten per cent. of its entire volume, the air is then unfit for breathing, and cannot sustain life.—Martindale.
202. (a) About 100 degrees. (b) It does, being from one to two degrees lower during sleep, than during periods of exercise. It also varies greatly in diseases.
203. It is partly accomplished by radiation, since the body is ordinarily warmer than the air about it, and also partly by inhaling the cool air into the air passages. It is a well known principle in chemistry, that, when any substance passes from a more solid to a less solid condition, as from solid to liquid, or liquid to a gas, heat is absorbed, or, in more common language, cold is made sensible. This is seen in the application of water, alcohol, or ether, to the skin, when a sensation of cold is felt, which is owing to the fact that the substance applied is passing from the form of a liquid to that of a vapor. Now the same thing takes place when the perspiration is allowed to evaporate from the surface of the body. The increased flow of blood, as brought about by the exercise, or the high temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, stimulates the vessels of the skin to more energetic action, and sensible perspiration is poured out upon the surface of the body. This, however, is now in contact with the currents of air always present about the body, and it is readily thrown out into a state of vapor, and in accordance with the chemical principle just stated, heat is absorbed from the body producing its uniform temperature.—Hitchcock.
204. The process of breathing consists of two acts, inspiration and expiration. “When we draw in a full breath, we straighten the spine and throw the head and shoulders back, so as to give the greatest advantage to the muscles. At the same time the diaphragm descends and presses the walls of the abdomen outward. Both these processes in- crease the size of the chest. Thereupon the elastic lungs expand to occupy the extra space, while the air, rushing in through the windpipe, pours along the bronchial tubes and crowds into every cell.
“When we forcibly expel the air from our lungs, the operation is reversed. We bend forward, draw in the walls of the abdomen, and press the diaphragm upward, while the ribs are pulled downward—all together diminishing the size of the chest, and forcing the air outward.”
“Ordinary quiet breathing is performed mainly by the diaphragm—one breath to every four beats of the heart, or eighteen per minute.”—Steele’s Physiology.

205. Coughing is a violent expiration in which the air is driven through the mouth. Sneezing differs from coughing, the air being forced through the nose. Id.

206. Hiccough is confined to inspiration. It is caused by a contraction of the diaphragm and a constriction of the glottis. Sighing is merely a prolonged inspiration followed by an audible expiration. Yawning, or gaping, is like sighing. Id.

207. The skin is the natural covering of the body, and its chief functions are those of secretion and absorption.

208. The skin is composed of three coats, viz: the Epidermis or outer coat, the Basement membrane or middle coat, and the Corium or internal layer.

209. It is in the corium, the coloring matter, pigmentum nigrum, (black paint) being found in minute cells in this layer of the skin.

210. Because the development of the Pigment Cells named above, depends upon exposure of the skin to the sun’s light. Hence it is, that persons living in tropical countries are brown or black, while the inhabitants of high latitudes are comparatively fair.

211. To a length not exceeding two inches. The nails develop fully in from ten to twenty weeks.
212. The epidermis protects the corium and its vessels. Were it not for this protection to the corium, the "contact of the softest eider down with the exposed nervous filaments would impart the acutest pain, and the rays of the noon-day sun would inflict the keenest torture. The body could not endure the lightest clothing, and even our motions through the air would be a source of misery." The epidermis also prevents excessive absorption, and undue perspiration.

213. From thirty to forty ounces; or if condensed to water, from one and a half to two pints.

214. The whole surface of the body should be sponged at least three times a week in tepid water, giving particular attention to the chest, feet, and armpits, followed by a brisk rubbing of the skin with a coarse towel. In addition to this, the under clothing should be changed frequently, and '' the under-garments worn during the day should not be worn at night, and the reverse."

215. The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves ramifying through every part of the body.

216. Functions of the nervous system:
(1) It connects the different parts and organs of the body into an organic unit or whole.
(2) It animates or governs all movements of the muscles, whether voluntary or not.
(3) It regulates the temperature, nutrition, and secretion of the body.
(4) It controls the processes of the organic life of the body.
(5) It receives impressions which are generated by its terminal branches.
(6) It conveys impressions to different portions of the body.
(7) It generates influences which no other organ or system can produce, such as sight, smell, or taste. By means of this function, it puts the body in direct communication with the outer world. — Hotze's Physiology.

217. The brain is the organ of the mind, or the physical instrument of thought and feeling. It consists of an egg-shaped mass of nervous matter which completely fills the cavity of the cranium, and is the largest organ of the body, its average weight being about fifty-four ounces in males, and forty-five ounces in females. In idiots the weight of the brain is less than twenty ounces. It is said that Cuvier's brain weighed sixty-four ounces.

218. The cerebrum and the cerebellum. Some authors make the pons and the medulla oblongata divisions of the brain.
The cerebrum is the upper and front portion of the brain, and is divided into two parts called hemispheres. Its surface is covered with tortuous ridges and depressions called anfractuosities.
Lying back beneath the cerebrum, and connected with it by bands of fibers, is the cerebellum. This comprises about one-eighth of the entire mass of nerve-matter known as the brain.

219. They are tortuous ridges or folds upon the superior surface of the cerebrum. It is believed that the height of these folds and the depth of the corresponding depressions form an index to the mental capacity of individuals. At least it has been observed that persons of great mental powers have the convolutions of the cerebrum developed to a marked degree.

220. It is the smallest division of the brain, being about three inches long, and one inch in thickness. It forms the head of the spinal cord, and lies just within the cavity of the cranium. A line passing from the opening of one ear through the brain to the opening of the other ear, would pierce the center of the medulla oblongata.

221. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into three lobes. They are known as the anterior, the middle, and the posterior lobes.
222. (a) The brain is composed of a pulpy mass of nerve-matter called the white substance, and the gray substance.
(b) The spinal cord is formed of the same kinds of matter as the brain. But there is a difference in the arrangement of the white and the gray matter in the brain and in the spinal cord. In the brain, the gray substance forms the exterior portion, and the white matter the interior. In the spinal cord, the white matter forms the exterior, and the gray matter the interior.
223. The dura mater or the external covering; the arachnoid which forms the inner surface of the dura mater; the pia mater or inner membrane which lies directly upon the surface of the brain, and dips into all the cavities and depressions.
224. (a) They are knots, or nerve centres, found along the course of the nerves.
(b) They are minute conical protuberances upon the surface of the skin covering the tips of the fingers, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. They are arranged in circular lines visible to the naked eye, and each little projection is supplied with a nerve which forms a loop at the apex of the cone, the design of which arrangement is "to place the nerve in such a position, that it will be most easily impressed with whatever external substance it may be brought into contact." The papillae of taste cover the tongue. These are named circumvallate, capitate, and conical.
225. (a) In the cerebrum are two cavities called the lateral ventricles, and a triangular space called the third ventricle of the brain.
(b) In "dropsy of the brain" these cavities are found to contain a watery fluid called serum. It is said that a post mortem examination of the brain of inebriates, reveals the fact that the ventricles are partially filled with alcohol.
226. The nerves are divided into two classes, cranial nerves, and spinal nerves. The first set are those given off from the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata; the second set are those given off from the spinal cord.
227. (a) There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves named from before backward. They are:—
1st pr. . . Olfactory. 5th pr. . . Trifacial. 9th pr. . . Glosso-Pharyngeal.
2d " . . .Optic. 6th " . . Abducentes 10th " . . Pneumogastric.
3d " . . Oculo-motor 7th " . . Facial. 11th " . . Accessory.
4th " . . Pathetic. 8th " . . Auditory. 12th " . . Lingual.
228. There are thirty-two pairs of spinal nerves. "They arise on each side of the spinal cord by two roots, one given off from the anterior and the other from the posterior part of the lateral cords; the anterior root being the one that is designed to produce motion, and the posterior giving sensation to the parts on which it is distributed. These two roots unite as soon as they have fairly left the spinal cord, after which they proceed as a single nerve."
229. The cerebellum or lesser brain. "Persons in whom this organ is injured or diseased, walk as if intoxicated, and cannot perform any orderly work."
230. It presides over respiration. Pressure upon it suspends breathing, and when it is punctured, death follows.
231. The sclerotic coat commonly called the white of the eye, the choroid coat, or middle membrane, and the inner coat formed by the expansion of the optic nerve, called the retina. The front fifth of the eye is covered by the cornea, a transparent membrane which fits into the sclerotic coat.
232. The aqueous humor, the crystalline lens, and the vitreous humor. This last named humor forms seven-eighths of the globe of the eye.

233. In the iris, the front division of the choroid coat. The iris corresponds to the cornea, and has an opening in it to admit the rays of light, which is called the pupil of the eye. The iris has the aqueous humor both front and back of it
234. Short-sightedness is caused by the crystalline lens being too convex, thus forming the image in front of the retina. Long-sightedness is caused by the lens being too flat, the image being formed behind the retina.
235. The pinna or external ear, the tympanum or middle ear, the labyrinth or internal ear.
236. The auricle, and the external auditory canal.
237. The tympanum proper, the eustachian tube, and the three small bones named malleus, stapes, and incus.
238. It is a tubular passage about two inches long, and connects the tympanum with the pharynx.
239. The labyrinth is divided into three parts; they are named the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea.
240. The membrana tympani.
241. Steele says: “The influence of the sun's rays upon the nervous system is very marked. It is said also to have the effect of developing red disks in the blood. All vigor and activity come from the sun. Vegetables grown in subdued light have a bleached and faded look. An infant kept in absolute darkness would only grow into a shapeless idiot. That room is the healthiest to which the sun has the freest access. Epidemics frequently attack the inhabitants of the shady side of a street, and totally exempt those on the sunny side. If, on a slight indisposition, we should go out into the open air and bright sunlight, instead of shutting ourselves up in a close, dark chamber, we might avoid many a serious illness. The sun-bath is doubtless a most efficient remedy for many diseases.

Our window blinds and curtains should be thrown back and open, and we should let the blessed air and sun stream in to invigorate and cheer. No house buried in shade, and no room with darkened windows, is fit for human habitation. In damp and darkness, lies in wait almost every disease to which flesh is heir. The sun is their only successful foe."

QUESTIONS ON TEACHING.

1. State some of the ends to be attained by study.
2. State a proper punishment for tardiness.
3. Why should pupils be required to recite in good language?
4. Which should be taught first, technical grammar or composition?
5. Should teachers consult authors on the subject of the Theory and Practice of Teaching?
6. How may pupils be taught the different vowel and consonant sounds?
7. Should prizes be offered as incentives to study?
8. What are the principal objects of the recitation?
9. Should pupils be detained after school hours to study neglected lessons?
10. What are some of the objects of punishment?
11. How can regularity in attendance be secured?
12. What is necessary to organize a school properly?
13. Name the furniture necessary in the school-room.
14. What apparatus is indispensable in the class-room?
15. What traits of character should the teacher cultivate in his pupils?
16. What does a grammar school course of study embrace?
17. What assistance should be given pupils in the preparation of lessons?
18. What is meant by teaching a definition or a rule inductively?
19. Name some eminent writers on the Theory and Practice of Teaching.
20. What is the object in maintaining our common school system?
21. State the sources from which you derive your wages for teaching in the public schools.
22. Name and locate in the United States five institutions devoted to the special training of teachers.
23. How find the average per cent. of attendance in a school?
24. Name the present Commissioner or Superintendent of Common Schools of this State.
25. What are his chief duties?
26. What are some of the means to prevent tardiness?
27. Should pupils be allowed to recite “by turns?”
28. What is teaching?
29. What is the proper degree of temperature for the school-room?
30. What faculties of the mind are most active in childhood?
31. What attributes of character should the teacher manifest in the school-room?
32. Mention some slate exercises to be daily prepared by primary pupils.
33. What are Object Lessons?
34. What is the extent of the teacher's jurisdiction over his pupils in going to and returning from school?
35. What is education?
36. What should be done to stimulate pupils to study?
37. What is the duty of teachers as regards the care of school property?
38. What care should the teacher exercise over the health of his pupils?
39. What items are worthy of daily record by the teacher ?
40. What are common faults of teachers in conducting recitations ?
41. What are the ends to be attained through education ?
42. What is the duty of the teacher as regards improprieties of both speech and manners often observed of pupils ?
43. How may attention be secured during recitations?
44. Should teachers confine their questions to the matter in the text-books?
45. What is a successful method of teaching spelling ?
46. Should teachers be swayed in their management of schools by members of Boards of Directors ?
47. What attention should be given to instruction in writing ?
48. How should school-rooms be ventilated ?
49. How should school-rooms be heated when furnaces or steam heaters cannot be furnished ?
50. What is the best method of study and recitation for advanced pupils ?
51. What should be the disposition of the teacher towards a pupil in cases in which it is necessary to give reproof, or to inflict punishment?
52. To what source may all misconduct and willful disobedience of pupils be traced ?
53. What false notion is prevalent as regards proficiency of collegiate training ?
54. How do you regard class criticism ?
55. Should young pupils be required to keep quiet in their seats ?
56. What employment should be given children too young to study ?
57. Is it the teacher's duty to correct faults in posture of pupils in the class and at their desks ?
58. How often should reviews of subjects be given ?
59. Is it advisable for the teacher to become acquainted with the patrons of the school before beginning the term?
60. What is "supplementary reading" in schools?
61. Suggest some matter supplementary to the study of the topic in United States history, "Naval victories of 1813."
62. Name some of the essential qualifications of the teacher.
63. What should determine the length of lessons assigned pupils?
64. Would the study of Elementary Natural Science be beneficial in the common schools ?
65. What are the rules of memory ?
66. How would you promote the retentiveness of memory ?
67. What is reason ? What is its order of development in the growth of intellect ?
68. Give the laws of questioning.
69. Name the methods of conducting recitations.
70. Name (a) the advantages, and (b) the disadvantages of concert recitation.
71. What is empirical knowledge? What is school ethics?
72. Name a bad result to pupils (a) from the use of poorly printed books and papers, and (b) from wrong seat positions, or improper postures in the class.
73. What are leading questions? What are direct questions ?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON TEACHING.

1. (1) To gather knowledge, and to classify accurately and logically that which has been obtained. (2) To be able to communicate to others what we ourselves have learned. (3) To stimulate the aspirations for the true and noble.

2. The pupil should be made feel that he has lost an interesting exercise of the school, that he has greatly annoyed his fellow pupils by interrupting their recitations and study, and that habits of carelessness formed in youth become fixed in maturer years.

3. To fix the use of correct speech, and to impress the pupils with the fact that the rules and laws of language as studied in their grammars, have meaning and intelligent application.

4. Teach composition first if these subjects are taught separately in the school. But the better method is to combine them in the course of instruction. Profitable instruction in grammar and composition can be imparted to the reading classes daily, by making the sentences of those lessons the subject of discussion.

5. They should for the purpose of gathering hints and suggestions on teaching the various subjects, and on school management, as given by persons eminent in the profession; but it must be borne in mind that ideas and not formulæ are the things to be sought.

6. By drilling them frequently on exercises in articulation from lessons prepared on the blackboard by the teacher, or from charts of elementary sounds, with which every school should be supplied. Begin with the long vowel sounds and drill the pupils both individually and in concert, giving each sound correctly and distinctly before requesting the pupils to give it.

7. This method of inciting pupils to study is condemned by many excellent teachers. The true teacher can inspire his pupils with love of work, with ambition to excel, with pride of attainments, with hope of great achievements, through the influence of personal examples of industry, cheerfulness, enthusiasm, and perseverance in the work of education. The magnetic powers of an earnest, conscientious teacher, thoroughly in love with the labors of the class-room, and awake to its duties, will do more to arouse the dormant forces of a school than all the prizes that may be offered.

8. The principal objects of the recitation are: (1) To determine the extent of the learner's acquirements. (2) To correct that which is faulty in his attainments. (3) To develop the subject of the recitation, and to assist the pupil to make a proper classification of its parts. (4) To fix facts, and to add to what the pupil has acquired. (5) To lead the learner to observe closely and to investigate subjects thoroughly. (6) To cultivate the power of ready and accurate expression.

9. They should not. The number of hours constituting a day of school work is fixed by statute, and teachers have no authority to detain pupils against their consent, after the day's work has been completed. Besides, if this were not the case, it is a poor kind of punishment which compels him who inflicts it, to suffer equally with the offender.

10. To reform the offender, and to maintain discipline. In many States it is a violation of the statute to resort to corporal punishment in the control of schools, and where it is permissible "when inflicted in moderation, and in keeping with the misdemeanor," such means of government frequently work injury to the school, and rarely, if ever, produce good results. In the better class of schools corporal punishment has been abolished.

11. (1) By making the school and its work more attractive than the street. (2) By securing the coöperation of parents in awakening interest in the school work. (3) By making special preparation for each recitation. (4) The teacher must be devoted to his profession, and enthusiastic in his work.

12. The school-room being supplied with necessary furniture and apparatus, the first work in order is the enrollment of pupils. After this, the branches of study to be taught, the number of pupils in each, and their ages and advancement, should be noted. From these data the teacher should prepare a program showing hours of study, recitation, and intermission, and the older pupils should be required to copy it for convenient reference until they become familiar with the order of work. Then, regulations as to discipline and privileges, general exercises, and other matters may be stated, following which the class work of the school should be commenced. No time should be spent in hesitating what to do. The teacher must act with decision, or an important point in the future government of the school will be lost. Pupils are close observers, and their first impressions of a teacher's characteristics greatly determine the respect to be shown him.

13. Ample black-boards, a clock, a call bell, chairs, seats and desks for pupils, a desk for the teacher, a hat-rack, brooms, brushes, buckets, and drinking cups. In addition to these, every school should be provided with a library of reference books.

14. Elementary charts, numerical frames, mathematical blocks, globes, physiological charts, cards for drawing, outline maps, writing cards, a thermometer, a tellurian, an air-pump, and an unabridged dictionary.

15. Politeness, honesty, industry, morality, and patriotism.

16. Spelling and defining, reading, writing, composition, English grammar, geography, United States history, the elements of physiology, mental arithmetic, written arithmetic, vocal music, and drawing.

17. It is the teacher's duty to direct pupils in their methods of study and preparation of lessons. Difficult features of new subjects should be pointed out and briefly commented on by the teacher; but the work of investigation and the development of subjects should be carried on by the pupils, with only hints from the teacher as to where to find things and how to arrange matter.

18. Inductively means literally *manner of leading in*. In the sense of the question it means the method of reasoning from a part to the whole, from particulars to generals. That is, a pupil is led into a definition or generalization by having him gather particulars, compare and study their relations to each other, and thus to arrive at a general law or definition.

19. Among the eminent writers on the *Theory and Practice of Teaching* are, Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, John Ogden, Francis W. Parker, Charles Northend, and David P. Paige. Among the great educational reformers may be named Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Jacotot, and Herbert Spencer.
20. The direct aim of our common schools is to give our youth the elements of an English education, such as will fit them for the ordinary duties of life. The purpose for which our common schools were provided for, and for which they are maintained, is well expressed in this quotation from that wonderful instrument, the "Ordinance of '87:" "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education, shall forever be encouraged."

21. From State, county, and local taxes; and in most of the States from the interest on permanent funds, or from revenue from the sale of public lands. In some States, the State school revenue amounts to 98 per cent. of the entire school fund.

22. State Normal and Training School, Geneseo. N. Y. State Normal School, Millersville, Pa. National Normal University, Lebanon, O. State Normal University, Normal, Ill. Indiana State Normal, Terre Haute, Ind.

23. Multiply the average daily attendance by 100, and divide the product by the average monthly enrollment. The quotient to the nearest integer will be the required result.

24. [The answer depends upon where and when this question is asked. The question is asked in this work to awaken thought concerning State school systems.]

25. The chief duties of the State Superintendent or Commissioner of common schools are: to receive statistical and financial statements from county Superintendents and Boards of Education; to construe the school laws of the State; to visit annually each county, and to organize Teachers' Institutes; to apportion school revenues; to make an annual report to the Governor on the condition of the schools; and in some States to appoint members of the State Board of Examiners.

26. There is but one successful means of preventing tardiness, and that is to create an interest in the class exercises of the school. This can best be accomplished through the energetic work and skillful management of the teacher. Pupils must be assigned special work to prepare for recitations, and they should be encouraged to do it well and promptly. Parents should be informed of the progress of pupils, and their co-operation should be had in securing punctual and regular attendance of those under their control. The teacher's bearing towards his scholars should always be such as to win their love and respect.

27. Not as a fixed order of recitation. The method of reciting "by turns," or in consecutive order, is frequently the cause of want of interest in the class. Pupils learn to note the questions likely to be asked them, and study only their answers. This not only hinders the pupils' interest in the entire subject matter, but at the same time affords tempting opportunities for misconduct while waiting for their "turn" to recite. The method of calling upon pupils promiscuously to recite, is the plan generally approved by successful teachers.

28. Teaching, in its general sense, is the imparting of knowledge not before known. But in the sense of its application to the duties of the school teacher, it has been well defined to be: to mold and instruct; to impart useful knowledge; to illumine with the light of science; to purify and ennoble; to fortify against errors and evils; to fashion and discipline for wise, virtuous, and useful action.

29. The temperature of the school room should be kept at from 68° to 70° Fahrenheit's thermometer.

30. Perception and memory. The order of mental development is, perception, memory, imagination, reason, and generalization. All mental training should be based on the above order of mind growth.

31. Promptness, cheerfulness, and earnestness.
32. A portion of each reading lesson, and of each spelling lesson also, should be prepared on slates or on paper. Have the pupils to substitute the written matter which they so prepare in place of their books, when re-citing, so that they may become familiar with script. Drawing lessons and work in arithmetic should be prepared on slates, or on paper with lead pencils.
33. Object Lessons is a term applied to that method of primary instruction, in which it is sought to develop the child's faculties by placing the actual object or thing talked about, before him for observation. This method of instruction embraces discussions of such objects as a cube, a feather, a piece of glass, a picture, a book, etc.
34. A Justice of the Rhode Island State Supreme Court says on this subject, that “ the law seems to be well settled, and is this; that for such misbehavior out of school as has a direct and immediate tendency to injure the school, to subvert the master's authority, and to beget disorder and insubordination, the teacher may inflict corporal punishment.” In States where the law on any particular point in controversy is not clearly settled, the decisions on such points in the Courts of other States are generally accepted as law—although such is not necessarily the case.
35. In the full definition of the term, education is to draw forth faculties, to strengthen and to train them, to establish principles, and to develop powers.
36. Encourage the smaller pupils in the preparation of their lessons by speaking approvingly of their efforts. The teacher should go among the little ones at their desks, and he should make it a point to inspect the work of each, to encourage the timid, and to provide the unemployed with something to do. Older pupils while not averse to approval, may be appealed to through the agency of reason.

They should be shown the necessity for diligence in their school work, and the bad results likely to follow neglect of mental improvement in youth, should be clearly pointed out to them. The whole matter of school management has been truthfully expressed in "As is the teacher, so will be the school." If the teacher is earnestly devoted to his labors, the school under his management will not be long in manifesting a like spirit.

37. It is the duty of teachers to exercise the same care over school buildings and grounds, school furniture and apparatus given into their control, that they would over their own property. Pupils should be informed by teachers that to destroy or to deface school property is an offense punishable by fine, and in some cases, by fine and imprisonment,

38. The teacher should have a knowledge of the laws of health, and he should exercise it carefully in the management of his pupils. It is his duty to see that the school-room is properly heated, that it is supplied with pure air and sufficient sunlight, that pupils maintain proper positions of limbs and body at their desks and in their classes, that the seats and desks are suited to the ages of the pupils, and that no pupil with damp clothes or cold feet remains away from the fire. Much sickness and many causes of complaint among pupils come from exposure during the outdoor recesses, and the prudent teacher will abolish these in bad weather. In many of the better graded schools throughout the country, only indoor recesses are given pupils, but the number of hours spent in the school-room is lessened.

39. The teacher should keep a daily record of the attendance, the cases of tardiness, and the deportment of his scholars. He should keep, also, a private class-book with the names of the members of each class enrolled in it, for the purpose of grading at recitations. At the close of each week these grades should be read to the school; and, at the end of the month, each pupil's grades should be made out in proper form and sent to his parents for inspection.
A convenient scale for class grading is one ranging from 0 to 3. In this, 3 indicates satisfactory; 2, a little defective; 1, unsatisfactory; and 0, entirely faulty.
In this private register should be noted particularly interesting features of recitations, suggestions on methods of developing subjects, new forms of solution of problems, and other matter relating to the school and its work.
40. (1) The questions asked by the teacher require no effort on the part of the pupils to answer.
(2) Many of the questions have no connection with the subject under discussion.
(3) The questions are asked at random, the teacher having no fixed order of development of the subject.
(4) The teacher assumes the responsibility of answering his own questions, before the pupils have fully considered them.
(5) The teacher talks too much and too loud.
(6) The teacher lacks understanding of what he attempts to teach.
41. We quote as follows: Education makes men more industrious; more trustworthy; more active and systematic; more cheerful; more far-sighted; more economical as producers and preservers of property.
42. All such improprieties as come under the notice of the teacher should be pointed out and corrected by him, in a manner that will not wound the feelings of the pupil, but in a way that will meet his approval, and which will put him on his guard against future errors.
43. (1) By making preparation for the recitation.
(2) By teaching the subject, and not the language of the text.

(3) By insisting on exactness of statements and promptness in response to questions.
(4) By manifesting interest in what you are teaching.

44. They should not. Many questions bearing on the subject matter of the lesson will suggest themselves to the intelligent teacher in the course of the recitation, which it is proper to ask, although their answers may not be gleaned directly from the text-book. In truth, it is leading pupils into habits of independent thinking, causing them to investigate matters for themselves, enlarging their field of thought, and developing subjects logically and fully, that mark the course of the successful teacher.

45. A successful method of teaching spelling is to have the class write the words of the lesson on their slates, and to have them use these at the recitation instead of their books. The advantages of this method are:
(a) It gives employment to all during the time for study.
(b) Each pupil prepares all the words of the lesson.
(c) The form of each word of the lesson is impressed upon the mind of every member of the class.
(d) It gives extensive practice in writing.
(e) It cultivates painstaking in the preparation of work.

46. Not in anything relating to methods of instruction, or class-room management. A teacher should not sacrifice his individuality to serve the humor of those who know much less than he does of the duties of the school-room.

47. Pupils should be instructed in the manner of holding the pen properly, and in the correct position of the head, chest, and limbs while writing. A free, rapid, and graceful movement of the hand and forearm should be encouraged.
The teacher should insist on each pupil's acquiring a legible handwriting free from ornament and flourish, but distinctly marking the pupil's individualism, as it will do sooner or later.

48. School-rooms should be ventilated by means of ventilating flues built in the walls of the house, and communicating with the attic. But in buildings not provided with such flues, the windows should be hung with pulleys in order that they may be raised or lowered with ease, and by proper management, these will secure a tolerably good degree of ventilation. In connection with this subject, we quote the following from the Ohio School Report, 1881.

"A window raised for ventilating purposes admits a current of cold air directly on the pupils. A window lowered is likely to furnish an exit to all the warm air in the room, no matter how this warm air is furnished. More often two currents are established, taking all the warm air out and admitting a cold current, this producing colds or rheumatisms in such parts of the body as they strike.

"To obviate these results, if windows must for a time be used to supply fresh air, a board six or eight inches wide may be closely fitted against the outside of the bottom of the sash, but so that the sash may be raised. Then, on raising the window a few inches, no currents enter the room below the sash; while up between the lower and the upper sash cold air will be pressed in to supply what is exhausted from the room by the stove or grate. The warm air of the room, being light, will not escape down through this channel. Currents will, by this arrangement, be mostly, though not always, obviated."

49. The means are within reach to furnish pure, warm air to country school-houses, as conveniently and cheaply as it can be furnished to large city buildings by furnaces or by steam. School stoves are manufactured, consisting of coal or wood stoves, surrounded by sheet-iron casings, at the bottom of which pure air can be admitted through a hole in the floor or wall, and communicating with the weather by means of a box or tin tube under the floor.
A paneled box or a tin tube in the corner of the room, reaching through the roof, and with an opening into the room at the bottom, equal to the full capacity of the tube, will carry off the bad air.
A stove is also constructed called "The Fire on the Hearth," with casings and a corrugated sheet of copper, forming many small tubes inside of the casing, and with an open grate for the fire. This, when furnished with outdoor communications through the floor or wall, for the admission of pure air to be heated within the casings, ventilates like a common open grate. Better than nothing, though in the end but little, if any cheaper than the above, would be a common stove surrounded by a sheet-iron casing, and the never-to-be-omitted outdoor communications, both for admitting and for emitting the air as above.—Ohio School Report, 1881.

50. The Topical Method is perhaps the best, from its application to all subjects. But the Analytical Method is not to be ignored, as it is of the highest value in developing the faculties of causality and comparison.

51. The teacher is apt to arouse the same spirit in the pupil that he manifests himself, hence it is of the greatest moment that he avoids the least manifestation of the vindictive spirit in administering reproof. All personal indignities, such as pulling the ears of pupils, slapping them with a book or the open hand, and other such conduct, should never be indulged. If it becomes necessary to resort to bodily punishment, the teacher should withhold its infliction until he knows himself to be free from all rash impulses.

52. It is generally found to have its beginning at home. Every observing teacher knows at first sight what the home influence over his pupils has been, and he makes allowance accordingly in the control of his school. It is folly to suppose a vicious, ill-bred or clumsy pupil in school, to be cultivated, mannerly, or graceful at home. As well suppose the ferocious beast in the cage to be perfectly docile in his native wilds...

53. That a few years spent within the walls of a college will assure a young man or woman a successful career through life. A prominent educator says on this subject: "The young man comes to believe that when he graduates he is educated, and hence entitled to some consideration. And so he is; but he gets the idea that he is then ready to commence in the world, and that it has some special opening for him. He thinks that said world is under an obligation to receive him fresh from the arms of his 'Alma mater,' and to compensate him for his long years of toil. He thus makes up his full bill of items, and presents his claims; but the heartless world tells him ' to tarry at Jericho until his beard be grown,' or to prove his claim, and to make good his title, and then to come and it will listen to him. If he obey this admonition, he may succeed. If he disregard it, he will be apt to meet with disappointment, and to fall back among that numerous class of splendid failures who graduate for a name."

54. It is an invigorating class exercise. It stimulates pupils to searching preparation of lessons, and to a careful intelligent recital of them. It is one of the very best means to secure order and attention in the class, and to sharpen the discriminating powers of pupils. But all criticism must bear directly on matters pertaining to the recitation. Criticism personal in its reflection should not be permitted.

55. The younger pupils of the school should be given much freedom of posture during school hours. In the country schools where the periods of study and recitation extend through the space of an hour and a half or longer, the primary pupils should be given frequent outdoor recesses in fine weather, and drawing or copying to do at the blackboard, as a relief from the seat position, when the weather is unfit for outdoor exercise,

56. Give them such work as the copying of lines, figures, and words, as both slate and blackboard exercises. Every child in health has a certain amount of energy which must be expended through some channel, and if the teacher does not provide means for its escape, the child will. If teachers would devote more thought to means of useful employment of their pupils, they would have fewer occasions to complain of misbehavior and idleness.

57. The cultivation of mind and body should go together, since the development of one gives tone and vigor to the other; and while it is not expected of the teachers in our common schools to drill their pupils in exercises for bodily development, they should as a part of their duty, cultivate them in habits of easy and graceful positions both in sitting and standing. Slovenliness, swaggering, shuffling, and all affectation of walk should be corrected in the school-room.

58. It is the practice of many successful teachers to have reviews of the week's work every Friday afternoon. Others hold reviews of each month's work at its close. The better plan is to review special topics as the wants of the class demand it, and to have general reviews at the close of each month. These may be oral or written, or both.

59. The teacher should spend the week previous to the opening of school among the patrons of the district. Especially is this applicable to the country schools, where parents are usually careless about sending their children at the beginning of the term. Moreover, the teacher can thus become acquainted with his pupils in their homes, and thereby learn much of their antecedents, which will be of great value to him in the government of his school.

60. It is the reading of such outside matter as will lead to a fuller understanding of subjects taught than can be obtained from the text-books.
61. (a) "Mackenzie's Life of Com. O. H. Perry."
(b) "Old Ironsides," and "The Wasp and the Hornet," by Holmes.
62. (a) The teacher should possess a physical organization, free from such ailments as tend to impair his temper and disposition.
(b) He should possess a vigorous mental organization, and he should be endowed with a fair amount of that most valuable mental quality known as common sense.
(c) He should have in addition to a thorough knowledge of the subjects taught in the schools, a fund of general information covering a vast range.
(d) His morals should be above reproach.
(f) He should possess good executive ability.
63. (a) The advancement of the class.
(b) The time to be devoted to study and recitation.
(c) The age of the pupils and their ability to learn.
(d) The nature of the subject itself.
64. The elements of Botany, Chemistry, and Natural Philosophy should be taught in our common schools. Entirely too much time is devoted to the subjects of Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, in most district schools; often one half of the time of pupils is devoted to the study of Arithmetic alone.
65. Use strengthens the memory; inactivity dwarfs it; over-exercise impairs it; to know thoroughly is the sure way to remember."
66. (a) By frequent drills on subjects to be memorized.
(b) By creating interest in things to be learned.
(c) By making the subject thoroughly understood.
67. (a) "Reason is that power of the mind which compares, understands, infers, judges."
(b) The order of mental development is perception, memory, imagination, reason, and generalization.
68. (a) Questions should be clear, concise, and definite.
(b) They should be adapted to the capacity of the pupil.
(c) They should be in the language of the teacher, not in that of the book.
(d) They should bar monosyllabic answers.
(e) They should not suggest the answers by contrast.
(f) They should require mental effort on the part of the pupil to answer.
(g) They should lead to the logical development of the subject.

69. (a) The Catechetical Method; (b) The Topical Method.
As to order of recitation there are—
(a) The Consecutive Method; (b) The Promiscuous Method; (c) The Concert Method.

70. (a) It economizes time; it stimulates the young and the timid; it promotes rivalry in promptness of response to questions.
(b) It prevents individual drill; it gives opportunity to shift responsibility; it fails to necessitate close and universal attention.

71. (a) That which is wanting in science and deep in-sight; or, it is the knowledge of experience as derived through the senses. (b) “School ethics relates to the rights and duties of persons connected with the school.” — Wickersham.

72. (a) Myopia, or near-sightedness.
(b) Scoliosis, or lateral curvature of the spine.

73. (a) Those that suggest the answers to be given.
(b) Those that can be sufficiently answered by “yes,” or “no.”