Common school examiner and review 1890.txt

COMMON SCHOOL EXAMINER -AND- REVIEW.

BROWN'S Common School SERIES.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
Chap. Copyright No.
Shelf B 1761
B 8
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

COMMON SCHOOL EXAMINER AND REVIEW

AND

BROWN'S UNIVERSAL QUESTION BOOK.

A COLLECTION OF QUESTIONS USED BY

STATE, COUNTY AND CITY SUPERINTENDENTS

IN THE EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS; ANSWERED IN THE CLEAREST AND BRIEFEST MANNER.

DESIGNED FOR
EXAMINERS, TEACHERS, PUPILS AND INSTITUTE CONDUCTORS.

BY I. H. BROWN, A. M.,

ST. LOUIS:
I. H. BROWN & COMPANY.
1890.

COPYRIGHTED BY
I. H. BROWN & COMPANY.
1890.

Press of
Nixon-Jones
Printing Company.

Becktold & Co.,
Book Manufacturers.

TO THE PUBLIC.

The favor with which former editions of the COMMON SCHOOL EXAMINER AND REVIEW has been received justifies the Publishers in adding Theory and Practice of Teaching to the list of subjects.

As in the preparation of other branches, a wide field has been culled for suitable matter. The questions are those used by Institute Conductors, County and City Superintendents in the examination of teachers.

An effort has been made to include only those questions whose answering would occasion some difficulty.

The work as now presented is peculiarly adapted to the use of

1. Candidates preparing for teacher's examination.
2. Scholars reviewing branches of school study.
3. Institute Conductors desirous of securing the best results in the shortest time.

SENT POST-PAID TO ANY ADDRESS ON RECEIPT OF $1.

COMMON SCHOOL
EXAMINER AND REVIEW.

RULES GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS.

The following rules will give the candidate an idea of the regulations governing examinations in different States, Counties, and Cities.

1. The object of this examination is to ascertain your knowledge of the subjects required by law, and your ability to present their principles correctly and clearly: the result of the examination depends upon your success in showing these conditions.
2. Provide yourself with paper, pens, and ink.
3. Be prepared to begin each subject at the time appointed.
4. No reference books or notes will be permitted in the examination room.
5. Do not communicate during the examination in any manner with any one except the examiner: the papers of those who violate this rule will not be examined.
6. Number and letter your answers to correspond with the questions and their subdivisions.
7. Write in a legible hand: no time can be spent in deciphering ambiguous expressions; — all such will be considered as evidence of the writer's inability to spell or to use them correctly, and will be charged to his spelling and grammar.
8. Let every answer be clear, definite, and complete.
9. Divide your work into paragraphs, so that each answer shall stand out prominently.
10. If you do not understand a question, raise your hand for an explanation.
11. Pass such questions as you cannot answer, leaving a blank space numbered according to the place it occupies.
12. Ask no indulgences or allowances: such a request implies presumptive deficiency.
13. Absence, except in case of sickness, will debar the candidate from examination in the branch of study missed.
14. Fold your completed paper, and write your name and subject on the back. [Some examiners require the number by which candidates are designated to be written on the papers.]

RULES GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS.
Suggestions by the Author.

1. Observe propriety in dress, manner, and behavior: a fop, clown, or a boor is out of place in the school room.
2. Any unfairness in obtaining answers deprives the candidate of the first condition required for a certificate — moral character. Be above suspicion.
3. The only favors you should expect will be of the nature of a premium for the neatness, order, and promptness you exhibit.
4. Examine the paper given you, answering mentally the questions with which you are familiar before committing anything to paper.
5. Examiners take nothing for granted: be explicit.
6. Examiners' impressions decide all doubtful answers: they reason that what you know you can explain clearly.
7. Keep your manuscript till it is called for. See that it contains no errors which you can correct.
8. The minimum of speech during recesses, will give you the maximum of intellectual power when wanted.
9. To avoid embarrassment, the respiration should be full, deep, and vigorous.

QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY.

1. Define the following terms: (a) Orthography, (b) Phonology, (c) Orthoepy, (d) letter, (e) Elementary Sound.
2. (a) How many elementary sounds does the English language contain? (b) How divided?
3. Name the voice-producing organs?
4. Name the organs employed in speech.
5. Into what two classes are letters divided?
6. Into what classes are the consonants divided according to the organs employed in their production?
7. (a) What are subvocals? (b) Name them.
8. (a) What are aspirates? (b) Name them.
9. Name the consonant combinations.
10. Define the following terms: (a) cognates, (b) liquids, (c) coalescents, (d) explodents, (e) continuants.
11. Name the uses of silent letters.
12. What is the distinction between the name and the power of a letter?
13. Define the following terms: (a) Diphthong, (b) Digraph, (c) Trigraph, (d) Syllable, (e) Word.
14. Classify the letters i in alien, ce in ocean, ti in notion.
15. When are w and y vowels? Consonants?
16. What is syllabication?
17. How should words be divided at the end of the line?
18. When is the hyphen most commonly used?
19. What is the essential part or base of a syllable?
20. Why are words divided into syllables?
21. Define orthographic synthesis and analysis.
22. What faculties does the exercise of spelling chiefly tend to cultivate?
23. How are words classified with regard to the number of syllables they contain?
24. (a) How are words classified according to their formation?
(b) Define the classes.
25. (a) Define accent.
(b) What two kinds?
(c) Tell how each is denoted and where it is commonly placed.
(d) State what effect a change of accent may produce.
26. (a) What are the significant parts of many derivative words?
(b) Define each.
27. What is the usual office of Prefixes and Suffixes respectively?
28. In the change of prefixes applied to certain derivative words for the sake of euphony or analogy, what is the usual practice?
29. Mention some elementary sounds which have no single character to represent them.
30. Under what circumstances is a word formed by prefixes or suffixes primitive?
31. (a) Which letters have no sound of their own? (b) Which letters are never silent? (c) When is m silent? (d) When is final e silent? (e) What would be the result if final e was not silent?
32. State the relative advantages of oral and written spelling as a drill exercise.
33. With the word incomprehensibility, show the proper application of the terms penult, antepenult, etc.
34. What sounds has th? Give sounds illustrating each.
35. What advantage arises from a knowledge of the rules for the duplication of consonants?
36. State and illustrate the rules for doubling the final consonant of words receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel.
37. (a) Into what is final y preceded by a consonant usually changed upon receiving a suffix? (b) What occurs when the final y is preceded by a vowel?
38. Give rules for the spelling of words derived from radicals ending in silent e.
39. State a rule for spelling words derived from radicals ending with a double letter.
40. Give an orthographic analysis of the word discontentment.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY.

1. (a) Orthography is the art of writing words with the proper letters according to common usage. (b) Phonology is the science of uttering the elementary sounds. (c) Orthœpy is the art of uttering words with propriety. (d) A letter is the least distinct part of a written word representing one or more elementary sounds. (e) An elementary sound is the simplest sound of a language uttered by a single impulse of voice.

2. (a) The English language contains forty-four elementary sounds. (b) They are divided into vocals, subvocals and aspirates.
3. Abdominal and Thoracic Muscles, the Diaphragm, the Thorax, the Pleura, the Lungs, the Trachea and the Larynx.
4. The Lips, Teeth, Tongue, Palate and Nasal organs assisted by the respiratory organs.
5. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.

6. Labials, or lip sounds; Linguals, or tongue sounds; Lingua-Dentals, or tongue-teeth-sounds; Lingua-Nasals, or tongue-nose-sounds; Palato-Nasals, or palate-nose sounds, and Palatals.
7. (a) Subvocals are those sounds produced by the voice modified by the speech organs. (b) The sub-vocals are: Labials, b, v, w, m; Lingua-Dentals, d, th, j, z, zh; Linguals, l, r; Lingua-Nasal, n; Palato-Nasal, ng; Palatals, g and y.
8. (a) Aspirates are mere breathings modified by the speech organs. (b) The aspirates are: Labials, p, f, wh; Lingua-Dentals, t, th, ch, s, sh; Palatals, k, and h.
9. The consonant combinations are: ch, gh, ph, sh, th, wh, and ng.
10. (a) Cognates are sounds formed by the same organs in different positions. (b) Liquids are such sounds as flow readily into other sounds. (c) Coalescents unite freely with other sounds. (d) Explodents are such sounds as do not admit of prolongation. (e) Continuants are sounds which are capable of an indefinite prolongation.
11. Silent letters are used first, to modify the sounds of other letters, and second, to show the origin or definition of words.
12. The name of a letter is the term by which it is known; the power of a letter is the elementary sound it represents.
13. (a) A Diphthong is the union of two vowel sounds in the same syllable; as, ou, ow, oi, and oy. (b) A Digraph is the combination of two letters to represent one sound; as ai, ph, etc. (c) A Trigraph is the union of three vowels in the same syllable, not all of which are sounded; as, ieu in lieu. (d) A syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds produced by a single vocal impulse. (e) A Word is a syllable or a combination of syllables used as the sign of an idea.
14. The i in alien is a substitute for y, and is therefore a consonant, subvocal, palatal. In ocean and notion, ce and ti are substitutes for sh, and are consonant, aspirate, lingua-dentals.
15. When w and y represent u and i they are vowels; they are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same syllable.
16. Syllabication is the correct division of words into syllables.
17. Words should be divided at the end of a line by syllables only.
18. Between recently compounded words; between syllables at the end of the line; between syllables to show more clearly their pronunciation.
19. The vowel. There is an apparent exception in the second syllable of such words as table, castle, muscle.
20. To assist in their pronunciation.
21. Synthesis is the process of combining elementary sounds. Analysis is the process of separating a syllable or word into its elementary sounds.
22. The faculties of memory, observation and discrimination.
23. As Monosyllables, one syllable; Dissyllables, two syllables; Trisyllables, three syllables: Polysyllables, many syllables.
24. (a) Into Simple and Compound, Primitive and Derivative.
(b) 1st. A Simple word is one which is not formed by uniting two or more words; as, son, father.
2nd. A Compound word is formed of two or more simple words; as, son-in-law, father-in-law.
3rd. A Primitive word is one not formed from any other word in the same language; as, man, rain.
4th. A Derivative word is one formed by joining to a primitive word some letter or syllable to modify its meaning; as, manly, raining.

25. (a) Accent is a marked stress applied to some particular syllable. (b) Certain words have two accents, viz., a primary and a secondary. (c) The primary is the more forcible, and, in words having more than one accent, usually follows the secondary. The primary is denoted thus ('), the secondary, thus ("), as in "-com-pat-i-bil'-i-ty. (d) A change of accent sometimes changes the meaning of a word; as, Au'gust, the month, and au gust', majestic; sometimes a different part of speech is indicated by a change of accent; as, in'sult, the noun, in sult', the verb.

26. (a) Roots, prefixes, and suffixes. (b) The Root is that part of a derivative word modified by a prefix or a suffix. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which is placed before the root. A suffix is that part of a derivative word which is placed after the root.
27. Prefixes modify the meaning of a primitive word; while Suffixes, in addition, usually determine its part of speech. Ex. — Improper, not proper, an adjective. Properly, in a proper manner, an adverb.
28. The last letter of the prefix must often be the same as the first letter of the root, as, cor-rect, instead of co-rect.
29. The sounds represented by the following combin-ations: oi, ou, oy, ow, ng, th, ch (soft), sh, zh.
30. When by the addition of prefixes or suffixes the meaning of both root and prefix or suffix is changed, the word remains primitive; as, re and proof in the word reproof, which is a primitive word.
31. (a) C, x, and q. (b) F, j, q, r, x, v, z. (c) In mnemonics. (d) When preceded by another vowel in the same syllable; as, mate, tape, rice, ride. (e) An additional syllable would be formed.
32. The exercise of oral spelling in young children cultivates a clear, distinct, and energetic articulation, and a readiness of speech. Written spelling fixes the forms of words in the mind and gives practice in writ-ing.
33. The last syllable (ty) is the ultima. The last but one (i) is the penult. The last but two (bil) is the antepenult. The last but three (si) is the preante-penult.
34. Aspirate as in thin, and subvocal as in thine.
35. By an examination of the word we may deter-mine whether the final consonant should be doubled or not.
36. Monosyllables and other words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before a suffix that begins with a vowel; as, spot, — spotted, begin, — beginning.
37. (a) The final y of a radical word when pre-ceded by a consonant, is generally changed to i upon the addition of a suffix; as, try, —trial, happy, —happiness. (b) If the final y is preceded by a vowel the y remains unchanged upon receiving a suffix; as, buy, —buyer, glory, —glorying.
38. 1st. Final e of the radical word is rejected when the suffix begins with a vowel, except in words ending in ce and ge; as, moving, peaceable.
2nd. Final e of a radical word is usually retained when the suffix begins with a consonant, as, in hope,— hopeless, move,— movement.
Exceptions.—Awful, judgment, truly, wholly, abridgment, acknowledgment.
39. Words ending in a double letter preserve it double in their derivatives unless the syllable affixed begins with the same letter; as, seeing, skillful.
40. Discontentment is a simple derivative polysyllable of four syllables, accented primarily on the third syllable, and secondarily on the first, derived from content. Content, the radical, is modified, first by the prefix dis, meaning not, and, second, by the suffix ment, meaning state of being. The word signifies “ the state of being discontented.”
d --- is a consonant-subvocal-lingua-dental.
i --- is a vowel, short sound, the base of first syllable.
s --- is a consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental, normal sound.
c --- is a substitute for k, a consonant-aspirate-palatal.
o --- is a vowel, short obscure sound, base of second syllable.
n --- is a consonant-subvocal-lingua-nasal.
t - - - is a consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental.
e - - - is a vowel, short sound, base of third syllable.
n - - - is a consonant-subvocal-lingua-nasal.
t - - - is a consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental.
m - - - is a consonant-subvocal-labial.
e - - - is a vowel, short obscure sound, base of fourth syllable. n and t same as n and t above.

Some of the following words have been found in nearly every list examined. The candidate who as-pires to a creditable standing in spelling should master the list.

gauge           nonpareil       mullein         sadducee
guerrilla       indelible       lachrymal       Pleiades
apostasy        Pentateuch      camomile        gherkin
bicycle         mnemonics       inoculate       plebeian
bowie-knife     apocalypse      isosceles       apocrypha
caisson         idiosyncrasy    caoutchouc      dishabille
euchre          plagiarism      purslain        pusillanimous
elecampane      surcingle       bacchanalian    scirrhus
exchequer       mademoiselle    anachronism     scarify
ghoul           initiation      corpuscle       balustrade
fusillade       mayoralty       chenille        titillation
cynical         rescission      corypheus       superannuated
inflammatory    Pyrrhonism      aphyllous       syzygy
cuirassier      harelipped      saccharine      panacea
porphyry        millionaire     cavalier        hypocritical
paraphernalia   sanatory        millennium      daguerreian
whimsey         alpaca          stadtholder     mammalia
exhilarate      meerschaum      colonelcy       sibylline
novitiate       terrify         hygiene         holly-hock
vicissitude     beleaguer       labyrinth       secession

QUESTIONS ON READING.

1. (a) How many and what kinds of reading are there? (b) What is the purpose of each? (c) and (d) Name at least five requisites for each kind of reading.
2. Define Reading as an Art.
3. What is Elocution?
4. Why is Reading less effectively taught in our schools than some other branches?
5. State how Reading may be taught so as to secure results commensurate with the time it usually receives.
6. Upon what is voice dependent?
7. How can a clear, full, flexible voice be secured?
8. Give a description of the pupil's position while reading.
9. Explain the Word Method of teaching Reading.
10. What is the Phonic Method of teaching Reading? State its distinctive purpose.
11. Describe the Sentence Method of teaching Reading.
12. Is it possible for a poor reader to teach reading? If so, to what extent?
13. What is Articulation?
14. How can a distinct and correct articulation be acquired?
15. Name the Essential Elements of vocal expression, and tell why called essential elements.
16. Define the term Resonance as used in Reading.
17. What is Quality of Voice?
18. Into what two classes may quality be divided?
    What does each embrace?
19. Define the following: (a) Pure Tone, (b)
    Orotund, (c) Plaintive, (d) Pectoral, (e) Guttural.
20. How does the quality of voice determine the emotions of the speaker?
21. What classes of sentiment are expressed by the
    following Voice Qualities : Pure Tone, Orotund, Plaintive, Pectoral, Guttural, Aspirate?
22. What is meant by Force in Reading?
23. What relation does Stress bear to Force?
24. Define Pitch, and state its natural divisions.
25. What does the term Compass mean?
26. Define Movement, and name its divisions.
27. What is meant by the term Quantity?
28. What terms are commonly employed to designate the different kinds of Stress?
29. Explain the difference between Slides and
    Waves.
30. Define Slur.
31. What is Emphasis?
    How is it effected?
32. State the difference between: Absolute and Antithetic Emphasis.
33. What is meant by Cadence?
34. Give a general rule for the use of the Downward Slide.
35. Give a general rule for the use of the Upward Slide.
36. State the general law governing the use of Waves.
37. (a) What is Personation? (b) What does it require?
38. What is meant by Monotone?
39. State the difference between grammatical and rhetorical pauses.
40. (a) What is a Climax? (b) How should it be read?
41. What is Transition?
42. (a) What is a Series? (b) How many kinds?
43. What is Modulation?
44. Explain the term Grouping as applied to Reading.
45. How is Slide sometimes affected by emphasis?
46. Define a Parenthetical Clause, and state how it should be read.
47. (a) What physical habits ought a pupil to form from reading aloud? (b) What bad physical habits may be formed in reading classes under poor teachers?
48. What are the chief objects to be attained in the study and practice of reading?
49. Describe the style of reading which may be considered in the highest degree excellent.

ANSWERS ON READING.

1. (a) Two: Silent, or Intellectual, and Audible, or Oral. (b) The apprehension of the thought and the expression of the thought.
(c) For Silent Reading. (d) For Audible Reading.
Quick Perception. All Required for Silent Reading.
Keen Discernment. Respiratory Command.
Clear Conception. Distinct Articulation.
Vivid Imagination. Imitative Power.
Good Taste and Judgment. Command of Voice.
Expressive Action.
Correct Personal Habits.

2. Reading as an art is the interpretation and expression of thought, sentiment, and emotion as presented in written or printed composition.
3. Elocution is the expression of thought, emotion, and passion by all the organs of the body, in an easy, graceful, and effective manner.
4. First, for the want of skill among teachers. Second, the absence of a definite standard of excellence in reading. Third, the lack of interest among pupils in the matter contained in their books.
5. The teacher should arouse the interest of pupils by first reading the lesson properly and effectively before the class, and then by skillfully questioning the pupils, concentrate their attention upon the thought and its expression.
6. Upon a proper and sufficient supply of air.
7. By a daily and systematic exercise in Respiration, Articulation, and Waves.
8. Book in left hand, thumb and little finger in front; first, second, and third fingers at the back of the book; the elbow not touching the side. The book should be held in such a manner that a line drawn from the eyes toward the page would intersect the plane of the book at right angles. The full face of the pupil should be seen by the teacher. The weight of the body should be supported, while reading, on BOTH feet, the left heel two or three inches in advance of the hollow of the right foot. The chest should be elevated and expanded, the position erect and easy.
9. The Word Method consists in recognizing words as wholes without reference to the letters of which they are composed.
10. The Phonic Method consists in uttering each elementary sound of words with exaggerated distinctness. Its purpose is to cultivate the speech organs rather than to give facility in distinguishing words.
11. The Sentence Method consists in presenting an entire sentence as the unit of thought without reference to the words of which it is composed.
12. It is possible to the same extent that dancing, singing, fencing, etc., may be taught by a tyro in those arts.
13. Articulation is the utterance of the sounds of a language.
14. Spell by sound with decided force and distinctness such words as contain many unharmonious sounds; as, peremptory, legible, mangled'st, obligatory.
15. Quality, Force, Stress, Pitch, and Movement are called Essential Elements, because they are found in the utterance of every sentence.
16. Resonance in reading means the location whence the sound appears to come.
17. Quality of Voice is the nature, character or kind of tone used.
18. Normal and Abnormal Qualities. The Normal qualities are Pure Tone and Orotund. The Abnormal qualities are Plaintive, Pectoral, Guttural, Aspirate, Nasal, and Falsetto.
19. (a) The Pure Tone is a clear, smooth, musical tone free from any aspiration or harshness. (b) The Orotund is the Pure Tone deepened and intensified to its utmost magnitude, with the resonance in the chest. (c) The Plaintive is a thin, feeble tone, with the resonance in the forward part of the mouth. (d) The Pectoral is a rough, harsh, husky, hollow tone resembling the Orotund. (e) The Guttural is a grating, rattling, discordant sound produced by a rigid com-pression of the muscles of the throat.
20. Different qualities arise from the ever changing sentiments that animate the human mind, and the varied physical conditions to which the body is con-stantly subjected.
21. The Pure Tone is employed to express solemn, serious, tranquil, narrative, descriptive, and didactic thought. The Orotund is used to express earnest, bold, grand, and lofty thought and emotions of grandeur, rever-ence, and sublimity. The Plaintive Quality expresses feebleness, exhaus-tion, languor, and affectation. The Pectoral is used to express sorrow, dread, solemnity, awe, remorse. The Guttural indicates fierce anger, hatred, con-tempt, scorn, loathing, malice, detestation. The Aspirate is used in the expression of secrecy, surprise, fear, caution, and expiring life.
22. Force is the degree of energy with which sound is sent forth from the vocal organs. It is not loudness.
23. Stress is the application of force to some par-ticular part of a syllable or word. It is not accent. Accent includes the entire syllable.
24. Pitch is the degree of elevation or depression of sound. Its natural divisions are Middle, High, Low.
25. Compass is the range of voice above and below the Key-note.
26. Movement is the degree of rapidity with which sounds are uttered in continued discourse. Its divisions are Moderate, Rapid, Slow.
27. Quantity is the time occupied in the utterance of single syllables or words ; its divisions are Medium, Long and Short.
28. Radical, Median, Final, Compound, Thorough, and Intermittent.
29. Slides, sometimes termed Inflections, are changes of pitch either upward or downward on a single sound. Waves are compound movements of voice, embracing sometimes combinations of several slides.
30. Slur is a smooth, rapid and subdued movement of voice over certain phrases and clauses of less importance than others with which they stand associated.
31. Emphasis is the peculiar utterance of words, phrases, and clauses which renders them specially significant or prominent. It is effected by a change of Quality, Force, Stress, Pitch or Movement from the prevailing element.
32. Absolute Emphasis makes prominent some word or phrase regardless of its relation to other ideas contained in the sentence ; while Antithetic Emphasis expresses a contrast between two or more ideas.
33. Cadence is a general lowering of pitch, indicating the close of a sentence.
34. The Downward Slide is employed in sentences denoting (1) completeness of thought, (2) determination, (3) certainty, (4) positive and decisive declaration, (5) emphatic declaration.
35. The Upward Slide is employed in sentences de- noting (1) incompleteness of thought, (2) indifference, (3) uncertainty, (4) doubt, (5) contingency, (6) negation.
36. The Waves, of which there are nearly two hundred varieties, are used in the expression of con- trast, double meaning, insinuation, wit, jest, drollery, irony, sarcasm, sneer, and contempt.
37. (a) Personation consists in representing the peculiarities of two or more persons in speaking. (b) The skillful personation of different characters requires a careful study of their peculiar temperaments, condi- tions, and circumstances, and the application of the appropriate vocal and facial expression.
38. The Monotone consists in the utterance of several successive words with the same elements, as quality, force, stress, pitch, and movement.
39. Grammatical pauses are the punctuation marks used to denote the grammatical relation of words and sentences, thus enabling the reader to understand the same; while rhetorical pauses are temporary suspensions of voice used to give effect to ex- pression.
40. (a) A Climax is a sentence or a succession of sentences so arranged that each idea rises in impor- tance, force, or dignity above that which precedes it. (b) It should be read with a gradual increase of inten- sity of all the vocal elements.
41. Transition is a change in the manner of ex- pression in obedience to the change of sentiment.
42. (a) A Series is a succession of particulars having the same grammatical construction. (b) There are two kinds: the Commencing and the Concluding.
43. Modulation is the ready and perfect adaptation of the appropriate elements of speech to the sentiments designed to be conveyed.
44. Grouping is the skillful arrangement of words, phrases, and sentences, with regard to the elements employed in their delivery, into such groups as shall render their meaning clear, pleasing, and effective.
45. Words having the Upward Slide sometimes receive the Downward Slide when emphasized.
46. A Parenthetic Clause is one thrown in to explain, or it expresses something said aside from the general discourse. It should be read with a lower pitch and a more rapid movement than the other parts of the composition.
47. (a) A distinct articulation, correct respiration, control of voice, and graceful attitudes and action. (b) Careless articulation, unpleasant tones, and ungainly attitudes.
48. To develop the power of grasping thought and to secure proper oral expression of written language.
49. That reading which inspires the hearer with emotions similar to those sensations one experiences while listening to the skillful recital of interesting events witnessed by the narrator, may be considered “excellent.”

QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP.

1. What are the principal positions at the desk?
2. Describe the correct manner of holding the pen?
3. What movements are employed in penmanship?
4. Which of the various movements is regarded best for general business purposes?
5. What should be the first lesson in writing with a pen?
6. Explain the following terms used in writing: (a) Base line, (b) Head line, (c) Intermediate line, (d) Top line, (e) Space.
7. (a) Define Main Slant, (b) Connective Slant.
8. From what authority is derived the Main and Connective Slants.
9. What is the unit for measuring the height and width of letters?
10. (a) How many principles are employed in the Spencerian System (or any other with which you may be familiar) in writing? (b) Give their descriptive names.
11. How should the paper be placed upon the desk while writing?
12. Into how many and what classes are the small letters divided?
13. State the heights of the three classes of small letters.
14. Name in alphabetical order (a) the short letters, (b) the semi-extended letters, (c) the loop letters.
15. (a) Which is the longest of the small letters? (b) Which is the widest?
16. Where is the beginning of the small letters?
17. Where are the small letters finished?
18. At what point do the extended loops above the base line cross?
19. How far below the base line do the loops in g, j, etc., extend?
20. What is the height of the capitals above the base line?
21. What principles or elements are most prominent in the formation of the capitals?
22. What distinction should be made between I and J?
23. What is the general rule for spacing and combining small letters?
24. (a) What is the general rule for spacing between words composed entirely of small letters? (b) Rule for spacing between sentences?
25. State and illustrate the different forms of shaded strokes used in writing.
26. What is the height of the figures in medium handwriting?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP.

1. Front, Left Oblique, Right, and Right Oblique.
2. Take the pen between the first and second fingers and the thumb, observing, 1st, that it crosses the second finger on the corner of the nail; 2d, that it crosses the forefinger forward of the knuckles; 3d, that the end of the thumb touches the holder opposite the lower joint of the forefinger; 4th, that the top of the holder points toward the right shoulder; 5th, that the wrist is above the paper, and the hand resting lightly upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers; 6th, that the point of the pen comes squarely to the paper.
3. The Finger Movement, the Fore Arm, the Whole Arm, the Combined Fore Arm and Finger, and the combined Whole Arm and Finger Movements.
4. The Combined Fore Arm and Finger movement.
5. Correct position and pen holding.
6. (a) The Base line is the horizontal line, real or imaginary, on which the letters rest. (b) The Head line marks the height of the shortest letters. (c) The Intermediate line marks the height of the semi-extended letters t, d, and p. (d) The Top line marks the height of the extended loop letters b, l, f, etc. (e) A space in height is the height of the shortest letters a, e, i, etc. A space in width is the distance between the straight lines of small u.
7. (a) The main Slant is that given to the main or downward strokes ; it forms an angle of about 52° with the horizontal. (b) The connective slant is that which marks the lines connecting the downward strokes; it forms with the horizontal an angle of 30°.
8. From the practice of a majority of the best pen-men.
9. The height of small i is called a space in height; the distance between the straight lines of small u is called a space in width.
10. (a) Seven principles or elements according to the Spencerian System. (b) They are 1st, a straight line on the main slant; 2d, a right curve, usually on the connective slant; 3d, a left curve, usually on the connective slant; 4th, an extended loop, three spaces in height; 5th, the capital O, or direct oval; 6th, the reversed oval; 7th, the capital stem.
11. The paper should be so placed that the right arm makes with the ruled lines a right angle.
12. Three : short, semi-extended, and extended or looped letters.
13. Short letters are one space, except r and s, which are one and a quarter spaces; semi-extended, two spaces; extended or looped, three spaces.
14. (a) The short letters are a, c, e, i, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, x; (b) The semi-extended letters are d, p, q, t; (c) The loop letters are b, f, g, h, j, k, l, y, z.
15. (a) f is the longest; (b) m is the widest.
16. On the base line.
17. At the head line.
18. At the head line.
19. The loops extend two spaces below the base line.
20. Three spaces.
21. The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh, according to the Spencerian System.
22. The J should extend two spaces below the base line.
23. The connecting curve should be carried one and one-quarter spaces to the right of the preceding letter.
24. (a) The first curve should begin on the base line one and one half spaces to the right of the final downward stroke of the preceding word. (b) The spaces between sentences should be twice as great as between words.
25. Five forms of shaded strokes are used; they are exemplified in the letters t, p, l, y, O.
26. One and one-half spaces, except the 6, which extends one-half space above, and the 7 and 9 which continue one-half space below the other figures.

QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC.

1. Define the following terms: (a) Mathematics, (b) Arithmetic, (c) Integer, (d) Fraction, (e) Mathematical Sign.
2. State the difference between an abstract and a concrete number, and illustrate.
3. What is the difference between a Simple and Compound Number? Illustrate.
4. Define the following: (a) A Power, (b) A Root, (c) Demonstration, (d) An Axiom, (e) Analysis.
5. Name the fundamental operations in Arithmetic.
6. Why are ten figures used in the Arabic notation?
7. What systems of notation are in general use?
8. Name the five principles upon which the Roman notation is founded.
9. State the difference between the simple and local value of a figure.
10. Why, in adding, do we begin at the right?
11. Why are the minuend, subtrahend and difference like numbers?
12. Why must the multiplier be an abstract number?
13. What is the difference between long and short division ?
14. Why do we begin at the left in division.
15. How find the *true* remainder by dividing by factors ?
16. Define the following: (a) Prime Factor, (b) Composite number, (c) Reciprocal of a number, (d) Cancellation, (e) Multiple of a number.
17. On what principle may we cancel the factors in the operation of cancellation ?
18. What is the difference between the G. C. D. and L. C. M. of two numbers?
19. How does the unit of a fraction differ from a fractional unit?
20. Define the following terms: (a) Fraction, (b) Common Fraction, (c) Proper Fraction, (d) Improper Fraction, (e) Simple Fraction.
21. (a) What is a Compound Fraction? (b) What does it indicate? (c) What is its sign?
22. (a) Define a Complex Fraction. (b) What does it indicate?
23. Give the meaning of the following terms: (a) Denominator, (b) Numerator, (c) Terms of a Fraction, (d) The value of the Fraction, (e) Mixed Number.
24. What is the Reciprocal of a Fraction?
25. Show how the general principles of division apply to fractions.
26. How is the G. C. D. of fractions found?
27. How is the L. C. M. of fractions found?
28. Upon what principle does the inversion of the divisor depend?
29. In what case may we add two fractions by writing the sum of the denominators over their product, in the form of a fraction?
30. By what must we multiply a fraction, to have its numerator for the product?
31. Are the powers of a proper fraction greater or less than the fraction itself? Why?
32. (a) Is there such a thing as a prime fraction? (b) Can two fractions be prime to each other? (c) What kind of fraction must the G. C. D. of two or more proper fractions be? (d) Can a fraction or mixed number be properly called a common divisor of two integers? (e) What relation subsists between the G. C. D., L. C. M. and product of two numbers?
33. What is a Decimal Fraction, and in how many ways may it be written? Illustrate.
34. Upon what does the value of a decimal figure depend?
35. State the effect of prefixing or annexing ciphers to decimals.
36. What is the denominator of a decimal?
37. How does a Mixed Decimal differ from a Mixed Decimal number?
38. Why does the product of two decimals contain as many decimal places as both multiplicand and multiplier?
39. Define the following terms: (a) A Finite Decimal, (b) A Circulating Decimal, (c) Repetend, (d) A Pure Circulating Decimal, (e) A Mixed Circulating Decimal.
40. State the difference between an Account and a Bill.
41. What is the Metric System of measurement?
42. What are the principal units of the Metric system?
43. Name the prefixes employed with the metric denominations, distinguishing those used as multiples from those used as divisors.
44. What is a Measure? How established?
45. What is the standard unit of value in the United States?
46. State the standard unit of the following: (a) weight, (b) length, surface and volume, (c) capacity, (d) angles, (e) time.
47. Define the following terms: (a) A Line, (b) Surface, (c) Angle, (d) Square, (e) A Cube.
48. (a) What is the difference between a square yard and a yard square? (b) Between three square yards and three yards square?
49. (a) How many cubic inches in a wine gallon? (b) Cubic inches in a bushel? (c) How many feet in a mile? (d) How many square rods in an acre? (e) What is the value of a Pound Sterling in U. S. Money?
50. What is a Gunter's Chain? Why so called?
51. How are the public lands of the U. S. divided and subdivided?
52. State the number of pounds in a bushel of wheat; a bushel of corn; a bushel of oats; a bushel of clover seed; a bushel of potatoes.
53. How many pounds or ounces make a cubic foot of water?
54. For what are the following measures and weights used: Linear Measure? Square Measure? Cubic Measure? Liquid Measure? Dry Measure? Troy Weight? Avoirdupois Weight? Apothecaries Weight? Circular Measure?
55. Compare the pound Troy with the pound Avoir-dupois.
56. Which is heavier, a pound of butter or a pound of silver?
57. As regards quantity, what is the difference be-tween a pint of chestnuts and a pint of claret?
58. What are duodecimals?
59. Define the following terms: (a) Ratio, (b) The Terms of a Ratio, (c) Antecedent and Consequent, (d) A Simple Ratio, (e) A Compound Ratio.
60. What is a Simple Proportion?
61. What is Percentage?
62. Name and define the elements involved in per-centage.
63. Give short rules for the five cases of percentage.
64. Name the Applications of Percentage.
65. Define Profit and Loss, Commission, Consign-ment, Consignee, Consignor, Net Proceeds.
66. What is the difference between a company and a corporation?
67. What is a charter?
68. Explain the terms at par, above par, below par.
69. Define the following: (a) Installment, (b) Assessment, (c) Dividend, (d) Gross Earnings, (e) Net Earnings.
70. Name and define the U. S. Securities.
71. In what kind of money is the interest on bonds payable?
72. What is Insurance?
73. Name and define the different kinds of insurance.
74. What is a tax?
75. What are Duties? How many and what kinds?
76. What is the meaning of Tare? Leakage? Breakage?
77. Distinguish between Simple and Compound Interest?
78. Explain the difference between true and bank discount?
79. What is Exchange?
80. What four parties may there be to a transaction in exchange?
81. What is the Indorsement of a bill?
82. What is the Acceptance of a bill?
83. What is the Equation of Payments?
84. State the difference between Simple and Compound Partnership.
85. What is Alligation Medial?
86. What is Alligation Alternate?
87. What reason may be given for a higher rate of interest being allowed in the new States than in the old?
88. How much longer will it take $100 at interest to double itself at 6 per cent., than it will $50?
89. What is the difference between Involution and Evolution?
90. How does the Square of a number differ from its Square Root?
91. What is a Surd? Illustrate.
92. Distinguish Exponents from Indices.
93. State the difference between an Arithmetical Progression and a Geometrical Progression.
94. Name the elements of an arithmetical progression, and write the symbol by which each is commonly designated.
95. What are the elements and symbols of a geometrical series?
96. (a) How find the area of a triangle when the base and altitude are given? (b) When the three sides are given?
97. How find the area of a trapezoid when its parallel sides and altitude are given?
98. How find the area of a trapezium, when the diagonal and perpendiculars are given?
99. (a) How do you find the circumference? (b) The diameter? (c) The area of a circle? (d) The lateral surface of a prism or a cylinder? (e) The contents of a prism or a cylinder?
100. How is the contents of a pyramid or a cone found?
101. (a) How do you find the surface of a sphere? (b) The solidity of a sphere?
102. What is Gauging?
103. What must be a dealer's asking and selling prices of an article costing $7.20, in order that he may fall 20 % from his asking price, allow 10 % for delayed payments, and still make 20 % ?
104. If A.'s money is 20 % more than B.'s, B.'s money is what per cent. less than A.'s?
105. Bacon which costs 12 cents a pound wastes 15 % before it is sold; at what price per pound must it be sold to gain 25 per cent. ?
106. An article lost 10 % by wastage, and is sold for 30 % above cost; what is the gain per cent. ?
107. Sent $5,128.05 to a broker in Cincinnati, with directions to purchase pork at $12 1/2 per bbl., to insure it for 60 days at 15 cents a $100, to pay storage at 5 cents a bbl. for 10 days, and to deduct his commission of 2 % on the money expended. How many barrels of pork did he buy?
108. Bought by Avoirdupois weight 10 lbs. of opium at 45 cents an ounce and sold the same by Troy weight at 50 cents an ounce; how much was gained or lost?
109. Sold wheat at 2 1/2 % commission; invested 2/3 of its value in coffee at 1 3/4 % commission; remitted the balance, $623. What was the value of the wheat, the coffee, and my separate commissions?
110. I wish to line the carpet of a room 21 feet wide and 24 feet long with canvas 2/3 of a yard wide. If the lining shrink 8 % in length and 5 % in width, how many yards must I buy?
111. Sold some hemp on a commission of 5 %, invested the net proceeds in flour, commission 2 %; my whole commission was $210; what was the value of the hemp and the flour?
112. If the relative value of oak wood to spruce is as 3 to 1, and that of spruce to pine as 7 to 9, how many cords composed of spruce and pine in equal parts will equal 60 cords of oak?
113. A citizen donated 3 acres of land, which was three-eighths as wide as long to a school district; what were its dimensions in feet?
114. An agent took a risk at 1 1/4 % and reinsured 1/3 of it at 2 1/4 %, and 1/4 of it at 1 1/2 %; what rate of insurance does he get on the remainder?
115. A draft payable in 30 days after sight, was bought for $352.62, exchange being 1 1/2 % discount, and interest 6 %; what was its face?
116. A., B., and C. are partners; A.'s stock $8,000, B.'s $12,800, C.'s $15,200; A. and B. together gain $1,638 more than C.; what is the gain of each?
117. A. received of B. 700 lbs. of hides to tan at 6 cents per lb. tanned, and was to take his pay in green hides at 9 cents per lb. A. returned to B. 500 lbs. of tanned leather, and as there was 25 % waste in tanning, how many lbs. of raw hides must B. send to A. to pay him for his trouble?
118. The stocks of three partners, A., B., and C., are $350, $220, and $250, and their gains $112, $88, and $220 respectively. Find the time that each man's stock was in trade, B.'s being in two months longer than A.'s.
119. The amount of my capital for a certain time at 4 % is $360, and for the same time at 7 % is $405; required the principal and the time.
120. Sold a horse and carriage for $597, gaining 25 % on the horse and 10 % on the carriage. What was the cost of each, provided 3/4 of the cost of the horse equals 2/3 of the cost of the carriage?
121. If 248 men in 5 1/2 days of 11 hours each dig a trench that is 7 degrees of hardness, 232 1/2 ft. long, 3 2/3 ft. wide, and 2 1/3 ft. deep; in how many days of 9 hours each, will 24 men dig a trench that is 4 degrees of hardness 337 1/2 ft. long, 5 2/3 ft. wide, and 3 1/2 ft. deep?
122. Three-fifths of the cost of a house increased by 4/5 of the cost of the farm for two years at 5 %, amounts to $4,950. What was the cost of each, if 3/5 of the cost of the house equals 2/7 of 4/5 of the cost of the farm?
123. An agent sold a quantity of coffee on a commission of 6 %, and invested the net proceeds in pork at 5 %. His whole commission was $440; what was the value of the pork?
124. A. and B. have an annual income of $400 each. A. spends each year $40 more than B.; at the end of 4 years they both together have a sum equal to the income of either. What do they spend annually?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC.

1. (a) Mathematics is the science of quantity. (b) Arithmetic is the Science of numbers and the Art of computation. (c) An integer is a number composed of whole or integral units. (d) A fraction is a number which expresses equal parts of a whole thing. (e) A Mathematical sign is a character indicating the relation of numbers, or an operation to be performed.
2. An Abstract number is one whose unit is not named; as, 3, 4, 6, etc. A concrete number is one whose unit is named; as, 4 boys, 3 books, 6 apples.
3. A simple number is either an abstract number or a concrete number of but one denomination; as, 27, 28 days. A Compound Number is a concrete number expressed in two or more denominations; as, 4 days, 8 hours, 28 minutes.
4. (a) A Power is the product arising from multiplying a number by itself one or more times. (b) A Root is the factor repeated to produce a power. (c) A Demonstration is a process of reasoning by which a truth or principle is established. (d) An Axiom is a self-evident truth. (e) Analysis is the process of investigating principles and solving problems independently of set rules.
5. Notation and Numeration, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division.
6. Because in any scale of numbers there are as many characters as are required to make any given number of units equal one unit of the next higher order. In the Arabic notation ten units equal one unit of the next higher order.
7. The Roman and the Arabic.
8. 1st. Repeating a letter repeats its value; as, XX equals twenty.
2d. A letter of any value placed after one of greater value adds its value to that of the greater; as, XXI equals twenty-one.
3d. A letter of any value placed before one of greater value takes its value from that of the greater; as, IX equals nine.
4th. A letter of any value placed between two of greater value takes its value from the sum of the two greater; as, XIX equals nineteen.
5th. A bar or dash placed over a letter increases its value one thousand fold; as, V̅ equals five thousand.

9. The simple value of a figure is its value when standing alone or in unit's place. The local value is its value arising from the order in which it stands.

10. We begin at the right because we can shorten the operation by adding the terms of each order, as we reach it, the units of that order (if any) contained in the sum of the terms of the next higher order.

11. Because, since the minuend and subtrahend have the same denomination, their difference expresses simply the excess of like units in the minuend above those in the subtrahend.

12. Because the multiplier shows how many times the multiplicand is taken additively.

13. In short division the several products are subtracted mentally, and the remainder is each time men-tally prefixed to the next figure of the dividend for a partial dividend; in long division the entire work is written.

14. We begin at the left in division because the remainder in dividing any part of the dividend must be less than the divisor, and it can be divided only by being expressed in units of a lower order.

15. Multiply each remainder, except the first by all the divisors preceding its own. The sum of these products and the first remainder will be the true remainder.

16. (a) A Prime Factor is one that cannot be separated into two or more factors. (b) A Composite number is the product of two or more factors, each of which is greater than 1. (c) The Reciprocal of a number is one divided by that number. (d) Cancellation is a process of shortening division by rejecting equal factors from divisor and dividend. (e) A multiple of a number is one which is exactly divisible by that number.

17. That dividing both divisor and dividend by the same number does not change the value of the quotient. When terms are cancelled they are divided by the same factor.

18. The Greatest Common Divisor of two or more numbers is the greatest number which will exactly divide them; as, 9 is the G. C. D. of 18, 27, and 36. The Least Common Multiple of two or more numbers is the least number which can be exactly divided by each of them; as, 36 is the L. C. M. of 9, 12, and 18.

19 The Unit of the Fraction is the unit or thing divided; as, the unit of the fraction of an apple is one apple. A fractional unit is one of the equal parts into which the unit is divided; as, one-third is the fractional unit of thirds.

20. (a) A Fraction is one or more of the equal parts of a unit. (b) A Common Fraction is one expressed in figures by two numbers, one written over the other with a line between them. (c) A Proper Fraction is one whose numerator is less than its denominator. (d) An Improper fraction is one whose numerator is equal to or greater than its denominator. (e) A Simple Fraction is a fraction not united with another, and both of whose terms are integers.

21. (a) A Compound Fraction is a fraction of a fraction; as, 2/3 of 3/4. (b) It indicates multiplication. (c) Its sign is of or X.

22. (a) A Complex Fraction is one having a fraction in one or both of its terms; as 1/2 / 3/4. (b) It indicates division.

23. (a) The number of equal parts into which the unit is divided is called the Denominator, because it names the parts. (b) The number of parts taken is called the Numerator, because it numbers the parts. (c) The Terms of a fraction are the numerator and denominator. (d) The value of a fraction is the quotient of the numerator divided by the denominator. (e) A Mixed Number is a whole number and a frac-tion expressed together.
24. The Fraction Inverted.
25. 1st. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the denominator multiplies the fraction.
2nd. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the denominator divides the fraction.
3rd. Multiplying or dividing both terms of a frac-tion by the same number does not alter its value.
26. Find the G. C. D. of the numerators and the L. C. M. of the denominators.
27. Find the L. C. M. of the numerators and the G. C. D. of the denominators.
28. Inverting the terms of the divisor and multi-plying the numerators for a new numerator and mul-tiplying the denominators for a new denominator, is the same as reducing the fractions to a common de-nominator, and dividing the numerator of the dividend by the numerator of the divisor.
29. When the numerator of each fraction is one.
30. By its denominator. Ex. 2/3 X 3 = 2.
31. They are less. The continued product of the numerator by itself, divided by the continued pro-duct of the denominator by itself, will give a quotient less than the numerator of the fraction divided by its denominator.
32. (a) No. (b) No. (c) A proper fraction. (d) Yes. (e) The product of the G. C. D. and L. C. M. equals the product of the two numbers.

33. A Decimal Fraction is a fraction whose denominator is some power of ten. It may be written in three ways: 1st. By words; as, two-tenths. 2nd. By writing the denominator under the numerator, as a common fraction; as, 2/10. 3rd. By omitting the denominator and writing the fraction in a decimal form; as, .3.

34. The value of a decimal figure depends upon the place it occupies at the right of the decimal sign.

35. Prefixing a cipher to a decimal diminishes its value tenfold, because it removes every decimal figure one place to the right. Annexing a cipher to a decimal does not alter its value, because it does not alter the place of any figure in the decimal.

36. The denominator of a decimal, when expressed is the unit 1, with as many ciphers annexed as there are places in the decimal.

37. A Mixed Decimal is a decimal ending at the right with a common fraction; as, .62/3. A Mixed Decimal Number is an integer and a decimal written together as one number; as, 5.8.

38. Since the denominator of the product of two fractions is the product of their denominators, this must contain as many decimal places as the two denominators combined.

39. (a) A Finite Decimal terminates with the figures written; as, .25. (b) A circulating Decimal contains a figure or set of figures repeated an unlimited number of times; as, .56731. (c) The repeated figure or figures are called the Repetend. (d) A pure Circulating Decimal is made up wholly of a repetend; as, .1546. (c) A Mixed Circulating Decimal is a decimal in which the repetend is preceded by one or more figures, which form what is called the finite part.

40. An Account is a record of items of debt and credit between parties. A Bill is a written statement of goods sold or delivered, services rendered, with the price, quantity and cost annexed to each item.

41. The Metric System is a decimal system of weights and measures, having the meter for its base or unit.

42. The Meter, Liter, and Gram. To these are added, for square and cubic measures, the Ar and Ster.

43. The names of the higher denominations are formed by prefixing to the name of the unit, the Greek numerals, Deka, (10), Hekto, (100), Kilo, (1,000), Myria, (10,000). The lower denominations are formed by prefixing to the name of the unit the Latin ordinals, deci, (1/10), centi, (1/100), milli, (1/1000).

44. A measure is a standard unit, established by law or custom, by which the length, surface, capacity, and weight of things are estimated.

45. The American dollar.

46. (a) Of weight, the Troy Pound. (b) Of length, the linear yard; for ordinary surface the Square Yard; for land, the Acre; for volume in general, the Cubic Yard; for wood, the Cord. (c) The unit of capacity is the Gallon for fluids, and the Bushel for dry substances. (d) The unit of angles is the Right Angle, or, practically, one degree of a circle. (e) The unit of time is the Day.
47. (a) A Line is that which has length only. (b) A surface is that which has length and breadth only. (c) An angle is the opening between two lines which meet at a point. (d) A Square is a rectilinear figure which has four equal sides and four right angles. (e) A Cube is a regular solid bounded by six equal squares called its faces.
48. (a) There is no difference. (b) Three square yards are three squares, each 1 yard long and one yard wide, each containing a square yard; three yards square is a square figure three yards long and three yards wide, and contains 3 times 3 yards, or 9 square yards.
49. (a) 231 cu. inches. (b) 2150.42 cu. inches. (c) 5280 feet in a mile. (d) 160 sq. rods in an acre. (e) $4.8665 equal 1 Pound Sterling.
50. A Gunter's Chain, is 4 rods or 66 feet long, and contains 100 links. It is so called from the name of its inventor.
51. The public lands of the U. S. are divided into Townships, which are subdivided into Sections, Half-Sections, Quarter Sections, etc.
52. The law or custom of most States is as follows: wheat, 60 lbs.; corn in the ear, 70 lbs.; oats, 32 lbs.; clover seed, 60 lbs.; potatoes, 60 lbs.
53. 62 1/2 lbs. or 1000 oz. make a cubic foot of water.

54. Linear measure is used in measuring lines and distances; Square Measure, in measuring surfaces; Cubic Measure, in measuring solids and volumes; Liquid Measure, in measuring milk, oil, wine, etc.; Dry Measure, in measuring grain, fruit, etc.; Troy Weight is used in weighing gold, silver, etc.; Avoirdupois Weight, in weighing coarse articles; as, groceries, hay, etc., and all metals except gold and silver; Apothecaries Weight is used in mixing medicines; Circular Measure is used in measuring angles, latitude, heavenly bodies, etc.
55. The pound Troy equals 5760 grains, while the pound Avoirdupois equals 7000 grains.
56. A pound of butter.
57. A pint of chestnuts is one-sixth greater than a pint of claret.
58. The divisions and subdivisions of a unit, resulting from continually dividing by 12.
59. (a) Ratio is the relation of two like numbers with respect to comparative value. (b) The Terms of a ratio are the two numbers compared. (c) The Antecedent is the first term; the Consequent is the second term. (d) A Simple Ratio consists of a single couplet. (e) A Compound Ratio is the product of two or more simple ratios.
60. A Simple Proportion is an equality of two simple ratios, and consists of four terms.
61. Percentage is the process of calculating by hundredths.

62. 1st. The Base is the number on which percentage is computed.
2d. The Rate is the number of hundredths taken.
3d. The Percentage is that part of a number which is indicated by the rate.
4th. The Amount is the sum of the base and the percentage.
5th. The Difference is the base less the percentage.

63. 1st. Base and rate given to find the percentage: Multiply the base by the rate.
2d. Base and percentage given, to find the rate: Divide the percentage by the base.
3d. Rate and percentage given, to find the base: Divide the percentage by the rate.
4th. Base and rate given, to find either amount or difference: Multiply the base by 1 plus the rate, for the amount; and by 1 minus the rate for the difference.
5th. Amount or difference and rate given, to find the base: Divide the amount by 1 plus the rate; and the difference by 1 minus the rate.

64. Profit and Loss, Commission and Brokerage, Insurance, Taxes, Duties, Interest, Discount, Equation of Payments, Averaging Accounts, Stocks, and Exchange.

65. Profit and Loss are commercial terms, used to express gain or loss in business. Commission is the fee or compensation of an agent, factor, or commission merchant. A Consignment is a quantity of goods sent to one person to be sold on commission for another person. The Consignee is a person who receives goods to sell for another. The Consignor is a person who sends goods to another to be sold. The net proceeds of a sale or collection is the sum left, after deducting the commission or other charges.

66. A company is an association of persons for carrying on some business. Companies may be incorporated or not. A corporation is a body formed and authorized by law to act as a single person.

67. A Charter is the legal act of incorporation, and defines the powers and obligations of the incorporated body.

68. Stock is at par when it sells for its first cost, or nominal value. It is above par when it sells for more than its nominal value. It is below par when it sells for less than its nominal value.

69. (a) An Installment is a percentage on the par value of the capital stock, required of the stockholders, as a payment on their subscription.

(b) An Assessment is a percentage on the par value of the capital stock, required of stockholders, to meet the losses or the business expenses of the company.

(c) A Dividend is a sum paid to the stockholders from the profits of the business.

(d) Gross Earnings are all the moneys received from the regular business of the company.
(e) Net Earnings are the moneys left after paying expenses, losses, and the interest upon the bonds, if there be any.

70. First, Bonds, of which there are two kinds; viz., first, those which are payable at a fixed date known by the rate of interest they bear; as U. S. 6's; and, second, those which are payable at a fixed date, but which may be paid at an earlier specified time, as the Government may elect. These are known and quoted by a combination of two dates; as, U. S. 5-20's, or a combination of the rate of interest and the two dates; as U. S. 6's 5-20's; that is, bonds bearing 6 % interest, which are payable in 20 years, but may be paid in 5 years, if the Government so elect.
Second, Notes, of which there are two kinds; viz., first, those payable on demand without interest, known in common language as "Green Backs;" and, second, Notes payable at a specified time, with interest, known as Treasury Notes.

71. The interest on bonds is payable in gold.

72. Insurance is security guaranteed by one party to another, against loss, damage, or risk.

73. Fire insurance, against loss by fire. Marine insurance, against the dangers of navigation. Accident insurance, against casualties. Health insurance, providing a weekly allowance in case of sickness. Life insurance provides a certain sum at the death of the insured, to be paid to some designated party.

74. A Tax is a sum of money assessed on the person or property of an individual for public purposes.
75. Duties are taxes levied on imported goods, for the support of government and the protection of home industry. There are two kinds: Ad Valorem Duty and Specific Duty.
76. Tare is an allowance for the weight of the box or other covering that contains the goods. Leakage is an allowance on liquors imported in casks or barrels. Breakage is an allowance on liquors imported in bottles.
77. Simple interest is the sum paid for the use of the principal only. Compound interest is interest on both principal and interest, when the interest is not paid when due.
78. True discount on a given sum is less than bank discount, for it is a given rate per cent. on a smaller sum than that upon which bank discount is reckoned. True discount is the difference between the present worth and the face of the debt. True discount is reckoned on the present worth, — bank discount is reckoned on the face of the debt.
79. Exchange is a method of making payments at a distance by written orders, called bills of exchange.
80. 1st. The Drawer or Maker, who signs the bill.
2nd. The Drawee, to whom the order is addressed.
3rd. The Payee, to whom the money is ordered to be paid.
4th. The Buyer or Remitter, who purchases the bill.

81. The Indorsement of a bill is the writing upon its back, by which the payee relinquishes his title, and transfers the payment to another.
82. The Acceptance of a bill is the promise which the drawee makes when the bill is presented to him to pay it at maturity. This obligation is usually acknowledged by writing the word "Accepted," with his signature across the face of the bill.
83. The Equation of Payments is the process of finding an equitable time of payment of several sums, due at different times without interest.
84. In Simple Partnership the capital of the several partners is invested for an equal time. In Compound Partnership the capital of the several partners is invested for an unequal time.
85. Alligation Medial is the process of finding the average value or quality of a mixture composed of articles of different value or qualities.
86. Alligation Alternate is the process of compounding several articles of different values or qualities to form a mixture of an average value or quality.
87. In the new States capital is less abundant than in the old States. Opportunities for speculation being more favorable in the new than in the old States, money will command a higher rate than where enterprises are less active.
88. No longer.
89. Involution is the process of raising a given number to a given power. Evolution is the process of extracting the root from a number considered as a power ; it is the reverse of Involution.
90. The Square of a number is its second power. The Square Root of a number is one of the two equal factors that produce the number.
91. A Surd is an indicated root that cannot be ex-actly obtained ; as, √2.
92. The Exponent of a power is a small figure placed at the right of a figure, to show how many times it is to be taken as a factor. The Index of the root is the figure placed above the radical sign, to de-note what root is taken.
93. An Arithmetical Progression is a series which increases or decreases by a common difference. A Geometrical Progression is a series of numbers which increases or decreases by a common ratio.
94. The elements of an arithmetical progression are five : the first term, a; the last term, l; the com-mon difference, d; the number of terms, n; and the sum of the terms, s.
95. The elements and symbols of a geometrical series are, the first term, a; the last term, l; the ratio, r; the number of terms, n; and the sum of the terms, s.
96. (a) Multiply the base by half the altitude. (b) When the three sides are given: From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side respectively ; then multiply half the sum and the three remainders together, and extract the square root of the product.
97. Multiply half the sum of the parallel sides by the altitude.
98. Multiply the diagonal by half the sum of the perpendiculars to it from the opposite angle.

99. (a) The circumference = the diameter X 3.1416.
(b) The diameter = the circumference ÷ 3.1416.
(c) The area of a circle equals half the circumference multiplied by half the diameter, or the circumference multiplied by one-fourth of diameter.
(d) The lateral surface of a prism or cylinder equals the perimeter of the base multiplied by the altitude.
(e) The contents of a prism or a cylinder equals the area of the base multiplied by the altitude.

100. The contents of a pyramid or a cone equals the area of the base multiplied by one-third of the altitude.

101. (a) The surface of a sphere equals the circumference multiplied by the diameter.
(b) The solidity of a sphere equals the surface multiplied by one-sixth of the diameter.

102. Gauging is finding the contents of casks and other vessels.

103. $7.20 X 1.20 = $8.64, Net price.
$8.64 ÷ .90 = $9.60, Selling price.
$9.60 ÷ .80 = $12, Asking price.

104. B.'s = 100 % : A.'s = 120 % : Difference 20 % :
.20 ÷ 1.20 = 16⅔ %. Ans.

105. 125 % of 12 cents = 15 cents ;
100 % - 15 % = 85 % ;
15 cents ÷ .85 = 17 11/17 cents, Ans.
Or
12 cents ÷ .85 = 14⁷⁄₁₇ cents, cost of 1 lb. after wastage; 14⁷⁄₁₇ cents × 125 % = 17¹¹⁄₁₇ cents, Answer.
106. 100 % — 10 % = 90 %, what remains; 130 % of 90 = 117, Selling price; 117 % — 100 % = 17 % gain. Ans.
107. $5128.05 ÷ (100 % + 2 %) = $5027.50, money to be expended after deducting com. 15 cents on $100 = 1⁵⁄₈ cents on $12¹⁄₂; 5 cents storage + 1⁵⁄₈ cents Ins. + $12¹⁄₂, first cost of pork, = $12.56⁵⁄₈, total cost of one barrel of pork. $5027.50 ÷ $12.56⁵⁄₈ = 400 bbls. Ans.
108. 16 oz. × 10 = 160 oz. Av. : 160 oz. × .45 = $72, cost of opium; 7000 grs. × 10 = 70000 grs. in 10 lbs. Av.; 70000 ÷ 5760 = 12¹¹⁄₁₂ lbs. Troy. 12 oz. × 12¹¹⁄₁₂ = 145⁵⁄₆ oz. Troy; 50 cts. × 145⁵⁄₆ = $72.91⅔, Selling price; $72.91⅔ — $72 = 91⅔ cents, gain.
109. 1¾ % of ⅔ = 1⅙ of ⅗: ⅔ of the value or 66⅔ % + 2½ % + 1⅙ % = 70⅓ %: 100—70⅓ % = 29⅔ % remitted. $623 = 29⅔ %. $623 ÷ .29⅔ = $2100, value of wheat, ⅔ of $2100 = $1400, expended for coffee. 2½ % of $2100 = $52.50 com. on wheat. 1¾ % of $1400 = $24.50, com. on coffee.

110. 21 ft. = 7 yds., 24 ft. = 8 yds., 100 % — 5 % = 95 % ; 7 yds. ÷ 95 % = 7 7/19 = 140/19 yds., required width of lining; 100 % — 8 % = 92 % ; 8 yds. ÷ 92 % = 8 16/23 yds. = 200/23, required length of lining. 140/19 × 200/23 ÷ 2/3 = 96 48/37 yds. Ans.

111. 100 % — 5 % = 95 % ; 100 % + 2 % = 102 %. 95 % ÷ 102 % = 93 7/51 %. 1.00 — .93 7/51 = .06 44/51 whole com.: cost of hemp as the base. $210 ÷ .06 44/51 = $3060, value of hemp; 95 % of $3060 = $2907 ; $2907 ÷ 1.02 = $2850, value of flour.
Or
1.02 ÷ .95 = 1.07 7/19; 1.07 7/19 — 1.00 = .07 7/19, whole com.: cost of flour as the base; $210.00 ÷ .07 7/19 = $2850, value of flour; $2850 × 1.02 = $2907 ; $2907 ÷ .95 = $3060, value of hemp.

112. Value of 1 C. spruce = 1/3 value 1 C. of oak, “ 1 “ pine = 2/7 “ 1 “ “ Also value of 1 C. pine = 2/7 of 1/3 or 2/21 value 1 C. oak; 1/3 C. oak + 2/7 C. oak = 13/21 C. oak = value 1 C. spruce and 1 C. pine: 1/2 of 13/21 = 13/42 C. oak = value of a cord composed of spruce and pine in equal parts; 60 ÷ 13/42 = 157 1/2 cords.

113. 3 Acres = 160 sq. rods × 3 = 480 sq. rd.; A piece of land ¾ as wide as long equals a piece of land containing 24 small pieces arranged in a rectangular form 3 parts wide and 8 long. 480 sq. rd. ÷ 24 = 20 sq. rd. in each small square. 272¼ sq. ft. × 20 = 5445 sq. ft. The square root of 5445 sq. ft. = 73.79 + feet, which multiplied by 3 and 8 respectively equals the length and width of the 3 Acres.

114. 2½% of ¼ is ⁹⁄₂₀% on the entire risk; 1½% of ⅓ is ⁸⁄₂₀% on the entire risk; ⁹⁄₂₀% + ⁸⁄₂₀% = ¹⁷⁄₂₀% on the whole risk; ¼ + ⅓ = ⁷⁄₁₂; ⁹⁄₂₀ = ¹¹⁄₂₀ of the risk for which he receives 1¾% — 1½%, or ⁷⁄₄₀% on the whole; for ⁷⁄₁₂, ²⁰⁄₁₁ of ⁷⁄₄₀%; for the whole ²⁰⁄₁₁ of ⁷⁄₄₀% = 1¹⁵⁄₂₂% Ans.

115. $1 — $.015 = $.985; $.985 — $.0055 (the int. of $1 for 33 days) = $.9795, cost of $1; $352.62 ÷ .9795 = $360, Ans.

116. $8000 + $12800 + $15200 = $36000, whole stock; The proportional parts are, A., ²⁰⁄⁹⁰; B., ³²⁄⁹⁰; C., ³⁸⁄⁹⁰. ²⁰⁄⁹⁰ + ³²⁄⁹⁰ = ⁵²⁄⁹⁰ = A.'s and B.'s; ⁵²⁄⁹⁰ — ³⁸⁄⁹⁰ = ¹⁴⁄⁹⁰, A.'s and B.'s more than C.'s; $1638 = ¹⁴⁄⁹⁰; ¹⁄⁹⁰ = $117; ²⁰⁄⁹⁰ = $2340, A.'s gain; ³²⁄⁹⁰ = $3744, B.'s gain; ³⁸⁄⁹⁰ = $4446, C.'s gain.

117. Since A. returns 500 lbs. of tanned leather he is entitled to 6 cents × 500, or $30 worth of green hides. A waste of 25 % of 700 lbs. leaves 525 lbs. of tanned leather, of which A. retains 25 lbs. This is equal to 33⅓ lbs. of raw hides, for 25 ÷ 75 % = 33⅓. $30 ÷ 9 cents = 333⅓, No. of lbs. green hides to which A. is entitled ; 333⅓ — 33⅓ = 300 lbs. Ans.

118. A.'s gain is 32 % of his stock, B.'s gain is 40 % of his stock, C.'s gain is 88 % of his stock. The difference between 40 % and 32 %, or 8 %, equals the difference between A.'s and B.'s time, or 2 months. If 8 % equals 2 months, 1 % equals ¼ month ; 32 % = 8 months, A.'s time; 40 % = 10 months, B.'s time ; 88 % = 22 months, C.'s time.

119. $405 — $360 = $45, difference of amounts ; 7 % — 4 % = 3 %, difference of rates. $45 ÷ 3 % = $15 interest at 1 % ; $15 × 4 % = $60 interest at 4 %. $360 — $60 = $300, the principal. $60 ÷ 12, the interest of $300 for one year, =5, the number of years.

120. Since ¾ the cost the horse = ⅔ the cost of the carriage, ¼ the cost of the horse = ⅖ the cost of the carriage ; and ⅕ the cost of the horse = ⅜ the cost of the carriage ; hence the horse cost ⅘ as much as the carriage. 25 %, or ¼ the cost of the horse, + ⅘ = ¹⁰⁄₉, S. P. of horse ; 10 %, or ¹⁄₁₀ the cost of the carriage, + ⁸⁄₉ = ¹¹⁄₁₀, S. P. of carriage;

10/90 + 11/90 = 199/90 = $597, 1/90 = $3, 9/90 = $270 cost of carriage; 8/9 of $270 = $240 cost of horse.
121. { 24 men: 248 men
        9 hours: 11 hours
        7 degrees: 4 degrees
        232 1/2 ft. long: 337 1/2 ft. long
        3 3/5 ft. wide: 5 3/5 ft. wide
        2 1/2 ft. deep: 3 1/2 ft. deep
        } :: 5 1/2 days: x.
Cancelling and reducing: answer 133 1/4 days.
122. The amount of $1 for 2 years at 5 % equals $1.10;
Since 110 % of 3/5 the cost of house and 4/5 the cost of farm = $4950, 100 % of 3/5 the cost of house and 4/5 the cost of farm = $4500.
Since 3/5 the cost of the house = 2/7 of the cost of the farm, 3/5 the cost of the house = 8/35 the cost of the farm.
$4500 = 8/35 the cost of farm + 4/5 cost of farm, = 36/35 cost of farm; 36/35 = $4500, 1/35 = $125, 35/35 = $4375, cost of farm.
Since 3/5 of cost of house = 8/35 cost of farm, 5/5 cost of house = 8/21 of the cost of farm, and 8/21 of $4375 = $1666 2/3, cost of house.
123. 100 % - 6 % = 94 %, proceeds of coffee, or 105 % of pork.
94 % ÷ 105 % = 89 1/21 % of the value of coffee, which equals value of the pork.
100 % - 89 1/21 % = 10 20/21, whole com., which is equal to $440. $440 ÷ 10 20/21 % = $4200,
value of coffee. 94 % of $4200 = $3948, proceeds of coffee, or 105 % of the value of pork; $3948 ÷ 105 % = $3760, value of pork.
124. $400 × 4 × 2 = $3200, income of A. and B. for 4 years; $3200 — $400 = $2800, amount spent by A. and B. in 4 years; $2800 — $160 (amount A. spends more than B. in four years) = $2640, or twice the amount spent by B.; $2640 ÷ 2 = $1320, amount spent by B. in 4 years; $1320 ÷ 4 = $330; B.'s annual expenses. $330 + $40 = $370, A.'s annual expenses.

QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR.

1. What is the difference between Grammar and English Grammar?
2. Into what parts is English Grammar divided?
3. Define Etymology, Syntax, Prosody.
4. What is the test of correctness in the use of language?
5. What is meant by the terms Inflection and Derivation of words?
6. What is language?
7. Name the parts of speech.
8. (a) What is a noun? (b) A pronoun?
9. Give a complete classification of the noun and the pronoun.
10. State the difference between a proper and a common noun.
11. What may be used as nouns?
12. When does a proper noun become common?
13. When does a common noun become proper?
14. What does the word substantive signify?
15. Define the following: Class Nouns, Abstract Nouns, Collective Nouns, Verbal Nouns.
16. Name the properties or attributes of nouns and pronouns.
17. How are the genders distinguished?
18. State the application of each gender.
19. What is personification?
20. What attributes determine the gender of certain nouns without sex?
21. What are the three ways of distinguishing the masculine and feminine genders?
22. When is a collective noun of the neuter gender?
23. Of what gender are pronouns of the first and second person?
24. What should be the gender of pronouns of the third person, singular number when referring to both sexes?
25. Name the feminine genders of the following: steer, colt, earl, friar, hart, sire, sloven, stag, swain, don, infant, tzar, John, youth, marquis.
26. What is person as applied to nouns and pronouns?
27. Distinguish the person of nouns and pronouns.
28. What is the person of the predicate nominative?
29. What is number as applied to nouns and pronouns?
30. What are the numbers and what does each denote?
31. State how the plural of nouns ending in the following manner is formed; nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, nouns ending in f or fe, nouns ending in o.
32. How is the plural of letters, figures, marks, and signs usually formed?
33. How are compound words made plural?
34. How are compound terms composed of a proper noun and a title pluralized?
35. State the rule for forming the plural of the compounds of *full*.
36. What is the origin of the sign 's ?
37. Write the plurals of the following: ottoman, alderman, court-martial, mouthful, nebula, focus, hypothesis, goodness, trout, elf, it, aid-de-camp, billet-doux, porte-monnaie, staff, Nero, n, Dr., Mr. Jones, chimney.
38. Name and define the Cases.
39. How may the several cases be known?
40. How is the possessive singular formed? The possessive plural?
41. How is the possessive of compound names formed?
42. When is a noun or pronoun in apposition with another?
43. In what ways may a noun be in the absolute case?
44. What does the term declension mean?
45. Of what does parsing consist?
46. Into what classes may pronouns be divided?
47. What is the personal pronoun? What two kinds?
48. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What may it be?
49. In what cases are compound personals used?
50. Define Possessive Pronouns. Name the possessives.
51. What is a Relative Pronoun? Illustrate.
52. State fully the difference between a personal and a relative pronoun.
53. What two uses has the relative pronoun?
54. (a) When is as a relative pronoun? (b) When is that a relative? (c) When is what a relative?
55. When is that preferred to who or which?
56. What is the possessive of which and what?
57. Name the Interrogative pronouns.
58. (a) What is an adjective? (b) What two classes?
59. Into what classes are descriptive adjectives divided?
60. Name the classes into which limiting adjectives are divided.
61. What is a Participial Adjective?
62. What is a Limiting Adjective?
63. State the particular use of the definite article.
64. For what is the indefinite article used?
65. (a) What are Pronominal Adjectives? (b) Into what classes are they divided?
66. What is the office of Demonstratives? Name them.
67. How are the Distributives used? Name them.
68. How are the Indefinites used? Name them.
69. What are Numeral Adjectives? Name the classes.
70. Define and illustrate the three classes of Numerals.
71. What is Comparison? How many degrees?
72. When is an adjective in the positive degree?
73. Define the comparative degree. Tell how it is formed.
74. Define the superlative degree. Tell how it is formed.
75. What does the suffix ish signify?
76. What words signify a high degree of quality without implying comparison?
77. Give the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives: bad, little, far, fore, lazy, ill, good-natured, evil, old, late.
78. Name some adjectives which have no positive.
79. Name some adjectives which have no comparative.
80. Name some adjectives which have number.
81. What is meant by descending comparison?
82. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjectives are used in the same sentence, which should precede?
83. Correct and state your reason: "A more handsomer woman."
84. (a) Define a verb. (b) How classified with respect to use?
85. Define a copulative verb. Illustrate.
86. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate
87. Define an intransitive verb. Give an example.
88. What distinction may be made between the action expressed by a transitive and an intransitive verb?
89. How can a transitive verb in the passive voice be distinguished from an intransitive verb?
90. How may the words “What” and “Whom” be employed to determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive?
91. When does an intransitive verb become transitive?
92. How are verbs classified with respect to their nature?
93. Define and illustrate Active Verb, Passive Verb, Neuter Verb.
94. Give the classification of verbs according to form.
95. What is a Regular verb? Illustrate.
96. Define an Irregular verb. Give an example.
97. What properties has the verb?
98. Define Voice. How divided?
99. What does the Active Voice represent?
100. Define Passive voice, and state how it is formed.
101. What is Mode?
102. How many and what modes are there?
103. Define the Indicative mode.
104. In what class of sentences is the indicative mode used?
105. (a) What is the subjunctive mode? (b) Why so called?
106. What is the potential mode?
107. What does the imperative mode express?
108. How may the imperative usually be known?
109. How does the infinitive represent an action?
110. After what words is the sign to omitted?
111. What relations may the infinitive sustain to other parts of the sentence?
112. What are the signs of the modes?
113. What is a participle? Why so called?
114. How is the participle formed from the verb?
115. How many participles are there?
116. What does the present participle denote?
117. How may the present active participle be used?
118. What is denoted by the perfect participle?
119. In what ways is the action or state expressed by a participle?
120. In what case is the agent of an action expressed by the participle? Illustrate.
121. Name the auxiliary verbs, and state for what used.
122. What is an impersonal or unipersonal verb?
123. Define tense, and name the divisions usually recognized by grammarians.
124. Define the present tense.
125. What is the present perfect tense?
126. Define the past tense.
127. Define the past perfect tense.
128. What is the future tense?
129. Define the future perfect tense.
130. How many and what tenses in each mode?
131. How many and what forms have verbs?
132. Give rules for the use of shall and will.
133. Define the terms, relation, agreement, govern-ment.
134. What is *person* and *number* as applied to verbs?
135. When should a verb be in the singular?
136. In what cases should a verb be in the plural?
137. Define conjugation.
138. How many and what forms of conjugation?
139. What are the principal parts of a verb?
140. What is the synopsis of a verb?
141. How is a verb conjugated negatively?
142. How conjugate a verb interrogatively and negatively?
143. What are defective verbs? Illustrate.
144. What are redundant verbs? Give examples.
145. What is meant by the term, "To make a verb?"
146. Give the principal parts of the following verbs: dive, say, drink, gird, bear (to carry), cling, set, lie (to recline), shoe, sit, eat, wring, wear, strike, swim, lay, chide, dare (to venture), fly.
147. What is an adverb? To what is it equivalent?
148. Into what classes are adverbs divided?
149. What are the modal adverbs? Interrogative adverbs?
150. Define an adverbial phrase.
151. What are conjunctive adverbs? Name five.
152. Give examples in which adverbs are used as adjectives.
153. Classify the following adverbs : wholly, verily, asunder, therefore, away, seldom, almost, perhaps, why, forth.
154. What is a preposition?
155. What is the preposition and its object termed?
156. Define a complex preposition. Illustrate.
157. How is a preposition regarded whose object is omitted?
158. What distinction should be observed in the use of “with” and “by?”
159. What is a conjunction?
160. What part of the sentence does the conjunction form?
161. Are all conjunctive words conjunctions? If not, name exceptions.
162. Into what classes are conjunctives divided?
163. Define each class of conjunctions, and illustrate.
164. What is an interjection. What meaning has it?
165. Give sentences illustrating the use of as, first, as a relative pronoun; second, as a correlative conjunction; third, as a complex preposition, fourth, as an adverb.
166. Illustrate by sentences, the use of but as an adverb, an adjective, a preposition, and a conjunction.
167. Of what does Syntax treat?
168. What is the difference between a proposition and a sentence?
169. What is a principal proposition?
170. Define a subordinate proposition.
171. What is a phrase? Illustrate.
172. Define the terms, element, analysis, synthesis.
173. What is the subject of a proposition?
174. What is the predicate? The copula?
175. How are sentences classified with respect to use?
176. Define a declarative sentence.
177. What is an interrogative sentence?
178. Explain the difference between a direct and an indirect question.
179. What is an imperative sentence?
180. Define an exclamatory sentence.
181. How are sentences classified with respect to form?
182. What is a simple sentence? Illustrate.
183. What is a complex sentence? Illustrate.
184. What are clauses?
185. Define a compound sentence.
186. What terms are applied to the parts of a compound sentence?
187. How are clauses connected? Members?
188. What is a transitive sentence?
189. Define an intransitive sentence.
190. Define a mixed sentence.
191. What is an auxiliary sentence?
192. What may the subject of a sentence be?
193. Of what may the predicate be composed?
194. What is a modifier?
195. What elements are termed subordinate?
196. Define an objective element. What is it called?
197. What is an adjective element?
198. What parts of speech form the adjective element?
199. Define an adverbial element.
200. What is an independent element?
201. Into what classes are elements divided?
202. Designate the classes of elements according to construction.
203. How are clauses classified with reference to their use?
204. What is an abridged sentence?
205. Give a comprehensive rule for the use of the comma.
206. Give ten short rules for the use of capital letters.
207. Correct the following, giving your reason:
"Things look much more favorably this morning."
"Washington was given the command of a division."
"The most tremendous civil war which history records." "To say he is relieved, is the same as saying he is dismissed." "We are agreed on this."
208. What is a figure of speech?
209. Into what three classes may Figures be divided?
210. Define the several figures of speech.
211. Name five figures of orthography with examples.
212. Define Ellipsis.
213. What is Enallage? Illustrate.
214. Write ten figures of rhetoric, and illustrate each.
215. What is versification? Define verse.
216. What is a poetic foot?
217. Name the principal poetic feet. Illustrate.
218. State the difference between rhyme and blank verse.
219. What is a stanza?
220. What is a caesural pause?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR.

1. Grammar treats of the science upon which the principles of languages are based. English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the English language correctly.
2. English Grammar is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
3. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation and properties of words. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. Prosody treats of the laws of versification.
4. The usage of the best writers and speakers.
5. Inflection of words means the change of form which they undergo. The Derivation of words is tracing them to their original form and meaning.
6. Language is the expression of ideas by means of words.
7. Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, Conjunction. To these are added by different authors, Articles; Participles, and Words of Euphony.
8. (a) A noun is a name. (b) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
9. NOUNS. PROPER, COMMON.
PRONOUNS. Class, Abstract, Collective, Verbal, Personal, Possessive, Relative, Interrogative.
PROPERTIES.
GENDER. Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, Common.
PERSON. First, Second, Third.
NUMBER. Singular, Plural.
CASE. Nominative, Possessive, Objective, Absolute.
10. A proper noun is the name of some particular person, place, or thing. A common noun is applied to each individual of a class of objects.
11. Any word, sign, phrase, or sentence used independently of its meaning is a noun; as, "A is an article."
12. A proper noun becomes common when it assumes meaning; as, "Bolivar was styled the Washington of South America."
13. A common noun becomes proper when it is used to distinguish one individual from another of the same class; as, "The Park."
14. The word substantive includes everything used as a noun.
15. Class nouns are names applied to each individual of a class or group of objects. Abstract nouns denote the quality of objects. Collective nouns are
 singular in form but plural in meaning. Verbal nouns denote the names of actions ; they are participles and infinitives, sometimes termed Participial nouns.

16. Person, gender, number, and case.
17. As masculine, feminine, neuter, and common.
18. The masculine gender is applied to males, the feminine gender, to females, the neuter gender, to objects neither masculine nor feminine, the common gender, to terms which may signify either male or female.

19. Personification is the application of the masculine or feminine genders to objects without life.
20. Objects noted for size, power, and domineering qualities are masculine. Objects noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or submissive qualities are feminine.
21. First, by using different words ; as man, woman. Second, by using different terminations ; as host, hostess. Third, by prefixes and suffixes ; as, Mr. Smith, Mrs. Smith.
22. Collective nouns conveying the idea of unity or in the plural form, are neuter. If they convey the idea of plurality without the plural form they have the gender of the individuals composing the collection.

23. They have the common gender unless the sex is known from some other word.

24. Usage sanctions the use of the masculine forms, he, his, him; as, “Every scholar should be prompt in his exercises.”

25. The feminine of steer is heifer, of colt is filly, of earl is countess, of friar is nun, of hart is roe, of sire (the king) is madam, of sire (a horse) is dam, of sloven is slattern, of stag is hind, of swain is nymph, of don is donna, of infant is infanta, of tzar is tzarina, of John is Joanna, of youth is maiden or damsel, of marquis is marchioness.
26. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or object spoken of.
27. The first person denotes the speaker; the second person, the person addressed; the third person, the person or object spoken of.
28. It is in the third person.
29. Number is the distinction of nouns and pronouns with regard to unity or plurality.
30. The numbers are the Singular and Plural. The singular denotes but one; the plural denotes more than one.
31. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into ies; as glory, glories. Most nouns ending in f or fe are changed to ves; as, wife, wives. Most nouns ending in o, add es; as, cargo, cargoes; nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s.
32. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plurals by adding 's; as, the 3's and 4's, a's, +'s.
33. Most compound words are pluralized by having the described part made plural; as ox-carts. In some compound words both parts are pluralized; as, men-servants.

34. They are made plural by adding a plural termination to either the name or the title, but not to both; as, the Misses Smith or the Miss Smiths.
35. The compounds of full form the plural regularly; as, spoonfuls, bucketfuls.
36. The 's comes to us from the ending es or is in the old English genitive case. The apostrophe indicates the omission of e or i.

37. The plural of ottoman, is ottomans; alderman, aldermen; court-martial, courts-martial; mouthful, mouthfuls; nebula, nebulæ; focus, foci; hypothesis, hypotheses; goodness, no regular form; trout, trout; elf, elves; it, they; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp; porte-monnaie, porte-monnaies; billet-doux, billets-doux; staff, staves, (sticks); staffs, (officers); Nero, Neroes; n, n's; Dr., Drs.; Mr. Jones, Messrs. Jones; chimney, chimneys.

38. There are four cases: Nominative, Possessive, Objective, and Absolute. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the subject or predicate of a proposition. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pronoun to denote ownership. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. The Absolute Case is the use of a noun independent of any relation.

39. The Nominative is the name case. The Possessive denotes possession. The Objective usually follows a transitive verb or a preposition. The Absolute Case is used independently.
40. The possessive singular is formed by annexing 's to the nominative. The possessive plural is formed by annexing the apostrophe only when the nominative plural ends in s. If the plural does not end with s, the apostrophe and s are added.
41. By annexing 's to the last part; as, "John Smith's house."
42. When it denotes the same person or thing. It is then said to be in the same case.
43. 1st, By direct address. 2nd, By exclamation. 3d, By pleonasm or specification. 4th, With a participle.
44. Declension of a noun is its variation to denote number and case.
45. Parsing consists, first, in naming the part of speech; second, in stating its properties or attributes; third, in naming its relation to other words together with the rule for such relation.
46. Personal, possessive, relative, and interrogative.
47. The personal pronoun both represents the noun and by its form shows whether it is of the first, second, or third person. A personal pronoun may be simple or compound.
48. The antecedent is the noun or substantive expression for which a pronoun stands. It may be a noun, a different pronoun, a phrase, or a clause.
49. In the nominative and objective cases only.
50. A Possessive pronoun is a word which represents both the possessor and the thing possessed; as, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

51. A Relative pronoun represents some preceding noun or equivalent expression, called the antecedent, to which it joins a limiting clause; as, "The town which we just passed is Milton."

52. First, Personal pronouns have a peculiar form for each person; the relatives do not change their form for person. Second, a personal pronoun may be the subject of an independent sentence; a relative is not so used; it is found only in a subordinate clause.

53. A pronominal and a conjunctive use. By the first it represents a noun, by the second it joins a modi-fying clause to the antecedent.

54. As is a relative when it takes the place of who, which, or what after such, many, and same. That is a relative when who, whom, or which can be substituted for it. What is a relative when that which can be substituted for it.

55. That is preferred to who and which when the antecedent denotes both persons and things; after the superlative degree; after who used as an antecedent, and generally after no, all, any, each, every, same, some, or very.

56. Which and what having no possessive form of their own, sometimes borrow whose, the possessive of who.

57. The Interrogative pronouns are who, which and what.

58. (a) An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit the meaning of a noun. (b) Descriptive and limiting adjectives.

59. Into Common, Proper, and Participial.
60. Into Articles, Pronominal Adjectives, and Numeral Adjectives.
61. A Participle placed before the noun it describes, as, "A warbling brook."
62. A Limiting Adjective limits or restricts the meaning of a noun without expressing any of its qualities.
63. The definite article is used to point out a particular object or group of objects; to distinguish one object from another of the same name; as, Ohio, the State, the Ohio, the river; to point out some well-known object; as, the Pleiades.
64. The indefinite article is used to show that no particular one of a class is meant. Its general use is to point out a single individual or a group; as, an apple, a brace of ducks.
65. (a) Pronominal Adjectives are limiting adjectives sometimes used as pronouns. (b) They are divided into three classes; Demonstratives, Distributives, and Indefinites.
66. The Demonstratives point out objects definitely. They are this, that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, yon, yonder.
67. Distributives relate to objects taken separately. They are each, every, either, neither, many a.
68. The Indefinites relate to objects indefinitely. They are all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few, little, many, much, no, none, one, own, other, several, some, sundry.

69. Numeral Adjectives are those which express number and order. The classes are Cardinal, Ordinal, and Multiplicative.
70. Cardinal Numerals tell how many ; as, one, two. Ordinal Numerals tell the order ; as first, second. Multiplicative Numerals tell how many fold ; as, single, twofold.
71. Comparison is a variation of adjectives expressing different degrees of quality. There are three degrees of comparison : The Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
72. An adjective is in the positive degree when it expresses simply the quality.
73. An adjective is in the comparative degree when it expresses a higher or lower degree of quality; as, tall, taller. It is regularly formed by adding er or more or less to the positive form. Less is added when a less degree of quality is expressed.
74. An adjective is in the superlative degree when it expresses the highest or lowest degree of quality; as, tall, taller, tallest. It is regularly formed by adding est, or most, or least to the positive form. Least is added when the smallest degree of quality is expressed.
75. A small degree of some quality ; as, saltish.
76. Very, exceedingly, greatly, much, vastly, etc.
77. Bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; far, farther or further, farthest or furthest; fore, former, foremost; lazy, lazier, laziest; ill, worse, worst; good-natured, better-natured, best-natured; evil, worse worst; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest; late, later or latter, latest or last.
78. Nether, nethermost; under, undermost; hither, hithermost.
79. Top, topmost; head, headmost; southern, southernmost.
80. This — these; that — those; few — many.
81. The expression of a lower degree of quality than is implied in the positive; as, rash, less rash, least rash.
82. The monosyllabic adjective should precede; as, “A more proud and exalted mind.”
83. “A handsomer woman.” Adjectives should not be doubly compared.
84. (a) A verb is a word which expresses action, being or state. (b) Verbs may be classed as Copulative, Transitive, and Intransitive.
85. A copulative verb asserts the predicate of the subject; as, “Gold is yellow.” Examples: seem, appear, become, is named, is elected, is made, is chosen.
86. A Transitive verb has, or requires an object to complete its meaning; as, “James cut the apple.”
87. An Intransitive verb neither has nor requires an object to complete its meaning; as, “The clouds darken.”
88. The action expressed by a transitive verb has reference to some object upon which it terminates, apart and distinct from the subject; the action expressed by an intransitive verb affects the subject only.

89. A verb in the passive voice is transitive, if its subject in the passive voice can be made its object in the active: as, "The door was shut by John ;" "John shut the door."
90. Ask the question What ? or Whom? after the assertion; if the answer is a different thing or person from the subject, the verb is transitive, otherwise it is intransitive.
91. When the object is like the verb · as, "And he dreamed yet another dream."
92. Into Active, Passive, and Neuter.
93. An Active Verb represents the subject in an active state; as, "Boys play." A Passive Verb represents the subject as acted upon; as, "The man was injured." A Neuter Verb represents the subject in neither of these states; it implies being or condition; as, "The child sleeps."
94. With respect to their form, verbs are either Regular or Irregular.
95. A regular verb forms its past indicative and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative, or simplest form of the verb; as, hope, hoped, hoped.
96. An irregular verb does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative; as, am, was, been.
97. Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, and Person.
98. Voice is that form of a transitive verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. Into Active and Passive voices.

99. The Active Voice represents the subject as act-ing upon some object; as, "John saws wood."
100. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being acted upon; as, "John was struck by James." The passive voice is formed by prefixing some form of the neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of a transitive verb.
101. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or state is represented.
102. Five modes : the Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive.
103. The Indicative mode asserts a thing as a fact.
104. The indicative mode is used in declarative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences and subordinate propositions.
105. (a) The Subjunctive mode asserts a thing as doubtful or conditional. (b) It is so called because it is used only in subjoined or subordinate sentences.
106. The Potential mode asserts the power, possibility, liberty, duty, obligation, inclination, or necessity of doing, or being in a certain state.
107. The Imperative mode expresses a command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or a permission.
108. By the omission of a subject.
109. The Infinitive expresses the action, being, or state without affirming it.
110. After the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, help, let, make, need, see, and some others.
111. The Infinitive, as an abstract noun, may be the subject or predicate of a sentence; may be in apposition with a noun; and may be the object of a transi- tive verb or a preposition.

112. Indicative mode: the simple form of the verb; Subjunctive mode: if, though, except, lest, unless; Potential mode: may, can, must, might, could, would, should; Imperative mode: let or a command; Infini- tive mode: to.

113. A Participle is a word partaking of the proper- ties of a verb, an adjective, and a noun. It is so called because it partakes of the properties of the verb and the adjective.

114. The present participle, by adding ing; the past by adding ed to all regular verbs; and the perfect, by prefixing to the past the auxiliary “ having.”

115. There are three participles: the present the past and the perfect.
116. The present participle denotes an action or state in progress at the time represented by the prin- cipal verb.
117. As an adjective, a predicate, and a noun.
118. The perfect participle denotes an action or state completed at the time represented by the princi- pal verb.
119. It may be predicated or assumed.
120. It is in the possessive: “ I heard of his going home.”
121. They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. They are used in the conjugation of other verbs.
122. An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is asserted independently of any particular subject: as, "It snows;" "It seems."
123. Tense denotes the time of an action or event. Six tenses: the present, the present perfect, the past, the past perfect, the future, and the future perfect.
124. The present tense denotes simply present time.
125. The present perfect tense denotes what is past and finished, but which is connected with the present.
126. The past tense denotes simply past time.
127. The past perfect denotes what is passed and finished before some other event, which is also past.
128. The future tense denotes simply future time.
129. The future perfect tense represents a future time prior to some other future time.
130. The indicative has the six tenses; the subjunctive has three: the present, past and past perfect; the potential has four: the present, present perfect, past, and past perfect; the imperative has one: the present; the infinitive has two: the present, and the present perfect.
131. Verbs have five forms: the common, the emphatic, the progressive, the passive, and the ancient.
132. Shall in the first person, and will in the second and third, denote simple futurity; as, "I shall go." "You and he will go with me." Shall in the second and third person denotes necessity; as, "You and he shall not go till I come." Will in the first person denotes determination; as, "I will prove my assertion."

133. Relation is the connection or relation words have with one another; agreement is the similarity words have with one another in person, gender, number, case, etc.; government is the power one word has over another in determining its relations.

134. Person and number of verbs are the changes which they undergo to mark their agreement with their subjects.

135. A verb should be singular when its subject is singular, when its subject is a group viewed as one thing, when its subject is two or more objects taken singly, and denoted by several terms.

136. A verb should be plural when its subject is plural, when its subject is a group conceived as to its individual parts, when it has two or more objects taken collectively.

137. Conjugation is the correct expression in regular order of the modes, tenses, voices, numbers, and persons of a verb.
138. Four forms: the regular, the emphatic, the progressive and the interrogative.
139. The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect participle.
140. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form, through the different modes and tenses, in a single number and person.
141. Place not after it, or after the first auxiliary, but before the infinitive or the participles.
142. Place the subject and not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary.
143. Defective verbs are those wanting some of their principal parts; as beware, ought, quoth, wit.
144. Redundant verbs are those having more than one form for their past tense or perfect participle; as, cleave, cleft, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved.
145. To put a verb into any required form. Ex.: To name the tense, mode, form, voice, number and person of the verb.
146. dive, — dived, dived; say, — said, said; drink, — drank, drunk; gird, — girded or girt; bear, — bore, borne; cling, — clung, clung; set, — set, set; lie, — lay, lain; shoe, — shod, shod; sit, — sat, sat; eat, — ate, eaten; wring, — wrung, wrung; wear, — wore, worn; strike, — struck, struck or stricken; swim, — swam or swum, swum; lay, — laid, laid; chide, — chid, chidden or chid; dare, — durst or dared, dared; fly, — flew, flown.
147. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb. It is equivalent to a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, limited by an object.
148. Five classes; adverbs of time, place, cause, manner, and degree.
149. Modal adverbs show the manner of the assertion; as, yes, truly. Interrogative adverbs are those used in asking questions.
150. An adverbial phrase is a combination used as a single adverb.
151. Conjunctive adverbs are those which connect an adverbial element with the part of the principal proposition modified. Ex. where, when, while, before, since.
152. “ He seems better.” “ She looks well.”
153. Wholly — degree ; verily — modal ; asunder — manner ; therefore — cause ; away — place ; seldom — time; almost — degree; perhaps — manner; why — cause; forth — place.
154. A preposition is a word which shows the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word.
155. A phrase; as, “at home,” “in town.”
156. A complex preposition consists of two words, and is parsed as a single word; as, “as far,” “from among.”
157. As an adverb ; as, “ They went out.”
158. With denotes an instrument; by a cause ; with the immediate, by the remote means.
159. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, sentences, and parts of sentences.
160. A pure conjunction forms no part of the sentence; it unites the materials of the sentence.
161. They are not ; relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs are exceptions.
162. Into three classes : copulative, disjunctive, and correlative.
163. Copulative conjunctions join on members denoting an addition, consequence, cause, or supposition; as, and, for.
Disjunctive conjunctions join members denoting opposition of meaning; as, but, except. Correlative conjunctions are copulatives or disjunctives, used in pairs, one referring or answering to another; as, so — as, neither — nor.
164. An interjection is a word used to express some sudden or strong emotion. The interjection has no definite meaning or grammatical relation.
165. Relative pronoun: "This is the same as I found;" Correlative conjunction; "As he did to you, so will I do to him;" Complex preposition: "As for me, I cannot go;" Adverb: "It is as clear as crystal."
166. An adverb : "I can but think him gone;" An adjective: "There is nothing but leaves;" A preposition: "They have all gone but you;" A conjunction : "Age advances, but knowledge lingers."
167. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.
168. A proposition is a thought expressed in words. A sentence is the assemblage of words used to express the thought.
169. A principal proposition is one which makes complete sense when standing alone.
170. A subordinate proposition is one which does not make complete sense when standing alone, but must be connected with another proposition.
171. A phrase is an assemblage of words forming a single expression, but not making complete sense; as, in haste, since then.
172. An element is one of the component parts of a sentence. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements. Synthesis is the construction of sentences from words.
173. The subject of a proposition is that of which something is affirmed.
174. The predicate of a proposition is that which is affirmed of the subject. The copula is a word or group of words used to assert the predicate of the subject.
175. Declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.
176. A declarative sentence affirms or denies something.
177. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question.
178. A direct question requires yes or no for an answer. An indirect question cannot be answered by yes or no.
179. An imperative sentence expresses a command or an entreaty.
180. An exclamatory sentence is used in the expression of emotion.
181. With respect to form sentences are simple, complex, and compound.
182. A simple sentence contains but one proposition: “The sun rises in the east.”
183. A complex sentence contains one principal proposition, some part of which is modified by one or more subordinate propositions: “The fog disappears when the sun rises.”
184. Clauses are the propositions of which complex sentences are composed.
185. A compound sentence contains two or more simple or complex sentences, joined by coördinate connectives.
186. The parts of a compound sentence are called members.
187. The clauses of complex sentences are connected by relative pronouns, conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs. The members of a compound sentence are connected by conjunctions.
188. A transitive sentence is one whose predicate is a transitive verb.
189. An intransitive sentence is one whose predicate is an intransitive verb.
190. A mixed sentence has both a transitive verb and an intransitive verb as predicates.
191. An auxiliary sentence is a subordinate proposition.
192. The subject may be a word, a phrase, or a clause.
193. The predicate may be a word, a phrase, or a clause.
194. A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause joined to a term to limit or modify its meaning.
195. The subordinate elements are objective, adjective, and adverbial.
196. An objective element is a word or group of words which completes the meaning of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of its participles. It is called the object.
197. An adjective element is a word or group of words which modifies a noun, or other expression used as a noun.
198. The adjective element may be an adjective, a participle, a noun in apposition, or a possessive.
199. An adverbial element is a word or group of words used to modify a verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb.
200. An independent element is a word or expression which has no grammatical connection with the sentence in which it may be used.
201. Elements may be of the first class; as, a word; of the second class; as, a phrase; of the third class; as, a clause.
202. Simple elements, or those not restricted by a modifier; complex elements, or those which contain a leading element restricted in meaning by one or more modifiers; compound elements, or those consisting of two or more simple or complex elements.
203. Clauses may be classed with reference to their use or position in sentences; as, subject clauses, predicate clauses, relative clauses, appositive clauses, interrogative clauses, objective clauses, and adverbial clauses.
204. An abridged sentence is one whose predicate has the infinitive or participial form.
205. The following terms should be set off by commas: 1. Parenthetical expressions. —2. Intermediate expressions, that is, such as break the essential part of a sentence. — 3. Dependent clauses. —4. Words form-ing a series. —5. Words or phrases in pairs. —6. Noun in apposition. —7. Absolute case. —8. In-verted clauses.

206. Capital letters should be used in the following cases: The first word of a sentence, — The first word of an example, — The first word of a direct quotation,— The first word of a direct question, — The first word after a period,— The first word after an interroga-tion,— Numbered clauses,— The pronoun I and the interjection O,— The first word of every line of poetry,— Proper names, — Adjectives derived from proper names, — Names of the Deity.

207. " Things look much more favorable this morn-ing." Favorable modifies things, and should be an adjective. " The command of a division was given to Washington." The object of the active verb, and not that of a preposition should be made the subject of the passive verb. " The most tremendous civil war that history records." That should be used in preference to which after the superlative degree. " To say he is re-lieved, is the same as to say he is dismissed." It is im-proper to use different forms of the verb in the same construction. " We agree on this." Needless passive forms should be avoided.

208. A figure of speech is a deviation from the or-dinary form, regular construction, or literal significa-tion of words.
209. Into figures of orthography, syntax, and rhetoric.
210. A figure of orthography is a deviation from the ordinary spelling or pronunciation of words. A figure of syntax is a deviation from the ordinary construction or arrangement of words. A figure of rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary application of words.
211. Apheresis; as, 'gainst, for against. Prosthesis; as, beloved, for loved. Syncope; as, o'er, for over. Apocope; as, yond, for yonder. Syneresis; as, don't, for do not.
212. Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause, which must be supplied to complete the meaning.
213. Enallage is the use of one part of speech or of one form of a word for another. Ex. We, for I. Methinks, for I think.

214. Simile: '' He is like a giant: '' Allegory: Bunyan's Pilgrims' Progress; Metonymy: ''Intemperance kills more than the sword;'' Personification: ''Joy gave him happiness; '' Irony: '' Sure, Brutus is an honorable man; '' Hyperbole: '' Then, swift as light, their swords flashed; '' Synecdoche: gold, for money; Antithesis : '' Virtue ennobles, vice debases; '' Epigram '' Nothing so fallacious as facts, except figures; '' Paralipsis : '' I will not call him villain, for it would be unparliamentary.''

215. Versification is the art of making verse. Verse is the musical arrangement of words, according to some regular accent.
216. A poetic foot is a collection of syllables, one of which is accented.
217. The Iambus, two syllables, second accented, enthrall; the Trochee, two syllables, first accented, raven; the Anapest, three syllables, the last accented, countersign; the Dactyl, three syllables, the first accented, principal.

218. Rhyme is a similarity of sound between successive lines or lines at regular intervals. Blank verse is verse without rhyme.
219. A stanza is a combination of lines constituting a division of a poem.
220. A caesural pause is a slight pause made in or near the middle of poetic lines

QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY.

1. Define Geography. How divided?
2. Define Mathematical Geography.
3. What is Political Geography?
4. Define Physical Geography.
5. State three facts which prove the rotundity of the earth.
6. What is the generally accepted reason for the flattening of the earth at the poles?
7. (a) Give the length in miles of the equatorial diameter. (b) The polar diameter. (c) The earth's circumference. (d) The earth's extent of surface. (e) What proportion is water?
8. What revolutions has the earth? Explain the cause of each.
9. What proofs can you give for the earth's daily rotation?
10. State the cause of the change from day to night.
11. Explain the cause of winter and summer.
12. What position does the earth occupy in the solar system?
13. What is the inclination of the earth's axis?
14. What is the length of the earth's orbit?
15. Into what zones is the earth's surface divided? What is the width of each in degrees?
16. Why are the tropics and polar circles placed just where they are?
17. What imaginary lines would be removed from the surface of the globe if its axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, and what would be the effect upon the seasons, and on the length of day and night?
18. If the rotary motion of the earth were to cease, what change would be made in the distribution of water on the surface of the earth?
19. Mention five causes which produce oceanic currents.
20. Name four effects of ocean currents.
21. When are the days and nights equal throughout the globe?
22. What is the horizon?
23. What is a great circle of the earth? A small circle? Give an example of each.
24. What is a meridian circle? A meridian?
25. What do you mean by the circle of illumination?
26. What is latitude? Longitude?
27. What is the greatest latitude a place can have? Why? The greatest longitude? Why?
28. (a) Philadelphia and Denver are in the same latitude; would the parallel be the shortest distance between them measured on the earth's surface? (b) Is there any parallel which is the shortest distance between two points situated upon it?
29. If the inclination of the earth were 20 degrees from the vertical, what would be the width of each zone?
30. Name the countries crossed by the Tropic of Cancer. By the equator.
31. Give the approximate latitude of the following cities: New Orleans, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Washington, Montreal, Chicago, New York, Havana, London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Rome, St. Petersburg, Constantinople, Rio Janeiro.
32. Where is there neither latitude nor longitude?
33. How many degrees is Washington west of Greenwich?
34. What are the following: Island, Archipelago, Peninsula, Cape, Isthmus?
35. What is a Mountain? Mountain Range? Volcano? Water Shed?
36. Why is the climate of England milder than that of Labrador?
37. Name and locate the four most celebrated volcanoes.
38. Name the warm ocean currents. The cold currents.
39. Where, on the 21st of June at the Arctic Circle, would you look for sunrise?
40. Define the following: Cascade, Confluence, Frith or Estuary, Glacier, Avalanche.
41. What is the Ecliptic? Why so called? What is its mean distance from the sun? What is its length?
42. What is the earth's orbital velocity?
43. Under what circumstances would summer and winter be longer than at present?
44. Which has the longer twilight June 21, Havana or Quebec? Explain why.
45. What is climate? Upon what conditions does it depend?
46. How does the temperature vary with altitude and distance from the equator?
47. Why are the western coasts of Europe and the United States warmer than the eastern coasts of Asia and the United States?
48. Into what general classes is mankind divided? Give an example of each class.
49. What are the political divisions of the world?
50. What is a Republic? Empire? Kingdom? Limited Monarchy? Absolute Monarchy? Give examples of each.
51. What is a village? Town? City? A capital of a state or country? The Metropolis?
52. What are the chief industrial pursuits?
53. Distinguish between the two kinds of Commerce. Between imports and exports.
54. Name the four grades of social condition of mankind.
55. Name the four principal religious systems.
56. What are the Equinoxes? When do they occur?
57. Explain what you mean by the Solstices, and state when they occur.
58. Name the grand divisions of the earth, and after each write the name of its principal mountain system.
59. Name the eight largest islands in their order of size.
60. Give in round numbers the area of each of the grand divisions.
61. Name and give length of principal river of each grand division.
62. To what is the term Antarctic Ocean applied?
63. How much more land does the North Temperate zone contain than the South Temperate?
64. Name ten peninsulas which project in a southerly direction.
65. How far north have navigators explored?
66. What was the only beast of burden possessed by the aborigines of America?
67. Why is the region about the Antarctic Circle colder than that of the Arctic Circle?
68. Name the ten largest gulfs and bays that wash the coast of North America.
69. Name the ten largest lakes of North America.
70. Into what four classes is the surface of North America naturally divided?
71. Name the political divisions of North America.
72. Name the principal wild animals of North America.
73. What is the area of the United States? Its population? Breadth from north to south? Length from east to west?
74. What races may be found in the United States?
75. What are cañons? What river is remarkable for its numerous and deep cañons?
76. For what are the rivers of the Atlantic plain remarkable?
77. What political divisions do the United States comprise?
78. Name the ten largest cities of the United States.
79. Why has the northeastern part of the United States been foremost in manufacturing industries?
80. Name five principal exports of the United States. Five principal imports.
81. Locate and define the following: Ottawa, Yukon, Hatteras, Yucatan, Nicaragua, Hayti, Halifax, Sitka, Bathurst, Bermuda, Sandusky, Yankton, The Thousand Isles, Mackinaw, Itasca, Tehuantepec, Gila, Height of Land, Kodiak, Fundy.
82. Compare the New England States with California in size. With Texas.
83. If Texas were placed across the United States from Washington City westward, how far would it extend?
84. State the location of the following colleges: Yale, Harvard, Brown University, Dartmouth, Vassar, William and Mary College.
85. Name the States and their capitals that border on the Mississippi River.
86. In what two industries do the Middle States excel all others?
87. What is the government of the District of Columbia?
88. In what respect is Chesapeake Bay remarkable?
89. What three large cities are in nearly the same latitude as Philadelphia? How do they compare in climate? Give the reason for your answer.
90. Of what benefit are sand-bars and islands lying off the coast of North Carolina?
91. Name the peculiar productions of North Carolina. How are they obtained?
92. Give a detailed description of Florida.
93. How are the lowlands along the Mississippi rendered tillable?
94. Whence comes the moss used for cushions and mattresses?
95. What is the Red River Raft?
96. By whom, and for what purpose was Indian Territory set apart?
97. Compare the eastern tributaries of the Mississippi with the western in the following respects: (1) Rapidity of descent. (2) Navigable distance. (3) Extent of surface drained. (4) Time of subsidence.
98. What is the natural center of population of the United States? Give reasons for your answer.
99. Name ten productions of the Mississippi Valley.
100. How do steamboats pass the falls at Louisville?
101. For what is Chicago remarkable? Name four points.
102. Why is the climate of Michigan milder than other States in the same latitude?
103. How do vessels pass from Lake Superior to Lake Michigan?
104. Why is southwestern Michigan particularly adapted to fruit culture?
105. (a) Locate Yellowstone National Park. (b) Give its area. (c) By whom and for what set apart? (d) Name four features which render it a natural wonder. (e) What three rivers have their source in this park?
106. Name the capitals of the ten territories.
107. Why is the Red River of the North important?
108. Compare the natural commercial advantages of the Atlantic and Pacific States.
109. What and where are the following: Dry Tortugas, Managua, The Panhandle, The Eastern Shore, Sandy Hook?
110. What waters surround New York City?
111. Name the largest lake in each grand division.
112. (a) Where do navigators change their time? (b) Under what circumstances do they add a day and drop a day?
113. In what city is it 6 A. M. when it is noon at London?
114. On the 21st of June at noon which way are the shadows cast at London, Tunis, Mecca, Rio Janeiro, Muscat?
115. Name, in order, the five most populous powers.
116. Name the States which excel in the following productions: Corn, Wheat, Oats, Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, Tobacco, Cotton, Wool, Manufacturing products, Mining products.
117. How does the extent of the railroad system of the United States compare with that of European countries?
118. Which is the most densely populated country?
119. Trace the "International Date Line."
120. Where is the center of population of the United States?
121. Name the States crossed by the 40th parallel.
122. Name the waters upon which a boat would ply from Nashville to Little Rock.
123. Why has Rhode Island two capitals?
124. For what are the following cities noted: Springfield, Mass., Annapolis, Pittsburg, Paterson, Indianapolis?
125. What and where are the following: Salado, Popocatepetl, Welland, Elburz, Batavia, Ormus, Brest, Finland, Manilla, Tenneriffe?
126. What portions of icebergs are under water?
127. By whom is Greenland inhabited? Why called Greenland?
128. For what is Iceland remarkable? By whom peopled? What is their language?
129. What is the chief value of Alaska?
130. Name the principal American possessions of Great Britain?
131. What provinces are embraced in the Dominion of Canada?
132. How is the Dominion of Canada governed?
133. What country furnishes the greater portion of furs to the world?
134. How do vessels pass from the great lakes to the ocean?
135. For what is the Bay of Fundy noted? Explain the cause.
136. In what are nearly all the people of Newfoundland employed?
137. Name the largest city of the following States: Vermont, North Carolina, Arkansas, Oregon, Nevada.
138. (a) Which State has the greatest number of electoral votes? (b) Upon what does this depend?
139. (a) Of how many members does the House of Representatives consist (1884)? (b) What is the basis of representation?
140. Name the cities which have been capitals of the United States.
141. Why is the passage from New York to Liverpool shorter than that from Liverpool to New York?
142. What and where are the following: Tapajos, Tchad, Anticosti, The Levant, The Three Rivers, Pembina, Atacama, Heart's Content, Otranto, Severn, Taranto?
143. What two States have nearly the same area?
144. What are the only French possessions in North America?
145. How do the United States compare in size with Brazil?
146. Compare Illinois with England in size and population.
147. What is remarkable about the climate of Mexico?
148. What kind of government has Mexico? Of what composed? Who are its people? What are its exports?
149. Of what does Central America consist?
150. What gives Central America importance to the world?
151. How is the intense heat of the West Indies modified?
152. Name five valuable exports of the West Indies. Who are its people? What is their number? Of how many islands do the West Indies consist?
153. For what is Havana noted?
154. What peculiar navigable advantages has the Amazon?
155. A vessel sails from Baltimore to Maracaybo, touching at Vera Cruz, name the waters upon which she sails.
156. Why is South America not well adapted for commerce?
157. What character of government prevails in South America? What is the prevailing religion? Population, number, and origin?
158. What is the government of Brazil? How does the country compare in population with the U.S.?
159. What capital of South America is in the same longitude as Washington? How does their time compare?
160. Name the greatest mountain chain of South America; the highest mountain; the largest city; the largest gulf.
161. Name the countries of South America, and after each write the name of its capital.
162. Caracas is in longitude 67° W., St. Louis is at 90° 15' W. How does their time compare?
163. What are the lowlands of South America called in the different river basins?
164. In what part of the world is the largest bird of prey?
165. Describe the great plains of South America with reference to their vegetable and animal productions.
166. Mention ten of the most valuable productions of South America.
167. Name five forest trees of South America of great commercial value.
168. What are the five chief commercial cities of South America?
169. Which is the most enterprising nation of South America? To what is this due?
170. What language is spoken in Brazil? Why?
171. To whom do the Falkland Islands belong? Importance?
172. What is particularly remarkable about the Galapagos Islands?
173. What and where are the following: Chiloe, Cuzco, Frio, Maracaybo, Aspinwall, Cartagena, Para, Rosario, Guayaquil, Popayan, Corrientes, San Francisco, Tucuman, Angostura, Xingu, Cotopaxi, Panama, Madeira, Joannes, Bahia?
174. Where is the only part of the world to which the cinchona-tree is indigenous? What can you say of the supply?
175. What is the only nation in America without a sea-front?
176. Which nations own no islands except those along their coasts termed littoral islands?
177. What is the area and population of Europe?
178. How does the coast-line of Europe compare with that of the other grand divisions? What advantages accrue from an extensive coast line?
179. Name ten seas that wash the shores of Europe.
180. What forms of government prevail in Europe, and how many of each?
181. Name the countries of Europe and after each write the name of its capital.
182. Name the Republics of Europe.
183. Which is the oldest Republic of the world?
184. Which countries of Europe have the same king?
185. What causes the great emigration from Europe to America?
186. What striking features exist in the political geography of Europe?
187. Name five gulfs or bays that wash the shores of Europe.
188. Compare the latitude of St. Petersburg with some prominent point in America.
189. Name in order the ten largest cities of Europe.
190. Locate the following: Lipari Islands, Lake Como, Palermo, Elba, Hamburg.
191. Name the waters upon which a vessel would sail by the shortest route from Genoa to Trieste.
192. What countries occupy the Great Low Plain of Europe?
193. Name and locate the foreign possessions of Great Britain.
194. Compare the winter climate of England and South Carolina, and give a reason for your answer.
195. How do the railroads of England differ from those of the U. S.?
196. Why is Birmingham said to be in the Black Country?
197. For what are the following cities noted: Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Nottingham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sheffield, Portsmouth, Oxford, Cambridge?
198. What is the length of twilight in northern Scotland at the summer solstice?
199. How many and what telegraph cables connect America with Europe?
200. What and where are the following: Kiev, Riga, Rhodes, Dwina, Kiölen, Cattegat, Pesth, Candia, Gottenburg, Dovrefjeld, Astrakhan, Munich, Crimea, Cologne, Wilna, Wener, The Naze, Bucharest, Dantzig, Finland?
201. Describe the climate of Ireland.
202. For what are the following cities noted: Belfast, Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Glasgow?
203. Compare the climate about the G. of Finland with that of the harbor of Hammerfest. Explain the cause.
204. What country of Europe is the richest in mineral productions?
205. What people carry on nearly all the trade of Austria, Hungary, and Poland?
206. What are respectively the centers of the inland and foreign trade of Austria?
207. What are the most famous quicksilver mines of the world?
208. What is “ The Key to the East? ”
209. What is the military importance of Gibraltar?
210. What and where is the “ Alhambra? ”
211. Describe the location of Venice?
212. How does the German Empire compare in area and population with Texas?
213. Name two famous watering places of Europe. Locate them.
214. Where is amber found on the surface?
215. Which is the best cultivated country of the world?
216. From what country and through what rivers does water flow into four great seas of Europe?
217. Name the characteristics of the Dutch. Of the Swiss.
218. Where is the most fertile land of Europe?
219. Which is the greatest grain market of the world?
220. What three nations control over one-third of the world?
221. Describe and locate the Steppes of Russia.
222. In what part of Europe are famous fairs held?
223. Which is farther from London, a town 2° west or one 2° north of it? Explain your answer.
224. What and where are the two great shipping ports of Russia?
225. What is the religion of the Russians?
226. To what race do the Russians belong?
227. Where do the following people live: Amphiscians, Antiscians, Ascians, Periecians, Pericians, Antipodes?
228. Name the waters upon which a vessel sails by the shortest route from St. Petersburg to Odessa.
229. What is the width of Dover Strait, Gibraltar, Behring?
230. From what nations are the Italians derived?
231. What language is chiefly spoken in the following cities: Havana, Constantinople, Quebec, Rio Janeiro, Berne?
232. Where are the Valdai Hills? The Matterhorn?
233. What is a Mercator Map? By whom invented? For what purpose?
234. State the advantages and disadvantages of Mercator's Map.
235. State the principal points of resemblance and difference between (a) the British Parliament and the Congress of the U. S.; (b) between the Executive powers of the two countries.
236. What country in the world has the longest and most numerous lines of railroad?
237. Name five principal mountain systems of Asia.
238. Name in order the five longest rivers of Asia.
239. What are the political divisions of Asia?
240. Name the seas, gulfs, and bays which surround Asia, beginning at the N. W.
241. Locate the following cities of Asia: Tobolsk, Kelat, Tomsk, Madras, Hong Kong, Irkoutsk, Tokio, Aden, Colombo, Khiva, Lassa, Bankok, Lucknow, Cabul, Teheran, Smyrna, Tientsin, Kashgar, Surat, Mecca, Shanghai, Medina, Cashmere, Hue, Omsk, Mandalay, Ozaka, Aleppo, Tiflis, Nankin, Damascus, Ispahan, Mocha, Beyroot, Fuh Chau.
242. Name the two principal forms of religion of Asia and state their distinctive features.
243. What do the suffixes stan, chow, ho and kiang added to Asiatic names signify?
244. What is the character of the surface of Siberia?
245. Has a passage along the northern coast of Europe and Asia ever been made?
246. Where and from what is ivory obtained in Siberia?
247. What are the principal exports of Asiatic Turkey?
248. How do most of the tribes of Arabia, Turkestan, Tibet, etc., live?
249. What are the estimated area and population of China?
250. Name and describe some of the most famous public works of China.
251. Is the production of tea limited to China? i.e., Can it be cultivated elsewhere? Explain fully.
252. Enumerate the uses of the bamboo.
253. How do you account for the non-progressive spirit of the Chinese and at the same time for their ingenuity?
254. Where is the largest known collection of inhabitants?
255. Name the four large islands of Japan? How many smaller ones?
256. What are the principal articles of commerce obtained from Arabia?
257. From what and how is Gutta-Percha obtained?
258. What is sago? How obtained?
259. Name the Treaty, or Free ports, of Japan open to the U. S.
260. What valuable woods are found in Siam?
261. Name ten exports of Hindoostan. Where produced?
262. From what is opium made? To what extent is it used in China?
263. How does the quality and flavor of such fruits as grapes, pears, peaches, watermelons, etc., grown in dry countries compare with the same when grown in moist countries?
264. For what purpose is Siberia used by Russia?
265. Where do the “Fire Worshippers” live?
266. What and where are the Tundras?
267. What and where are the following: Tulare, Zealand, Agulhas, Chincha, Land’s End?
268. Enumerate five causes for our limited knowledge of Africa.
269. Locate and define the following: Nubia, Sofala, Zululand, Algeria, Victoria Nyanza, Tunis, Monrovia, Port Said, Zambesi, Orange, Natal, Tchad, Canary, Tananarivo, Dahomey, Comoro, Zanzibar, Congo, Alexandria, Oran.

270. Name the political divisions of Africa.
271. Which are the Barbary States? Their chief products?
272. To what race do the Egyptians belong? What is their language? Their ruling class? Prevailing religion?
273. How does the temperature of the Sahara by day compare with the temperature at night?
274. What and where is Liberia?
275. Describe the Suez Canal. Who constructed it?
276. What does Oceanica comprise? What is its extent?
277. Contrast Australia and the United States in respect to area, climate, seasons, vegetation, animals.
278. Describe the natives of Australia.
279. Three persons separate in St. Louis, January 1, 1883. A starts eastward to go round the world; B journeys west, also to go round the world, and C remains in St. Louis. On the evening of December 31, 1883, they meet again in St. Louis, A and B having just completed the circuit of the world. How many days has each seen in the year?
280. A vessel goes from Chicago to Shanghai by way of the Suez Canal; name the waters upon which she sails.
281. (a) Explain what is meant by "standard time." (b) By whom and when adopted? (c) How many and what divisions of time in the United States?
282. Name three important cities of the Mississippi Valley having nearly the same standard and local time.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY.

1. Geography is a description of the earth's surface, its countries and their inhabitants. It is treated under three divisions: Mathematical, Political and Physical Geography.
2. Mathematical Geography treats of the form, size and motions of the earth, and its relations to other heavenly bodies.
3. Political Geography treats of the divisions formed by man for the purpose of government, the people, religion, customs, and government.
4. Physical Geography treats of the natural divisions of land and water, climate, productions, and their effects upon the animal creation.
5. 1st. Ships have sailed around it. 2d. The hull of an outgoing vessel is the first to disappear from sight. 3d. The shadow which the earth casts upon the moon during an eclipse is circular.
6. Its revolution during its plastic state.
7. (a) 7,925½ miles. (b) 7,899 miles. (c) 24,899 miles. (d) 196,900,278 square miles. (e) About three-fourths.
8. Two: A daily and a yearly. The daily is caused by the earth's turning on its axis. The yearly, by the earth's revolution around the sun.
9. 1st. The flattening of the earth at the poles. 2d. If a number of balls be let fall from the summit of a high tower they will fall eastward of a vertical line. The top of the tower being farther from the center of the earth than its base, has a greater centrifugal force than the base, and hence, tends to throw the balls eastward. 3d. The diminished weight of bodies at the equator is partly due to the centrifugal force caused by the earth's rotation. 4th. Since all the heavenly bodies turn upon their axes, it is reasonable to suppose the Earth is no exception.
10. The daily revolution, presenting one-half of the earth's surface to the sun.
11. During the winter season north of the equator the rays of the sun fall obliquely upon that portion of the earth ; during the northern summer the sun's rays fall more nearly vertical, and thus concentrate the heat.
12. It is the third from the sun.
13. It leans 23½ degrees from the perpendicular.
14. 577,000,000 miles.
15. Into one torrid, two temperate, and two frigid zones. The torrid is 47 degrees in width, the temper temperate zones are each 43 degrees wide, and the frigid zones are 23 1/2 degrees respectively.
16. The tropics mark the limit of the sun's vertical rays north and south of the equator. The polar circles mark the limit of the sun's oblique rays. Ex. On the 21st of June, when the sun's rays are vertical to the Tropic of Cancer, the extreme southern limit of the sun's oblique rays is marked by the antarctic circle.
17. The tropics and polar circles would be removed. There would be no change of seasons. The days and nights would be equal throughout the globe.
18. The waters of the ocean would settle about the poles.
19. 1st. The rotation of the earth on its axis. 2d. Difference in the densities of the waters of the polar and tropic seas. 3d. Immense evaporation in the equatorial regions. 4th. Winds and tides. 5th. The melting of polar ice and snow.
20. 1st. Modification of the extremes of climate. 2d. Advantage to commerce by shortening the time of ocean navigation. 3d. Distribution of animal and vegetable life. 4th. They render the globe healthful by carrying off decaying vegetable and animal matter.
21. On the 21st of March and the 22d of September, on which days the sun's rays are vertical on the equator.
22. The horizon is that circle upon which the earth and sky appear to meet.
23. A great circle is one which divides the earth into two equal parts. Ex. The equator. A small circle is one that divides the earth into two unequal parts. Ex. The tropics and polar circles.
24. A meridian circle passes through the poles. A meridian is half a meridian circle and extends from pole to pole.
25. The circle of illumination separates the dark side of the earth from the light.
26. Latitude is distance north and south of the equator towards the poles. Longitude is distance east and west of some given meridian, measured on parallels in degrees.
27. 90 degrees north or south, because latitude does not extend beyond the poles. The greatest longitude cannot be more than 180 degrees east or west, because longitude is reckoned both ways from a given meridian to the other half of a meridian forming with the starting point a meridian circle.
28. (a) It would not. (b) Yes, the equator.
29. The torrid zone would extend 20 degrees each side of the equator, and would be 40 degrees wide. The frigid zones would each be 20 degrees, while the temperate zones would be 50 degrees wide.
30. The Tropic of Cancer crosses Mexico, Sahara, Nubia, Turkey, Arabia, Hindostan, Birmah, and China. The equator crosses Ecuador, U. S. of Colombia, Brazil, Lower Guinea, Ethiopia, Zanguebar, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Celebes.
31. New Orleans, 30°; Philadelphia, 40°; St. Louis, 38 1/2°; Washington, 39°; Montreal, 46°; Chicago, 42°; New York, 41°; Havana, 23°; London, 51 1/2°; Paris, 49°; Berlin, 52 1/2°; Vienna, 48°; Rome, 42°; St. Petersburg, 60°; Constantinople, 41°; Rio Janeiro, 23° south.
32. Where any prime meridian, as that of Washington or Greenwich, crosses the equator.
33. 77 degrees.
34. An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. An archipelago is a group of islands. A peninsula is a body of land nearly surrounded by water. A cape is a point of land extending into the water. An isthmus is a neck of land connecting two larger bodies of land.
35. A mountain is a great elevation of land. A mountain range is a connected line of mountains. A volcano is a mountain which sends forth fire, smoke, ashes, and lava. A water shed is the ridge or elevated land from which water flows in different directions.
36. The gulf stream, warmed by the equatorial heat, gives off its warmth to the British Isles, while the cold Arctic winds and currents render Labrador too cold for cultivation.
37. Vesuvius, in southern Italy; Etna, in Sicily; Hecla, in Iceland; Cotopaxi, in Ecuador.
38. The Equatorial Current, Gulf Stream, and the Japan Current are warm; the Arctic and Antarctic currents are cold.
39. Toward the North Pole.
40. A cascade is a stream flowing down a precipice. A confluence is the meeting of two rivers. A Frith or Estuary is the narrow and deep inlet of the sea at the mouth of a river. A glacier is a mass of snow and ice moving slowly down the side of a mountain. An avalanche is a mass of snow, ice, and earth rolling down the side of a mountain.

41. The Ecliptic is the orbit, or path, which the earth describes in its yearly revolution. It is so called because the eclipses of the sun and moon happen in or near its plane. Its mean distance from the sun is 92,000,000 miles. The length of the orbit is 577,000,000 miles.
42. The velocity of the earth is 1,099 miles a minute.
43. If the inclination of the earth's axis were greater than at present the vertical rays of the sun would extend farther north and south than the present tropics, and, consequently, prolong the summers and winters.
44. Quebec has the longer twilight. On June 21, at Havana, the sun in setting passes downward vertically. At Quebec, on same day, the sun in setting north of west passes downward diagonally toward the north, thus leaving the reflection of its rays above the horizon longer than when it sets due west.
45. Climate is the condition of a place in relation to its temperature, moisture, and atmosphere. It is influenced by latitude, elevation, prevailing winds, nearness to the ocean, and mountain ranges.

46. The temperature diminishes 1° for every 350 feet of elevation, and 1° for every 100 miles from the equator.
47. The western coast of Europe is warmed by the Gulf Stream; the Japan Current imparts its moisture and warmth to the western coast of the U. S. The eastern shores of Asia and America are cooled by cold currents from the Arctic Ocean.
48. The Caucasian, or white race; Ex. Europeans and their descendants; The Mongolian, or yellow race; Ex. Chinese, Japanese, and Esquimaux; The Malay, or brown race; Ex. The inhabitants of Malay Peninsula and East Indies; American Indian, or red race; Ex. The Indians of the Territories; The Ethiopian, or black race; Ex. The inhabitants of Lower and Upper Guinea.
49. Republics, Empires, Kingdoms.
50. A Republic is a country governed by representatives elected by the people; Ex. The United States, Peru; An Empire is a region comprising several countries governed by a monarch styled Emperor; Ex. Russia, Germany. A Kingdom is a country governed by a King or Queen; Ex. Spain, Denmark. A Limited Monarchy is a government in which the power of the monarch is limited by law; Ex. Great Britain, Prussia. An Absolute Monarchy is a government in which the power of the ruler is unlimited; Ex. Russia, China.
51. A village is a small collection of houses and inhabitants. A town is larger than a village. Cities are large towns having special privileges granted by law. The capital is the city in which the laws are made. The Metropolis is that city of a state or country which contains the largest number of inhabitants.
52. Agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, mining, lumbering, fishing, hunting, and trapping.
53. Commerce carried on between parts of the same country is called domestic; carried on between different countries is called foreign. Imports are goods brought into a country, exports are those sent out.
54. Civilized, half-civilized, barbarous, and savage.
55. Christian, Jewish, Mohammedan, and Pagan.
56. Equinoxes, meaning equal nights, are times in the year when the sun's rays fall vertical to the equator. They occur March 20 and September 22.
57. The Solstices, meaning the sun standing; are times in the year when the sun's rays fall vertical to the tropics. The summer solstice occurs June 21, the winter solstice, December 21. During the former the sun's rays are vertical to the Tropic of Cancer, when the days are longest north of the equator. During the winter solstice the sun's rays are vertical to the Tropic of Capricorn, when the days are longest south of the equator.
58. North America — The Rocky Mountains; South America — The Andes; Europe — The Alps; Asia — The Himalaya; Africa — The Atlas.
59. Australia, Greenland, Borneo, New Guinea, Madagascar, Sumatra, Niphon, Great Britain.
60. North America, 9,000,000 square miles; South America, 7,000,000; Europe, 3,800,000; Asia, 17,000,000; Africa, 11,500,000.
61. North America, Mississippi — 4,396 miles; South America, Amazon — 3,596 miles; Europe, Volga — 2,351; Asia, Yenisei — 3,688; Africa, Nile — 3,895 miles.
62. To the waters supposed to lie south of the Antarctic Circle.
63. Thirteen times as much.
64. Alaska, California, Florida, Spain, Arabia, Indo-China, Corea, Kamtchatka, Africa, and Malacca.
65. 83° 24' north. (Greely Expedition, 1884.)
66. The Llama of Peru.
67. In the Antarctic regions there are no land masses to receive and diffuse the rays of the sun as in the Arctic regions.
68. Gulf of Mexico; Hudson Bay; Baffin Bay; Gulf of St. Lawrence; California; Chesapeake Bay; Delaware Bay; James Bay; Bay of Campeachy; Bay of Honduras.
69. Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, Nicaragua.
70. The Western Highland, the Eastern Highland, the Low Central Plain, and the Atlantic Plain.
71. British America, Danish America (Greenland and Iceland), United States, Mexico, Central American Republics, The West Indies.

72. In the north: polar bear, reindeer, musk-ox, moose, walrus, grizzly bear; in the central part: bison, deer, peccary; in the south, the alligator.
73. Area, 3000000 square miles. Population, 50000000. Breadth from north to south, 1300 miles. Length from east to west, 2500 miles.
74. The White race, Indians, Chinese, and Negroes.
75. Deep cuts, or gorges, many hundred feet deep lined by perpendicular walls, formed by the flowing of rivers. The Colorado River has the most frightful cañons in the world.
76. For their numerous falls, furnishing excellent water-power.
77. Thirty-eight states, ten territories, and one federal district.
78. New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Chicago, St. Louis, Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, San Francisco, New Orleans.
79. Because of its abundant water-power, fuel, labor, and superior commercial facilities.
80. Exports: Cotton, breadstuffs, provisions, petroleum, and tobacco. Imports: Dry goods, sugar, coffee, tea, tin.
81. Consult map of North America.
82. New England is about one-third as large as California, and about one-fourth as large as Texas.
83. From Washington City to Jefferson City, Mo.
84. Yale, New Haven, Ct.; Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Brown University, Providence, R. I.; Dartmouth, Hanover, N. H.; Vassar, Pough-keepsie, N. Y.; William and Mary College Williams-burg, Va.

85. Minnesota, St. Paul; Wisconsin, Madison; Iowa, Des Moines; Illinois, Springfield; Missouri, Jefferson City; Kentucky, Frankfort; Tennessee, Nashville; Arkansas, Little Rock; Mississippi, Jack-son; Louisiana, Baton Rouge.

86. In the value of their manufactures and com-merce.

87. Its government is similar to that of the terri-tories. The Governor is appointed by the President and Senate. It has one delegate to Congress.

88. For the variety, excellence, and abundance of its fish and oysters.

89. Madrid, Naples, and Constantinople; all of which have a milder and more equable climate than Philadelphia. This is due to the warm winds of the Sahara, moistened by the evaporation of the Mediter-ranean Sea.

90. They protect the navigation of the entire coast of North Carolina.

91. Tar, pitch, and turpentine. The turpentine is obtained by blazing the tree, and dipping the gum from a box that is put at the root to receive it as it ex-udes from the tree. Tar is obtained by burning pine wood with a close smothering heat and collecting the resinous exudations.

92. Florida has the mildest climate of the Southern States. The Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, by which it is almost surrounded, temper the heat of sum-

mer. The soil is adapted to the cultivation of almost every fruit and vegetable. The live-oak, the most valuable wood used in ship building, will become a source of wealth. The State abounds in beautiful lakes, and clear, deep springs. Some of the lakes are deep enough to float a man-of-war, and yet so clear are they, that pebbles may be distinctly seen on the bottom.

93. By embankments, called levees. In many places, below the mouth of Red River, the surface of the Mississippi during high water is above the land back of the levees.

94. From the forest trees of the swamp lands of the South, from which may be seen the long gray moss, which, as a parasite, hangs in long and graceful festoons.

95. An immense collection of logs extending for nearly one hundred miles. Among these trees and logs, vines and creepers have taken root, and their tendrils have so interwoven among the branches that the whole has become matted together from bank to bank.

96. By the U. S. Congress for the Indians and their descendants to be occupied and governed in their own way.

97. The eastern tributaries are more rapid in descent. They are not navigable to so great a distance. The plains are not so extended. The rapidity of the streams permit the discharge of the waters much sooner than the long gentle streams of the West.

98. The Mississippi valley. The vast area of arable land, susceptible of an easy cultivation, will for ages produce food sufficient for the support of 300,000,000 people.
99. Corn, wheat, oats, hay, potatoes, tobacco, live stock, iron, copper, and lead.
100. By a canal on the Kentucky shore.
101. (1) Its rapid growth. (2) Its extensive railway connections. (3) The enterprise of its people. (4) Its grain and provision trade.
102. Because it is nearly surrounded by water
103. By a ship canal in Michigan.
104. The winds blowing across Lake Michigan are so warmed by the open waters that fruit-trees are seldom injured by extreme cold.
105. (a) It lies almost wholly in the northwest corner of Wyoming Territory. (b) Its area is 3575 square miles. (c) Congress in 1882 set it apart as a "perpetual reservation for the benefit and instruction of mankind." (d) Its deep canons, lofty falls, numerous geysers, and beautiful lakes make it the most wonderful portion of the continent. (e) Clark's Fork of the Yellowstone, the Lewis Fork of the Columbia, and the Madison and Gallatin branches of the Missouri.
106. Washington, Olympia; Idaho, Boise City; Montana, Helena; Wyoming, Cheyenne; Utah, Salt Lake City; Arizona, Prescott; New Mexico, Santa Fe; Dakota, Bismarck; Indian, Tahlequah; Alaska, Sitka.
107. Because it is the natural water route to the most fertile spot of the Dominion of Canada.
108. The absence of numerous bays, harbors, and navigable streams on the Pacific coast will prevent the location of as many seaports as are found on the Atlan- tic coast.

109. Dry Tortugas, Islands off the coast of Florida; Managua, capital city of Nicaragua; The Pan Handle is that portion of West Virginia lying between Ohio and Pennsylvania; The Eastern shore is that part of Virginia lying east of Chesapeake Bay; Sandy Hook is a Cape in New Jersey.

110. The Hudson, East and Harlem Rivers, and a creek running into the Hudson.

111. North America, Superior; South America, Maracaybo; Europe, Ladoga; Asia, Baikal; Africa, Victoria.

112. (a) On the 180th meridian from Greenwich. (b) If sailing westward, a day is added; if sailing eastward, a day is dropped.

113. In New Orleans, 90 degrees west from London.

114. At London, north; at Tunis, north; at Mecca, south; at Rio Janeiro, south; at Muscat, no perceptible shadow.

115. 1. Chinese Empire; 2. British Empire; 3. Russian Empire; 4. United States; 5. German Empire.

116. Corn, Wheat and Oats, Illinois; Potatoes, New York; Sweet Potatoes, North Carolina; Tobacco, Kentucky; Cotton, Mississippi; Wool, Ohio; Manufacturing products, New York; mining products, Pennsylvania.

117. The United States have more miles of railroad than all the countries of Europe combined.
118. Belgium, 482 inhabitants to the square mile.

119. It runs from Behring Strait southwest, along the ocean side of Japan, and between the Philippine Islands and Asia; thence it curves, taking a south-easterly course to Chatham Island, passing on the Pacific side of Borneo, New Guinea, New Ireland, and the New Hebrides, and east of New Zealand.

120. 8 miles W. by S. of Cincinnati.

121. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and California.

122. Cumberland River, Ohio River, Mississippi River, and Arkansas River.

123. In its early charter the General Assembly was required to meet alternately at each place.

124. Springfield, manufacture of arms; Annapolis, seat of the U. S. Naval Academy; Pittsburg, iron and glass works; Paterson, locomotive works and extensive silk manufactures; Indianapolis, great railroad center and largest city in the United States not on navigable waters.

125. Salado, river in Argentine Confederation; Popocatepetl, a volcano in southern Mexico; Welland, a canal in Canada connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario; Elburz, mountains in Persia; Batavia, the capital city of Java; Ormus, strait separating Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea; Brest, a city in western France; Finland, a gulf in Western Russia; Manilla, the capital city of Luzon (Philippine Islands); Teneriffe, a famous peak of the Canary Islands.
126. About seven-eighths.
127. By a few hundred Danes and Esquimaux. When first seen by Icelanders it looked green and fertile compared with their island.
128. For its numerous geysers and volcanoes. It is peopled by descendants of Norwegians, a thrifty and industrious race who speak the old Norse language.
129. Its fisheries and furs.
130. Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Balize, Bermudas, Jamaica, and a number of smaller islands of the West Indies.
131. British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Northwest and Northeast territories.
132. By a Governor-General under appointment of the British crown. The laws are enacted by a Parliament composed of a senate and house of commons. The senators are appointed by the Governor-General; members of the House of Commons are elected by the people.
133. The Canadian territories furnish two-thirds of the world's supply.
134. Vessels pass through Welland Canal from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and through canals around the rapids in St. Lawrence River.
135. For its high tide, which reaches 70 feet. This is caused by the narrow neck of water through which the tides rush with such rapidity as often to overtake swine feeding on the beach.
136. In the cod, seal, herring, and salmon fisheries.
137. Vermont, Burlington; North Carolina, Wilmington; Arkansas, Little Rock; Oregon, Portland; Nevada, Virginia City.
138. (a) New York has thirty-five electoral votes, seven more than Pennsylvania.. (b) The number is proportional to the population.
139. (a) 325 members. (b) One member for every 151,912 inhabitants.
140. Philadelphia, York, Lancaster, Baltimore, Princeton, N. J., Annapolis, Trenton, N. J., New York and Washington.
141. The Gulf Stream and prevailing winds aid the vessels going eastward.
142. Tapajos, a branch of the Amazon River; Tchad, a lake in Soudan, Africa; Anticosti, an island in Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Levant is that portion of Asia washed by the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea; Three Rivers, a city in Quebec, Canada; Pembina, a city in northeast Dakota; Atacama, a desert in southwest Bolivia; Heart's Content, a town in Newfoundland; Otranto, a strait east of Italy; Severn, a river in western England; Taranto, a gulf in southern Italy.
143. Iowa and Illinois, also Nevada and Colorado.
144. Three small islands south of Newfoundland, Miquelon, Langley, and St. Pierre, comprising eighty-one square miles.
145. Brazil is a quarter of a million square miles the larger.

146. Illinois contains nearly 6,000 more square miles than England, but has only one-sixth as many inhabitants.

147. Mexico has the greatest possible variety of climate; cold on the high mountains, temperate on the plateaus, and hot and moist on the coast.

148. It is a federal republic of 27 states, one territory, and one federal district. Its people consist of Indians, mixed races, and Spanish creoles; i.e., descendants of the early Spanish settlers. Its chief exports are silver, dye-woods, cochineal and vanilla.

149. Of five republics: Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Balize, a British colony.

150. It contains the principal routes connecting the commerce of the two great oceans.

151. By the ocean currents and trade winds.

152. Sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, and tropical fruits. Creoles (descendants of European settlers), negroes and coolies from China; they number about 4500000. The West Indies include about one thousand islands.

153. Havana is the greatest sugar market in the world, and is the second city of the New World in foreign commerce.

154. The Amazon is so deep, and so sluggish is the current that a sailing vessel may ascend by the aid of an almost constant easterly wind 2600 miles. The river and its branches furnish 50000 miles of navigable waters.

155. Chesapeake Bay, Atlantic Ocean, Florida Strait, Gulf of Mexico, Bay of Campeachy, Yucatan Channel, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Venezuela.
156. On account of the absence of few good harbors.
157. Republic. Roman Catholic religion. Population 28000000, of whom more than one-half belong to mixed races, derived from Spanish and Portuguese settlers, Indians, and Negroes.
158. A constitutional monarchy. Brazil contains one-fifth as many people as the U. S.
159. Lima. Washington and Lima have the same time.
160. The Andes is the greatest mountain chain; Aconcagua is the highest mountain; Rio Janeiro is the largest city; Panama is the largest gulf.
161. Consult map of South America.
162. Caracas has 1 hr. and 33 min. earlier time.
163. Llanos in the Orinoco basin; Selvas in the Amazon; Pampas in the La Plata and Paraguay.
164. The condor, the largest known bird of prey, is found among the Andes in Peru and Bolivia.
165. The Selvas are covered with an almost impenetrable growth of trees, climbing plants, and dense underbrush. Myriads of beasts, birds, and insects, and uncivilized tribes are the sole inhabitants. The Llanos of the Orinoco and the Pampas of the La Plata and Paraguay are destitute of trees. In the dry season they become parched and all vegetation is destroyed. When the rainy season sets in the whole country is covered with luxuriant grass, which attracts multitudes of wild cattle and horses.
166. Coffee, Sugar, Tobacco, Rice, Maize, Cinchona, Caoutchouc (india-rubber), Precious Stones, Tropical Fruits, and Spices.
167. Rosewood, mahogany, Brazil-wood, tortoise-shell wood, the most beautiful cabinet-wood in the world, and the India rubber tree.
168. Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, Aspinwall, Valparaiso, Montevideo.
169. The Chilians. This is due to extensive commerce and a large European population.
170. Portuguese, because Brazil was settled by the Portuguese.
171. To Great Britain. Excellent pasturage for cattle and sheep.
172. They are the only inhabitable group of islands in the Pacific Ocean that were uninhabited at the time of their discovery.
173. Consult map of South America.
174. The eastern slopes of the Andes from Bolivia to the U. S. of Colombia and to no other part of the world. The forests are being rapidly all destroyed.
175. Paraguay.
176. The United States, Russia, China, Turkey, and Brazil.
177. Area, 3824240 sq. miles; population, 313-834,000.
178. The coast-line of Europe is about 20000 miles greater in proportion than that of any other of the grand divisions. Greater commercial facilities and climatic advantages are offered by a deeply indented coast than by a more regular outline.

179. Caspian, Azof, Black, Marmora, Archipelago, Adriatic, Mediterranean, Irish, North, Baltic, White.
180. 4 Empires, 14 Kingdoms, 5 Republics, 5 Grand Duchies, 8 Duchies, 4 Free Cities, 9 Principalities, 1 Landgraviate, and 1 Electorate.
181. Consult map of Europe.
182. France, Switzerland, Andorra, San Marino, and the Ionian Isles.
183. San Marino, in Italy.
184. Norway and Sweden, and Austria and Hungary.
185. America possesses greater political privileges, cheaper land, and a greater demand for labor.
186. A high state of improvement both in country and towns, absence of fences, vast extent of improved lands, limited forests, magnificent mansions, spacious barns, great number of villages, excellent roads and, withal, a most vigilant system of municipal and national government.
187. Lions, Biscay, Finland, Bothnia, and Onega.
188. St. Petersburg is in the same latitude as Cape Farewell.
189. London, Paris, Constantinople, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, Naples.
190. Lipari Islands, north of Sicily; L. Como, northern Italy; Palermo, N. W. Sicily; Elba, N. E. of Corsica; Hamburg, N. W. Prussia on Elbe River.
191. Gulf of Genoa, Mediterranean Sea, Tyrrhen-ian Sea, Strait of Messina, Ionian Sea, Strait of Otranto, Adriatic Sea, Gulf of Trieste.
192. Russia and Germany.
193. In Europe: The islands of Malta, Cyprus, Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney and Heligoland, and the Fort of Gibraltar; in America: Dominion of Canada and adjacent islands, Balize, British Guiana, and the islands of Bahama, Bermuda, Jamaica, Turk, Leeward, Windward, Trinidad, and Falkland; in Asia: India, Hong Kong, Singapore, Aden, Malacca, and Ceylon Island; in Africa: Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Caffraria, Transvaal, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and the Islands of St. Helena, Ascension and Mauritius; in Oceanica: Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania and Feejee Islands.
194. The winter climate of England is milder than that of S. Carolina. This is due to the warm west winds blowing from the Gulf Stream.
195. English railroads have double tracks. They are not allowed to cross each other on the same level, but are compelled to cross by going under or over.
196. On account of the great number of iron and coal mines.
197. Liverpool, greatest cotton market of the world; Manchester, cotton manufacture; Leeds, woolens; Nottingham, laces and stockings; Newcastle-upon-Tyne, coal trade; Sheffield, cutlery; Portsmouth; naval station; Oxford and Cambridge, Universities.
198. Twilight sufficient to enable one to read lasts all night.
199. Four: two English and one French between Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and Valentia Bay, Ireland; and one between Rio Janeiro and Portugal.
200. Consult map of Europe.
201. In the western part of Ireland it rains three-fourths of the year, and the climate is damp and mild; so much so, even in winter, that its green fields have won for it the name of the ''Emerald Isle.''
202. Belfast, manufacture of linen goods; Paris, excellence in the manufacture of almost every fancy article in the market; Lyons, silk manufacture; Bordeaux, for its wines; Glasgow, ship building and marine engines.
203. The Gulf of Finland is closed with ice half the year, while ice never forms in the harbor of Hammerfest. The mildness of the latter is due to the influence of the Gulf Stream.
204. Austria.
205. The Jews.
206. Inland trade, Vienna; foreign trade, Trieste.
207. Almaden, Spain.
208. Constantinople has been so regarded by the great powers of Europe.
209. It commands the passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.
210. A famous Moorish palace in Granada, Spain, now in ruins.
211. Venice is situated upon 72 islands, between which the waters, serving as streets, are navigated by gondolas.
212. It is 50,000 square miles smaller, but contains 34 times as many people.
213. Brighton, in southern England, and Baden-Baden, at Aix-la-Chapelle, Rhenish-Prussia.
214. It is found along the coast of the Baltic Sea, where it is cast up by the waves.
215. Belgium
216. From Switzerland, the rivers Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po flow into the Black, North, Mediterranean, and Adriatic Seas.
217. The Dutch are a sober, provident, and industrious people; the Swiss are phlegmatic, industrious and patriotic.
218. The southeast part of Russia, termed the “Black Lands of Russia,” bordering on the Caspian and Black Seas. The soil is inexhaustible, yielding annually, without manure, two crops: a green crop and a cereal.
219. London, where the breadstuffs of the world meet in competition.
220. Russia, Great Britain and the United States.
221. The Steppes of Russia, immense prairies covered with coarse grass, and subject to intense summer droughts, extend along the southern border of Russia, from the foot of the Carpathian Mountains in Europe, to China.
222. At Nijni (nizh'ni) Novgorod, Russia, where meet and barter merchants from China, Mongolia, India, Afghanistan, Persia, Turkey, and every part of Europe.
223. The town 2° north is farther from London, than that 2° west of it, because the degrees of longitude grow smaller as we approach the Poles.
224. Archangel is the northern port, Odessa the southern; the former is on the White Sea, the latter is on the Black Sea.
225. Greek Christians. The Emperor is the head of the church.
226. The Russians belong chiefly to the Slavonic race.
227. Amphiscians: the inhabitants between the tropics, whose shadows, in one part of the year, are cast to the north, and in the other to the south. Antiscians: the inhabitants of the earth living on different sides of the Equator, whose shadows at noon are cast in contrary directions. Those living north of the Equator are antiscians to those on the south, and vice versa. Ascians: persons who at certain times of the year have no shadow at noon. Such only are the inhabitants of the torrid zone, who have, twice a year, a vertical sun. Periecians: the inhabitants of the opposite sides of the globe, in the same parallel of latitude. Pericians: the inhabitants within a polar circle, whose shadow during some portion of the summer must, in the course of the day, move entirely round, and fall toward every point of the compass.

(See Ques. 39.) Antipodes: those persons who live on opposite sides of the globe, and whose feet are, of course, directly opposite to the feet of those who live on this side.
228. Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, Great Belt, Straits of Cattegat and Skager Rack, North Sea, Dover Strait, English Channel, Atlantic Ocean, Strait of Gibraltar, Mediterranean Sea, Archipelago Sea, Strait of Dardanelles, Sea of Marmora, Bosphorus Strait, and Black Sea.
229. Dover Strait, 30 miles; Gibraltar, 12; Behring, 40.
230. From the Romans, Greeks, Gauls, Goths, Germans, and Arabs.
231. In Havana, Spanish ; Constantinople, Arabic; Quebec, English; Rio Janeiro, Portuguese; Berne, German.
232. The Valdai Hills are between St. Petersburg and Moscow. The Matterhorn is an Alpine peak between Italy and Switzerland.
233. A Mercator Map, or projection, conceives the surface of the earth to be that of a cylinder, in which the parallels and meridians cross each other at right angles. It was invented by Mercator, of Antwerp, to aid mariners in determining their true course more readily than by the ordinary maps.

234. Mercator's Map distorts the proportions by representing the surface of a sphere on that of a plane, in which, places far to the north or south appear much more distant east and west than they really are; but this distortion is made in such a way as to preserve the true course of places from each other.
235. (a) The Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons; these correspond to the Senate and House of Representatives respectively. The House of Lords is composed of 537 members, termed peers, who hold their seats by one of five titles; viz., by hereditary right, by creation of the sovereign, by virtue of office, as the English bishops, by election for life, as the Irish peers, and by election for the duration of Parliament, as the Scottish peers. The House of Commons is composed of 652 members, who are elected by the electors of counties, cities, boroughs, and universities of the united kingdom. The United States Senate is composed of 76 members, two from each State, chosen for a term of six years by the joint ballot of their respective State legislatures. The House of Representatives consists of 325 members, apportioned among the several States according to population, elected by popular ballot by the electors of their several districts.
(b) The Sovereign of Great Britain holds the executive power for life by virtue of inheritance; the President of the United States holds his office for four years by election of electors selected by popular vote. The veto of the British sovereign is final; that of the President may be set aside by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress.
236. The United States.
237. Himalaya, Altai, Stanovoy, Kuenlun, Hindoo-koosh.
238. Yang-tse-Kiang, Lena, Yenisei, Amoor, Obi.
239. Asiatic Russia, Chinese Empire, Japan, Anam, Siam, Burmah, British India, Bokhara, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Persia, Arabia, Turkey.
240. Sea of Kara, Behring Sea, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, Blue, China, Gulf of Siam, Bay of Bengal, Arabian, Persian, Gulf of Aden, Red, Mediterranean, Archipelago, Marmora, Black, Caspian.
241. Find on map of Asia.
242. Brahmanism and Buddhism. Among the features of the former is the transmigration of the soul into the inferior animals. Brahmanism has its seat in Hindostan. Buddhism enjoins charity toward all men and the conquest of self.
243. Stan is the Persian word for country. Chow in Chinese means town of the second rank. Ho and Kiang mean river.
244. The ground is perpetually frozen to a great depth, while the summer thaw affects only the surface.
245. Nordenskjold (nor'den shold) the Swedish explorer in 1878-9, made the passage from the Atlantic to Behring Strait in 294 days.
246. Ivory from the tusks of mammoths (long since extinct), imbedded in masses of ice, has been found in such quantities on the New Siberia Islands and near the mouths of Siberian rivers, as to furnish profitable employment for many men.
247. Dried figs, raisins, cotton, opium, wool, goat's hair, sponges, and leeches.

248. They are nomads, half-savage, half-civilized, and live by tending their flocks, robbing their neigh-bors, and plundering the helpless.

249. Estimated area 4700000 square miles; popu-lation 480000000.

250. A canal 700 miles long, constructed a thousand years ago, and its celebrated wall built two thousand years ago, 1200 miles long, from 15 to 30 feet high, and so thick that six men on horse-back can ride abreast upon it.

251. It is not. It can be cultivated in the south Atlantic States; but the expense of its preparation for market, where labor is scarce, would not justify its culture. The labor employed in the production of tea in China costs not more than two cents a day. No article of commerce requires more labor than tea; and hence, the restriction of its culture to such coun-tries as furnish the cheapest labor.

252. Its leaves afford a medicine, its seeds a favorite food, its tender shoots are eaten like asparagus, or made into pickles and confections, a great variety of utensils are made of its stem, paper from its pulp, and entire dwellings have been made of its various parts.

253. Their non-progressiveness is due to the exclu-sion of foreigners, and their ingenuity to their immense numbers and constant struggle for food.

254. Three cities in China on the Yang-tse-Kiang are so closely connected that they form one city with a population of nearly 8,000,000.

255. Niphon, Yesso, Kiushiu, and Shihoku together with 3850 smaller islands form the empire of Japan.
256. Dates, tamarinds, frankincense, gum-arabic, sponges, coral, ambergris, tortoise-shell, and pearls.
257. Gutta-percha is the coagulated sap of a tree (the tapan), peculiar to the East Indies. The milky juice, which flows from incisions made in the tree is thickened by boiling.
258. Sago is a granulated meal obtained from the tissues of trunks of the sago palm, by a process of washing and sifting, by which the starchy granules are separated.
259. Nagasaki, Hakodadi, Simoda, Tokio, Osaka, Hioga, Niigata, and Kanagawa.
260. White sandalwood, ebony, rosewood, iron-wood, red dye-woods.
261. Sugar, cotton, flax, rice, tobacco, opium, indigo, hemp, gums, spices, and drugs.
262. Opium is made from the poppy. Its production is confined largely to India. The entire proceeds of the tea crop are said to be insufficient to pay for the opium annually brought into China, and consumed there.
263. These fruits, together with apricots, nectarines, cantelopes, plums, cherries, damascenes, and some others, seem to have originated among the arid plains of Persia and other dry countries, and in such attain their highest excellence.
264. As a place of exile for political offenders.
265. At Bakou in Georgia, on the southwest shores of the Caspian Sea.
266. Vast marshy plains along the coast of the Arctic Ocean.
267. Tulare, lake in California; Zealand, an island east of Denmark; Agulhas, cape in southern Africa; Chincha, an island west of Peru; Land's End, a cape in southwestern England.
268. Its compactness, absence of navigable rivers, the savage nature of its inhabitants, its ferocious beasts, and intensely hot climate.
269. Consult map of Africa.
270. Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, Barca, Fezzan, Egypt, Nubia, Soudan, Abyssinia, Zanguebar, Mozambique, Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, Orange Free State, Upper Guinea, Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Lower Guinea, Sahara.
271. Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli. Products, leather, wool, grain, olives, olive oil, and tropical fruits.
272. Caucasian. Language, Arabic, Ruling class, Turks. Prevailing religion, Mohammedan.
273. The heat by day rises to 120° Fahrenheit, while the nights following are often so cold that water freezes.
274. An American settlement of emancipated slaves established in 1820 by the American Colonization Society. It is an independent republic on the western coast of Africa.
275. The Suez canal, ninety-two miles long, connects Port Said on the Mediterranean, with Suez on the Red Sea. It has a depth of twenty-six feet, and was opened in 1869. It was constructed by M. Lesseps, a French engineer.

276. It comprises nearly all the islands of the Pacific ocean. Area about 4,500,000 square miles. Population 30,000,000.
277. In area Australia is about the same as the United States. The climate is warmer, with less rain. The seasons are opposite. Christmas occurs there in mid-summer. The leaves of trees are leaden gray or brown instead of green. The sun is so hot and the air so dry that the narrow leaves arrange themselves vertically instead of horizontally, and are alike on both sides. Forests are seldom found. The trees are grouped in clusters; they cast shadows but give no shade. There are no aboriginal quadrupeds larger than the Dingo dog and Kangaroo. Many of the animals are pouched. The apteryx, a bird, has no wings, and the lyre-bird has tail feathers which resemble a harp.

278. They are a sort of negro without wooly heads, but with thick lips and flat noses. In color they vary from chocolate-brown to sooty black.

279. A, 366 days; B, 364; and C, 365. (See question 112).
280. Lake Michigan, Strait of Mackinaw, Lake Huron, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, Lake Erie, Welland Canal, Lake Ontario, St. Lawrence River, Canal around St. Lawrence Rapids, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Atlantic Ocean, Strait of Gibraltar, Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal, Red Sea, Strait of Babel-Mandeb, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Strait of Malacca, China Sea, Formosa Channel, and Blue Sea.
281. (a) Standard time is the uniformity of time for all places situated seven and one-half degrees east and west of a given standard meridian. (b) It was adopted by nearly all the American railroads November 18, 1883. (c) Five divisions are provided for the United States, with the following meridians passing through their centers: Intercolonial, 60th meridian; Eastern, 75th meridian; Central, 90th meridian; Mountain, 105th meridian; Pacific, 120th meridian.
282. St. Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans.

QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. What circumstances prove that the interior of the earth is highly heated?
2. At what rate does the heat increase as we descend?
3. Name four effects upon the earth's surface produced by the heated interior.
4. (a) What are Earthquakes? (b) How manifested? (c) When most frequent? (d) State five causes. (e) Where most frequent?
5. What places on the earth's surface can you mention which show a gradual change of level?
6. Locate the regions of the world where volcanoes are most numerous, and give the cause for such location.
7. Name the principal elements composing the earth's crust.
8. (a) Name the classes of rocks according to origin. (b) According to condition. (c) According to the presence or absence of fossils.
9. Define Azoic Time, Paleozoic Time, Mesozoic Time, Cenozoic Time.
10. What do the following Ages include: Azoic, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Reptilian, Mammalian, Age of Man?
11. What are continental and oceanic islands? Give two examples of each.
12. State the difference between volcanic and coral islands in respect to origin, distribution, height, and habitation.
13. Name and define the different kinds of coral islands.
14. Explain the formation of plains and give an example of each method.
15. Describe the continents in respect to the following features: height, depression, culminating points, prolongation, trend of mountains.
16. Name and locate the predominant and secondary mountain systems of North America.
17. What connection have plains with civilization and human progress? Cite instances and reasons to prove your answer.
18. Name the degrees of temperature which produce the three conditions of water, as liquid, solid, and gaseous.
19. (a) What temperature is water at its maximum density? (b) What advantage accrues from this physical exception?
20. How are extremes of heat and cold mitigated by large bodies of water?
21. State two causes of hot springs.
22. (a) What is an Artesian Well? (b) Show how such wells prove the heated interior of the earth.
23. Name the classes into which springs are divided.
24. Define the different kinds of springs.
25. Name three extensive geyser-regions of the world.
26. What is the usual explanation of the origin of petroleum, or rock or coal oil?
27. Name five inland bodies of salt water, and give your reason for such waters being salt.
28. Name the five most extensive deltas of the world.
29. What part of the earth's water is contained by each of the five oceans?
30. Classify, define, and give examples of the indentations of the ocean.
31. Compare the waters of the Baltic Sea with those of the Mediterranean with respect to saltness and state your reason.
32. What are the three movements of the oceanic waters?
33. In what waters do waves have a forward motion? Explain.
34. Define Tides. By what caused? How distinguished?
35. What proof can you give for the influence of the moon and sun in causing tides?
36. Explain why the lunar tide is greater than the solar tide.
37. State the difference between spring and neap tides. When do they respectively occur?
38. Where is the “cradle of the tides?”
39. State the origin of constant currents and show how these causes operate.
40. Describe the Gulf Stream.
41. What current in the Pacific resembles the Gulf Stream? What is its influence? Why inferior to the Gulf Stream?
42. What is the composition of the atmosphere?
43. State the use of the atmosphere in nature.
44. What is the pressure of the atmosphere upon the earth? Is this uniform in all parts of the world?
45. (a) Define climate. (b) How influenced?
46. In what two ways is the atmosphere warmed?
47. (a) What are isothermal lines? (b) Under what circumstances do they vary greatly from the par-allels?
48. State the rate of decrease of temperature ob-served as we ascend great elevations?
49. Give two causes for a decrease of temperature with elevation above the sea.
50. Explain the origin of winds.
51. How is the direction of the wind affected by the rotation of the earth?
52. Name and define the three classes of winds.
53. Explain the cause of land and sea breezes.
54. Where are the “Horse latitudes?” Why so called?
55. (a) What is the cause of desert winds? (b) Name and locate five from the Desert of Sahara.
56. Define Monsoons and name the Monsoon regions.
57. What are cyclones? Mention some peculiarity about the direction and rotation of cyclones.
58. Name five circumstances which influence evaporation.
59. State the various forms of precipitation of moisture, and give the law of precipitation with respect to time and distribution.
60. What are the offices of clouds in the economy of nature?
61. Classify and define the various forms of clouds.
62. Where and what is the greatest annual rainfall?
63. Give an explanation of the cause of rain.
64. Explain the rotary theory of the formation of hail.
65. Upon which side of the Mississippi does drift tend to collect? Explain the cause of this tendency.
66. Why is no delta formed at the mouth of the Amazon?
67. About what is the actual time of darkness at the North Pole? Explain your answer.
68. In what regions are the following believed to have originated: Wheat, corn, barley, oats, rye, buckwheat, potato?
69. What conditions are requisite for a luxuriant growth of forests?
70. Which cereal has the farthest northern range?
71. Name the principal food plants of the tropics.
72. From what is chocolate prepared?
73. Name the countries which excel in the production of the following metals: iron, copper, tin, zinc, lead, gold, silver.
74. What forms the basis for the distribution of animal life ? Why ?
75. What difference in the variety, beauty, and size of terrestrial and marine fauna may be observed in passing from the equator toward the poles ?
76. How does the coal-field area of the United States compare with that of Europe ?
77. Explain the cause of the limited amount of rain in California, Peru, and Bolivia during the summer and fall.
78. What is the origin of the solar and planetary systems according to the Nebular hypothesis? Who was its author? To what credence is it entitled?
79. What is the zodiac? Into what parts divided?
80. Name the planets in their order from the sun.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. The increased heat of the crust as we go below the surface and the escape of lava and other heated substances from volcanoes.
2. About 1° Fahrenheit for every 55 feet of descent.
3. 1st, Volcanoes; 2nd, Earthquakes; 3rd, Non-Volcanic igneous eruptions; 4th, Gradual elevations or subsidences.
4. (a) Earthquakes are shakings of the earth's crust. (b) 1st, A gentle wave; 2nd, An upward motion; 3rd, A rotary motion. (c) 1st, In winter; 2nd, At night; 3rd, During new and full moon. (d) 1st, Strain produced by contraction of the earth's crust; 2nd, Forces that eject the matter from volcanoes; 3rd, Generation of gases in the interior; 4th, Falling in of masses of rock from the roofs of subterranean caverns; 5th, By the tidal wave of the pasty interior. (e) They are most frequent in volcanic regions.

5. The eastern coast of America from Labrador to New Jersey is rising. The bed of the Pacific in the central part is sinking. Portions of the Andes are rising.
6. Along the shores of the Pacific; on the islands of the Pacific Ocean; between the northern and southern hemispheres. This is due to the weakness of the crust in such places, caused by sinking oceans.
7. Oxygen, which constitutes nearly one-half, silicon, aluminium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, iron, and carbon.
8. (a) Igneous rocks, those which were ejected in a melted condition, and afterward cooled. Aqueous rocks, those deposited as sediment by water. Metamorphic rocks, those originally deposited in layers, but afterwards so changed by heat as to lose all traces of stratification. (b) Stratified rocks, those arranged in layers by the action of water. Aqueous rocks belong to this class. Unstratified rocks, those destitute of any arrangement. Igneous and Metamorphic rocks belong to this class. (c) Fossiliferous and Non-fossiliferous.

9. Azoic Time includes the period before vegetable or animal life appeared on the globe. Paleozoic Time, meaning ancient life, included the time when animal and vegetable life bore but little resemblance to that which we now see. Mesozoic life, meaning middle life, was the period of huge animals, when both animal and vegetable life approached nearer to the species now existing than to the relics of preceding ages. Cenozoic Time, or recent life, included the time when the animals and plants bore close resemblance to those now living.

10. The Azoic Age includes all time prior to the advent of life upon the globe. The Silurian Age is characterized by types of life of the simplest construction, the animals were all marine and belong to the three classes, mollusks, radiates, and articulates. Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes. The fishes which characterize this age belong to two classes, sharks and ganoids, the latter were of the type of the sturgeon and garpike. Carboniferous Age was the coal-producing age. Dense forests of ferns and other trees covered the earth from pole to pole. The climate was warm, moist, and equable. Then followed subsidences and upheavals; the forests were swept away, submerged and covered with mud and silt. Thus was formed the immense coal beds of the continents. The Reptilian Age was the age of enormous reptiles of the lizard kind, such as the ichthyosaurus (fish-lizard), a cold-blooded, air-breathing, and carnivorous monster, having the teeth of a crocodile and the head of a lizard, and the plesiosaurus (lizard-like), a monstrous, though less formidable animal than the ichthyosaurus. The Mammalian Age was the period of enormous herbivorous animals, whose skeletons are found in many parts of the world. Among these were the mammoth, whose remains are found imbedded in the frozen gravel of Siberia; the mastodon, with tusks eleven feet in length; the megatherium, an animal resembling the sloth; the mylodon and the deinotherium. The age of Man is the present age.

11. Continental islands are such as lie near the shores of continents, and have the same general construction. Example: West Indies, Philippines. Oceanic islands are those in the ocean, having no connection with the continents. Example: Sandwich, New Zealand.
12. Volcanic islands are formed mainly by the summits of submarine volcanoes, either extinct or active. The coral island is a limestone formation, derived from countless skeletons of minute polyps that once lived below the surface of the waters. Volcanic islands are scattered over the globe, while coral islands are found in warm, shallow, tropical waters, remote from active volcanoes. Coral islands rarely rise above 12 feet, on which account few of them furnish comfortable habitation for man.
13. 1st. Atolls, or Lagoon islands, consist of a ring of coral inclosing a lagoon — a portion of the ocean. 2nd. Encircling reefs are the same as Atolls except that one or more islands lie within the lagoon. 3rd. Fringing reefs are narrow ribbons of coral rock lying near the shore of an ordinary island. 4th. Barrier reefs are usually broad and lie some distance from the shore.

14. Plains owe their existence to three causes ; viz., 1st. The absence of wrinkles in the folds of the crust, as the plains of Kansas, Nebraska, etc. 2nd. Such as were formed by marine deposits along the shores of receding oceans, as the plains along the Atlantic coast. 3rd. Alluvial plains deposited by the fresh water of rivers and lakes, as the alluvial bottoms along the lower Mississippi.

15. 1st. The greatest elevations of the continents are nearly all found in tropical regions. 2nd. The continents have in general high borders and low interiors. 3rd. The highest points of land lie out of the center of the continents. 4th. The greatest prolongation corresponds to the predominant mountain system. 5th. The prevailing trends of mountain masses agree with the direction of the coast line.

16. The predominant mountain system of North America extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. It consists of two nearly parallel mountain systems ; viz., the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade ranges. The secondary system extends from Georgia to the Arctic Ocean, and comprises the Appalachian system, the Plateau of Labrador, the Height of Land and the Arctic Plateau.
17. River-plains have ever been the chosen seats of settled industry, progress, and civilization. The populous centers of civilization of antiquity, as Babylon, Nineveh, Thebes, Rome, as well as modern sites of industry, are found in the river-plains of both continents. These regions possess special adaptations and facilities for agriculture, commerce, and the arts.
18. Fresh water freezes at 32° Fahr. Ocean water freezes at 26½° Fahr. At 212° Fahr. water boils.
19. (a) Water reaches its greatest weight, or density, at 39.2° Fahr. (b) If it contracted below this temperature, say lower than 32°, the ice first formed would sink to the bottom, and so continue, until our rivers and lakes would become a frozen mass which the greatest heat of summer would not thaw.
20. Large bodies of water take in more heat while warming, and give out more heat while cooling than any other substance. Again, the constant movement of large bodies of water brings to the surface waters of a different temperature, which modify the adjacent lands.
21. Hot springs near active volcanoes may owe their heat to their beds being in the vicinity of recently ejected lava. If remote from volcanic disturbance their high temperature is to be attributed to the great depth of their reservoirs.
22. (a) An Artesian well is one bored into the earth until a subterranean basin is reached. The water rushes up the bore in consequence of the hydrostatic pressure. The temperature of waters issuing from Artesian wells is always proportional to the depth, showing a nearly constant increase of 1° for every 55 feet of descent.
23. Springs are divided into the following classes: constant, variable, periodical, thermal, mineral and petroleum.
24. Constant springs flow continually from sources in subterranean lakes so vast that the constant flow cannot drain them during the dryest seasons. Variable springs burst forth after heavy rains and diminish as the dry season approaches. Periodical springs swell and subside at stated periods. Their cause is usually attributed to the siphon-shape of the outlet tube. Thermal springs send forth water from 60° Fahr. to the boiling point. Beyond this heat the spring is termed a geyser. Mineral springs are such as send forth water so strongly impregnated with mineral matter as to sensibly affect the animal system. The five principal classes designated according to their ingredients are, Chaly-beate (iron), Saline (salt), Silicious (flint), Calcareous (lime), and Sulphurous springs. Petroleum springs, from which we obtain our coal oil are scattered all over the globe.
25. In Iceland over 100 geysers occur in a limited area. In New Zealand, near the volcano of Tongariro, over 1000 mud springs, hot springs and geysers burst from the ground. In Yellowstone Park, Wyoming Ty., are some of the most magnificent geysers in the world.

26. The oil is derived from the slow decomposition, in the presence of heat, of various animal and vegetable matters, which are found in the strata of nearly all the geological formations.

27. Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, Aral Sea, Lake Urum-iyah, in Persia, and Great Salt Lake, in Utah. These lakes and seas have inlets but no outlets. All rivers have more or less salt dissolved from the washings of the crust. Since all loss of waters from lakes having no outlets is by evaporation, the quantity of salt will continually accumulate in such bodies of water.

28. The Mississippi, the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Zambesi.
29. The Pacific contains about ½, the Atlantic, about ¼, the Indian, about ⅕, the Antarctic, about ¹⁄₁₇, the Arctic about ¹⁄₃₅ of the waters of the earth.
30. 1st. Inland Seas, or those surrounded by a nearly continuous land border; as the Baltic and Mediter-ranean Seas.
2nd. Border Seas, or those isolated from the ocean by peninsulas and island chains; as the Caribbean and North Seas.
3rd. Gulfs or Bays, or broad expansions of the ocean extending into the land; as the Bay of Biscay, the Bay of Bengal.

31. The Mediterranean contains more salt propor-tionally than the Baltic, because, being connected with the ocean by a narrow channel, it loses more of its waters by evaporation than by outflow, while the Baltic, receiving the waters of powerful rivers is fresher than the ocean.
32. The three movements of the oceanic waters are waves, tides, and currents.
33. In shallow water waves have a forward motion. In such waters the motion at the bottom is checked; and the top curls over and breaks, producing what are called breakers.

34. Tides are the alternate rise and fall of the ocean twice in a lunar day (24 hrs. and 51 min.), caused by the attraction of the sun and moon. The rising of the water is called flood tide; when it has attained its greatest height high tide occurs. Remaining stationary for a few minutes, the water falls, called ebb tide, reaching the lowest point in about six hours, low tide occurs.

35. In the deep ocean the passage of the moon is always followed by high water. The shape of the ocean basin often prevents this occurring immediately after the passage of the moon. Again, the highest tides result when the sun and moon act simultaneously on the same hemisphere of the earth.

36. The sun's distance from the earth being 400 times that of the moon, its attraction at any time is almost the same on every part of the earth, there being a difference of only 1/600000 its whole attraction on opposite sides. If the sun's attraction were the same upon every part of the earth there would be no tendency to disturb the waters upon any one side, i.e., no tides due to its influence. The difference between the moon's attraction on opposite sides of the earth is 1/15 its entire attraction, equal to (1/15 of 1/175) 2625 of the sun's attraction. The fraction 1/175 is the force of the moon's entire attraction compared to that of the sun. The moon's influence in creating a tide is 2625 ÷ 6000, or more than twice the sun's; and the tides are due to difference of attraction on different sides of the earth.

37. Spring tides are caused by the combined attractions of the sun and moon on the same portions of the earth; Neap tides, by their opposite attractions. Spring tides occur twice during every revolution of the moon, once at full, and once at new moon. Neap tides occur twice during each revolution of the moon, when the sun and moon are 90° apart, or as we say, when the moon is in quadrature.

38. In the great southern water areas, where the Pacific, the Indian and the Antarctic are merged in one.

39. The two principal causes of oceanic currents are the sun's heat and the earth's rotation. The evaporation constantly going on in the equatorial regions tends to lower the level of the waters in those latitudes, which, added to the influence of the sun in lessening the specific gravity of the waters about the equator, produce a constant tendency of the colder and warmer waters to commingle. The polar waters flow toward the equator to equalize the pressure, thus displacing the warmer waters which flow toward the poles. If the earth were at rest the currents would flow north and south, to and from the equator; but the rotation of the earth from west to east causes currents flowing toward the poles to be deflected toward the east, while those flowing toward the equator are turned toward the west.
40. The Gulf Stream is an ocean river from 10 to 50 miles wide, and 500 fathoms deep, of a dark indigo color, originating in the warm waters of the equatorial regions. Its velocity is from four to six miles an hour, and so great is its latent heat that after flowing 3000 miles to the north, it preserves, even in winter, a summer heat.
41. The Japan Current in the Pacific corresponds to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. Its warm waters soften the climate of the Aleutian Islands and the north-west coast of America. On account of the shallowness of Behring Strait through which it cannot pass, it has neither the velocity nor sharpness of outline of the Gulf Stream.
42. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen, in the proportion, by weight, of 77 per cent of nitrogen to 23 per cent of oxygen. To these are added a small quantity of carbonic acid, about five or six parts in every 10000 of air.
43. Oxygen supports combustion and respiration, and is thus necessary to animal life. Carbonic acid, composed of oxygen and carbon, is the source from which vegetation derives its woody fibre, and is thus necessary to plant life. In respiration animals take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid; plants, in sunlight, take in carbonic acid and give out oxygen.
44. The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 15 pounds on every square inch of surface. This pressure is not uniform in all parts of the earth at the same level. The greatest pressure is in latitude 35° north and south.
45. (a) Climate is the condition of the atmosphere as regards heat or cold, moisture or dryness, healthi-ness or unhealthiness. (b) It is influenced by latitude, altitude, location with respect to mountains, plains, bodies of water, ocean currents, and prevailing winds.
46. 1st. By direct absorption of the sun's rays passing through it. 2nd. By actual contact, reflection, or radiation from the heated earth.
47. (a) Isothermal lines connect places on the earth which have the same mean annual temperature. (b) In those parts of the ocean traversed by warm currents flowing toward the poles, isothermal lines are deflected in the same direction as the currents; while cold cur-rents or mountain regions cause a marked bending of those lines toward the equator.
48. The temperature of the atmosphere decreases with the elevation above the sea about 3° Fahr. for every 1000 feet.
49. Increased cold in elevation is caused as follows: 1st. Since the earth receives most of its heat from the earth's surface, the farther we go from the surface up-ward, the colder it grows. 2nd. The diminished humidity and density of the air at great elevations prevents its absorbing either the direct rays of the sun, or those reflected from the earth.

50. Winds are caused by atmospheric heat disturbances and the rotation of the earth. As the air in the equatorial regions becomes heated, it expands, becomes lighter, rises and its place is supplied by the inrushing cold air. The ascending currents continue rising until they reach a stratum of air of nearly the same density as their own, when they spread laterally in all directions, filling the areas where the air has been rarefied by lateral surface currents.
51. But for the diurnal motion of the earth the wind would blow due north and south from the equator. Winds originating at the equator with a velocity of 1000 miles an hour, will, as they move northward or southward like the currents, move faster than the slower moving regions of the earth, and thus flow toward the northeast and southeast. Winds originating at the poles, moving with a slow velocity, will as they approach the faster moving equatorial regions lag behind, and so blow toward the southwest north of the equator, and northwest south of the equator.
52. 1st. Constant, those which blow in the same direction throughout the year. 2nd. Periodical, those which blow alternately in opposite directions. 3rd. Variable, those which blow irregularly; these are influenced by local causes.
53. The land, by reflection of the sun's rays, becomes warmer than the sea during the day; this causes an ascending current, whose place is supplied by the cool air from the sea rushing in. This is called the sea breeze. During the night the land cools off more rapidly than the water; the ascending current then rises from the water and a breeze called the land breeze sets toward the sea from the land.

54. The Calms of Cancer in the Atlantic are thus known. Formerly, when vessels from New England laden with horses for the West Indies were beset by calms in these regions, it became necessary to throw many of these animals overboard for want of water.

55. (a) Deserts by reason of the absence of water, cool and heat more rapidly than other portions of land. Currents alternately blow to and from the heated area with great violence. (b) The Etesian Wind from July to September blows over the Mediterranean; The Harmattan blows over the coast of Guinea; The Khamsin blows over Egypt; The Sirocco blows over Italy; The Solano blows over Spain.
56. Monsoons are a species of land and sea breezes, which blow in a certain direction during a part of the year and in an opposite direction during the remainder of the year. The three principal monsoon regions are the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Guinea, the Mexican Gulf and Caribbean Sea.
57. Cyclones are storms moving in a parabolic path about a calm, circular center. In the northern hemisphere the rotation of the whirl is in a direction contrary to the hands of a watch, south of the equator the whirl is with the hands of a watch.
58. 1st. The temperature of the atmosphere. 2nd. The quantity of vapor in the air. 3rd. Amount of atmospheric pressure. 4th. Extent of exposed surface. 5th. The renewal of the air.

59. Moisture is deposited from the air in the form of rain, fog, mist, dew, cloud, sleet, hail, and snow. Precipitation can occur only when the air is cooled below the temperature of its dew point. The amount of precipitation decreases as we pass from the equator to the poles, and from the coasts of the continents toward the interior.

60. Clouds temper the climate, protect the earth from too much heat in summer and keep it warm in winter. By their constant motion, they keep the atmosphere stirred up; and thus is carried off those noxious exhalations that would otherwise render the air unfit for animal existence. Finally, they hold in minute particles the vast reservoirs of vapor which, when aggregating, exceed a certain size, fall to the earth as rain.

61. The principal forms of clouds are classified as follows: The Cirrus cloud, a fleecy, feathery mass of condensed vapor, high above the earth; the Cumulus cloud, a mountainous, rounded mass of dense vapor, formed in the lower regions of the atmosphere; the Stratus cloud, a stratified collection of horizontal sheets, forming the base of the other clouds; the Nimbus cloud, a dark, stormy mass of vapor from which rain falls.

62. At Cherrapongi, a station among the Himalayas, in India, where an annual rainfall of 610 inches has been recorded. The greatest rainfall in the New World is 280 inches, at Maranham, Brazil.
63. When, from any cause, as the sweeping down from the mountains into the warm valleys of cold blasts, or the rising of warm winds up the mountain slope, clouds of different temperature are brought in contact, unable to hold the whole amount of moisture in solution, they part with a portion of their vapor in the form of rain. This is due to the fact that the capacity of clouds to retain their moisture diminishes faster than their temperature.
64. Snowflakes, which form the nuclei of hail are supposed to whirl around a horizontal axis, and between two horizontal layers of cloud — the upper one of snow, the lower one of rain. As the particles pass through the successive strata of snow and rain, alternate coatings of ice and snow are formed, until at last they are hurled to the ground as hail.
65. Upon the west bank. This is due to the diurnal motion of the earth.
66. The sediment carried down the Amazon is swept away by the equatorial current.
67. About 82 days, or from November 10th to February 1st. Owing to refraction and the breadth of the sun's disc, twilight lasts from September 21 to November 10, and from the same cause, twilight again begins February 1st.

68. Wheat, in Tartary; corn, in America; barley, in Tartary; oats, in the region of the Caucasus; rye, in Persia; buckwheat, in northern China; the potato, in Chili or Peru.
69. An abundance of regularly distributed rain throughout the year.
70. Barley is grown farther north than any other grain.
71. Rice, dates, cocoa-nuts, bananas and plantains, cassava, bread-fruit, sago, and yams.
72. From the seed of the cocoa-tree.
73. Iron, Great Britain; Copper, Chili; Tin, England; Zinc, Germany; Lead, Spain; Gold, the United States; Silver, the United States.
74. The distribution of heat, moisture, and vegetation forms the basis for the distribution of animal life, because animals derive their sustenance either directly or indirectly from plants.
75. As a rule, the luxuriance and variety of terrestrial animal life decrease as we pass from the equator toward the poles. This law of distribution is reversed in marine animal life, both the number and size of the species increasing from the equator toward the poles.
76. The area of the coal fields of the United States is over six times as great as that of Europe.
77. The prevailing winds of California during the summer and fall are from the east, which are deprived of their moisture in crossing the continent. The Pacific shores of Peru and Bolivia are rainless for a similar reason.
78. The Nebular hypothesis assumes that the matter of which the bodies belonging to the solar and planetary systems is composed, once existed in space as a great, chaotic, nebulous and highly heated mass of gas or vapor, endowed with a kind of whirlpool motion, which, gradually condensing through the mutual attraction of its particles, formed the countless suns; that the planets were formed by the condensation of rings of matter successively thrown off by the central mass, and the satellites by the condensation of matter thrown off in like manner by the planets. It was invented by Laplace, a French astronomer, in the latter part of the last century. All recent observations and discoveries seem to prove its correctness.
79. An imaginary belt in the heavens, extending nine degrees on each side of the ecliptic, or celestial equator. Within its limits are contained the orbits of all the planets except some of the minor planets. It is divided into twelve parts, called signs, of 30° each, as follows: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces.
80. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY.

1. What theories have been advanced regarding the origin of the American Indians?
2. What evidence exists which indicates the occupancy of this continent by a civilized race before the Indians?
3. Give a brief description of the American Indians as they have manifested themselves to the Whites.
4. What claim to the discovery of America prior to Columbus is now very generally accepted?
5. Name some circumstances that directly contributed to the discovery of the Western Continent.
6. What peculiar characteristics did Columbus possess which fitted him for his great work?
7. Name in order the powers to which Columbus applied for aid.
8. (a) How many voyages to the New World were made by Columbus? (b) Name discoveries made in each voyage.
9. How came this country to be called America?
10. Why were the Indians so named?
11. What two circumstances dispelled the idea of the Spaniards that the lands discovered by Columbus were the Indies?
12. Show how the promises made to Columbus by the Sovereigns of Spain compared with his rewards.
13. Name ten Spanish discoverers and explorers, and after each write the name of his most important dis-covery or exploration, with date of each.
14. (a) What territory of the New World was claimed by England? (b) Upon what were these claims based?
15. Name the prominent English explorers of the 16th century.
16. What unsuccessful attempts were made by Eng-land to colonize North America in the 16th century?
17. Locate the claims made by France, and state what means were employed to confirm these claims.
18. Name five French explorers with the date and location of their explorations.
19. Where and by whom were French settlements made in the early part of the 17th century?
20. What claim did Holland make in America? Upon what based, and what was the extent?
21. What motives may be assigned for the first at-tempt of the French to plant colonies in Florida and Carolina?
22. Give reasons for the long time intervening be-tween the discovery and settlement of North America.
23. (a) What was the route from England to America during the 16th century? (b) How and by whom was the passage shortened, and to what extent?
24. Give names and dates of the first permanent settlements made by the nations engaged in exploring the future United States.
25. (a) What two companies were formed in England for colonizing America? (b) What were their respective territorial boundaries?
26. Relate the circumstances which determined the site of the first permanent English settlement.
27. Why were the first settlers at Jamestown poorly fitted for pioneer life?
28. What delusion among the people of Jamestown impaired the success of their first year's settlement?
29. For what were the three charters granted to Jamestown remarkable? Give their dates.
30. When was the "Starving Time" in Virginia? What was its cause and result?
31. When, where, and by whom convened, was the first legislative body in America?
32. When was negro slavery introduced into America?
33. When was the Navigation Act passed? When enforced? What were its provisions?
34. State the cause and date of Bacon's Rebellion.
35. Give the dates of the two Indian massacres in Virginia.
36. (a) Who was Pocahontas? (b) What influence had she upon the Jamestown Colony?
37. When, where, and by whom was New York settled?
38. Name in order the four Dutch Governors of New York.
39. What people settled Delaware? Under whose auspices? By whom conquered?
40. What is the origin of the term Puritan, as applied to the Plymouth settlers?
41. (a) What was the character of the Pilgrim settlers? (b) How did it fit them to become the founders of a successful colony in the New World?
42. (a) State the plan of working practiced by the early settlers of America. (b) What were its merits and demerits?
43. From what religious disturbances did the colonists of Massachusetts suffer?
44. (a) What colonies composed the famous “United Colonies of New England?” (b) What was the purpose of the Union?
45. When did King Philip’s War occur?
46. State the cause and result of King Philip’s War.
47. Why was Massachusetts made a Royal Province? Who was appointed governor?
48. What social delusion occasioned great excitement in Massachusetts in the latter part of the 17th century?
49. Who settled Connecticut?
50. When was the Pequod War? What was the principal action? How did it terminate?
51. Under whom and by what class of people was Rhode Island settled?
52. What is particularly remarkable about the code of laws adopted by Rhode Island?
53. State what you can respecting general religious persecutions during the 17th century.
54. How did New York come into the possession of the English?
55. By what different sects was Pennsylvania principally settled? What reasons can you assign for this?
56. What were the prominent principles of the laws established in Pennsylvania under the guidance of William Penn?
57. What remarkable feature can you mention in connection with Penn's celebrated treaty with the Indians?
58. When, where, by whom, and for what purpose was Maryland settled?
59. What were the provisions of the Toleration Act passed by the Maryland Assembly in 1649?
60. How did the religious tolerance of Rhode Island and Maryland differ?
61. Give date and cause of Claiborne's Rebellion.
62. What religious troubles occurred in Maryland?
63. Explain the origin of Mason and Dixon's line.
64. After whom was Carolina named and by whom?
65. What was "Locke's Grand Model?"
66. By whom and when was Georgia founded and for what purpose?
67. What restrictions were contained in the early laws of Georgia, and what was the effect?
68. By what people was Charleston largely settled?
69. Name four missionaries among the Indians.
70. What was the character of Governor Andros's administration in New England?
71. Give the dates of the introduction of some of the religious societies in the American colonies.
72. What may be said of educational provisions among the early colonies?
73. What were the causes of King William's War?
74. What cause can you assign for the Indians usually siding with the French against the English?
75. Name the principal actions and their results of King William's War.
76. What treaty ended King William's War, and how did it affect the American Colonies?
77. What was the cause and duration of Queen Anne's War?
78. (a) Name the important events of Queen Anne's War. (b) By what treaty and upon what terms was it settled?
79. State the date, cause and result of King George's War.
80. (a) What was the state of feeling between French and English settlers in the middle of the 18th century? (b) How had this condition been brought about?
81. What was the geographical position of the French and English settlements at the opening of the French and Indian War? How did this compare with their respective claims?
82. Give some account of the ancestry of Washington.
83. Name the physical, mental, and moral traits which fitted Washington for his destiny.
84. By whom and for what purpose was Washington sent to the French commandant at Fort le Bœuf?
85. What were the five objective points of the British during the French and Indian War?
86. (a) What gave Fort du Quesne its importance? (b) Who conducted the expedition against this fort? (c) With what result? (d) By whom and when was the fort taken?
87. State the result of expeditions against Louisburg, Crown Point and Ticonderoga, and Niagara.
88. By what military action was the French and Indian War terminated? By whom conducted?
89. State the results of the French and Indian War to (a) the French; (b) the English; (c) the Colonists.
90. What eminent revolutionary generals received their training in the French and Indian War?
91. What was the population of the American colonies at the beginning of the Revolution?
92. What forms of government existed in the colonies prior to the Revolution?
93. Name the Colleges of Colonial times, and state which of these owed its existence to the patronage of the home government.
94. Where and when was the first printing press in America? The first permanent newspaper?

95. What differences in the customs and manners of the northern, middle, and southern colonies existed in Colonial times?
96. What noted events occurred on the following dates: October 12, 1492; May 23, 1607; June 28, 1619; December 21, 1620; February 22, 1732?
97. What connection had the following persons with American history: De Soto, Leonard Calvert, Roger Williams, D'Iberville, Sir William Pepperell?
98. (a) When was rice first cultivated in South Carolina? (b) When first exported?
99. When, where, and by whom was the first permanent settlement made in the Mississippi valley?
100. Show in what manner the influence of the early Governors of Virginia retarded the progress of education.
101. How were the manufacturing and commercial enterprises of the colonists regarded by the British government?
102. What was the condition of American literature prior to the Revolution?
103 Name in order of numbers the nationalities represented in the American colonies at the opening of the Revolution.
104. What were the peculiar characteristics of the colonists which influenced them in resisting the oppressions of the mother country?

105. Enumerate what are commonly styled the remote causes of the Revolution.

106. What was the direct cause of the Revolution?

107. Who and in what manner sounded "The trumpet of the Revolution?"
108. Name some popular demonstrations showing the general opposition to the measures of the British government on the part of the colonists in the decade preceding the Revolution.
109. (a) What was the Mutiny Act? (b) Why passed? (c) What was its effect?
110. Give a short history of Faneuil Hall.
111. What application had the terms "Whigs and Tories?"
112. How was Boston punished for the "Tea Party?"
113. Give the dates, places of convening, and objects of the three colonial Congresses held prior to the Revolution.
114. (a) What and where was the first battle of the Revolution? (b) What was its purpose? (c) What was its effect?
115. When and where was the second Continental Congress held? Name its principal acts.
116. For what purpose, by whom conducted, and with what result was an expedition made against Canada in 1775?
117. Name the principal military actions of 1776.
118. By whom and when was the resolution declaring the Colonies free and independent States introduced?
119. (a) By whom was the Declaration of Independence drawn up? (b) When adopted by Congress, and by what majority? (c) By how many members signed? (d) What was its effect?
120. By what movements did Washington display his greatest military powers?
121. Name five eminent European officers who served with distinction in the Continental armies.
122. (a) What was the object of Burgoyne's expe- dition? (b) What was his force?
123. How were the plans of Burgoyne defeated?
124. What officers contributed largely to the check and defeat of Burgoyne's army?
125. When was the present American Flag adopted?
126. What is meant by the Conway cabal?
127. What evidence attests the suffering and patriotism of the American army during the Revolu- tion?
128. Name the circumstances which induced France to aid the United States against England.
129. How far did the treaty of alliance with France contribute to the ultimate success of the Revo- lution?
130. Name the principal battles of 1777.
131. (a) What financial measures were adopted by Congress to carry on the Revolution? (b) What was the result of the measure?
132. Name the patriot leaders of the South during the Revolution.
133. (a) State the cause of Arnold's treason. (b) Its effect. (c) His reward.
134. (a) What difficulties beset the Continental Army in consequence of a depreciated currency? (b) How were these difficulties aggravated by the British?
135. Name the important military events of 1778.
136. What important battles occurred in 1779?
137. Who was the ''great financier'' during the Revolution?
138. What is particularly remarkable about General Greene's campaign in the Carolinas?
139. Name the battles of 1780.
140. What important military actions occurred in 1781?
141. (a) By what treaty was the independence of the United States recognized? (b) Who were the commissioners appointed by Congress?
142. Relate some circumstance showing a tendency on the part of the founders of our government to establish a monarchy instead of a republic.
143. (a) What were the ''Articles of Confederation?'' (b) When adopted by Congress? (c) When did they become binding upon the States? (d) What were some of their radical defects?
144. State the origin of the Constitution.
145. (a) Into what two parties were the people divided during the discussion pending the adoption of the Constitution? (b) What were the principles of these two parties? (c) Name some prominent Constitutional advocates.
146. (a) When did the Constitution of the United States go into operation? (b) What States had not adopted it at that time? (c) Who was chosen first President and how elected?
147. State the effect of the Revolutionary war upon the morals, manners, religion, education, commerce, and manufactures of the States.
148. Who composed Washington's cabinet?
149. Name some of the difficulties with which the first administration had to contend.
150. (a) What financial measures were proposed by Hamilton? (b) State their effect.
151. What was the origin of the District of Columbia?
152. (a) What political parties were formed during Washington's administration? (b) What distinguished men were the leaders of these parties?
153. What course did the people and government of the United States pursue with respect to the French Revolution?
154. (a) What laws enacted during Adams's administration turned popular favor from the Federalists? (b) Explain these laws.
155. What was the first official expression of the doctrine of State Rights?
156. In what manner and when did the United States acquire Louisiana?
157. When, by whom, and by what means was steam first practically applied to navigation?
158. Enumerate the causes of the second war with Great Britain.
159. (a) Why was not the War of 1812 a popular measure throughout the country? (b) What party generally opposed the war?
160. What was the general plan of the Americans at the opening of the Second War with Great Britain?
161. Contrast the general conduct of the land and naval forces during 1812.
162. What armies were organized for the campaign of 1813, and by whom commanded, and for what purpose?
163. What action did Massachusetts take with reference to the War of 1812?
164. (a) What was the Hartford Convention? (b) Why was it called? (c) What was its action?
165. Name the principal battles of the Second War with Great Britain.
166. By what treaty was this war ended?
167. What were the results of the War of 1812?
168. Name the principal events of Washington's Administration.
169. Name the principal events of Adams's Administration.
170. What is particularly remarkable about the election of James Monroe to the presidency?
171. (a) What changes in the political parties of the United States occurred during Monroe's administration? (b) What particular measures characterized the new parties?
172. Name the principal events of Monroe's administration.
173. Name some noted events which occurred July 4th.
174. What was the Missouri Compromise?
175. When and for what consideration did the United States obtain Florida?
176. What is the Monroe Doctrine?
177. How was John Quincy Adams elected President?
178. Name the coincidences in the lives of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson.
179. For what was the administration of J. Q. Adams particularly distinguished?
180. What practice in official appointments was introduced by President Jackson in 1829?
181. State the means proposed by Jackson to secure from France the payment of indemnities for destruction of American commerce during the Napoleonic wars.
182. When did the cholera make its first appearance in the United States?
183. Give an account of the nullification ordinance.
184. Name the circumstances which contributed to the financial crisis of 1837.
185. When and by whom was the northeastern boundary settled?
186. In what respect did John Tyler resemble Andrew Johnson in his official acts?
187. What were the conditions upon which Texas was annexed to the United States?
188. What were the chief grounds of opposition to the annexation of Texas?
189. (a) Upon what were the rival claims of England and the United States to Oregon based? (b) How and where were these claims settled?
190. (a) What was the cause of the war with Mexico? (b) When did it begin? (c) How long did it continue? (d) By what treaty was the war closed? (e) What were the terms of this treaty?
191. What battles in Mexico were won by the Americans?
192. (a) What sectional disturbances threatened the Union at the beginning of Taylor's administration? (b) How were the dangers averted?
193. Name the five provisions of the Compromise of 1850, known as the Omnibus Bill.
194. (a) What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill? (b) Who was its author? (c) What was the legal effect of its passage? (d) State its political effect.
195. What Congressional act may be said to have given birth and strength to the Republican party?
196. Name the political parties which have existed since the adoption of the Constitution.
197. Name the principal events of Pierce's administration.
198. (a) What was the Dred Scott decision? (b) How was it regarded by the North and South?
199. What was the alleged cause of the secession of the Southern States?
200. Name the States which formed the ''Confederate States of America.''
201. (a) When and how was the War of Secession begun? (b) When and how was it ended?
202. What was the attitude of England and France toward the United States during the Rebellion?
203. What was the general result of the first year of the War of Secession?
204. What was the general plan of conducting the war of the Rebellion on the part of the government?
205. Show in what manner the defeat of the national troops at Bull Run proved advantageous to the cause of the Union.
206. Name ten important battles of the Rebellion fought in 1862, and state which were Union and which Confederate victories.
207. What was the numerical strength of the Union and Confederate armies at the beginning of 1863?
208. (a) When and by whom was the Emancipation Proclamation issued? (b) Whom did it include? (c) How was it justified?
209. (a) How many invasions of the North were attempted by Lee? (b) How and when were these checked?
210. (a) What was the turning point of the War of the Rebellion? (b) What military actions determined this point?
211. Name the great battles won by the Confederates in 1863.
212. What was the purpose of Sherman's "March to the Sea."
213. What reasons may be assigned for the failure of the United States government to subdue the Rebellion earlier than it did?
214. Name some of the most important naval actions of the War of the Rebellion.
215. Name in order the generals who commanded the army of the Potomac.
216. How were the war measures of the government during the Rebellion impeded in the North?
217. State the number of men actually enlisted in the Union army during the Rebellion.
218. (a) About what time during the Rebellion did the United States army contain the greatest number of men? (b) What was the daily expense of the government at this time?
219. What was the total cost to the government of the War of Secession?
220. What was the effect of the War of Secession upon the North and South respectively?
221. How were the expenses of the government during the Rebellion provided for by Congress?
222. How and when was slavery in the United States abolished?
223. Write a summary of the principles contained in the Fourteenth Amendment.
224. How were the men engaged in the Rebellion restored to their rights and privileges in the Union?
225. How and why were States engaged in rebellion governed pending what is known as the “reconstruction?”
226. Give an account of the difficulties between President Johnson and Congress which led to his impeachment. What was the result of this impeachment ?
227. State fully the nature of the “Alabama Claims.”
228. How was the difficulty regarding the Presidential contest of 1876 settled?
229. What Presidents had been formerly Vice Presidents ?
230. Name the Presidents who died in office
231. Name the Presidents in chronological order, and after each write the name of the party by which he was elected, date of inauguration, and term of office.
232. (a) When, and by whom, was the cotton gin invented? (b) What can you say of its political influence in the United States?
233. Name the Presidents who had been military men.
234. For what is April 19th notable in the history of the United States?
235. What officer has charge of the National Bureau of Agriculture?
236. When, where, and by whom was Indiana first settled?
237. Name five distinguished Union officers killed during the War of Secession.

238. (a) State the difference between a protective tariff and free trade. (b) Which sections of the Union have favored these two policies? (c) Name three political leaders who have favored a protective tariff. (d) Three who have favored free trade.

239. Name the Presidential candidates of 1860 and the parties they represented.

240. (a) When, where, and by what people was Missouri settled? (b) When did it become a separate territory? (c) When was it admitted into the Union?
241. When and where was California first settled by a civilized race?
242. Name, including the more important Indian troubles, the wars in which the United States have been engaged.
243. (a) In what four ways have the United States acquired territory? (b) Specify the territory gained by each method, and state from whom acquired.
244. Name the three greatest books published by American writers.
245. What were the requirements of reconstruction imposed upon the States which had passed ordinances of secession?
246. Name the most decisive battle fought in the following States: Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Mississippi, Arkansas, Kentucky.

247. What general is said never to have lost a battle?
248. (a) How many attempts were made to lay the Atlantic cable. (b) To whom was the success due?
249. Explain briefly the distinctions between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.
250. When, and for what purpose, was the first paper money used in America?
251 Name, three orators of America, three statesmen, three poets, three historians, three novelists, three inventors.
252. Give the names of ten of the most prominent signers of the Declaration of Independence.
253. What persons have held the offices of General and Lieutenant-General respectively?
254. In whom was the American executive power vested from 1787 to 1789?
255. Name five important national events since the Rebellion.
256. What important decision was rendered by the United States Supreme Court in 1883?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY.

1. 1st. That they are aborigines. 2nd. That they are descendants of Asiatic tribes who crossed Behring's Strait. 3rd. That they are descendants of Phoenician or Carthaginian colonies. 4th. That they are the ten " lost tribes " of Israel, who were conquered by Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, 700 B. C. 5th. That they are descended from the early Egyptians.
2. Throughout the Mississippi Valley many thousand mounds and other curiously constructed earthworks, seemingly designed for religious and military purposes, attest the presence of a race greatly superior to the Indians. Architectural remains, as ruins of magnificent temples, cities and extended graded ways scattered along the western coast of South America and throughout Mexico and Central America, point to a people who had attained a degree of civilization not inferior to their contemporaries of Europe at the time in which they flourished.
3. The Indians are cruel, treacherous, revengeful; and though boastful of their willingness for war, have ever shown themselves, as a race, cowardly in open battle. They are lazy and improvident, — the lessons of famine teaching them nothing for the future. The women are degraded, and regarded by the men as only fit to bear the burdens of their lords and provide for their daily wants.
4. The claims of the Northmen, about the year 1000.
5. 1st. The invention of the mariner's compass in 1302, and later, the astrolabe, an instrument for reckoning latitude. 2nd. An increased desire for geographical knowledge. 3rd. The invention of printing, furnishing numerous books of travel and description of other lands. 4th. Increased commercial activity and a general demand for a route to the East Indies.

6. He early displayed a fondness for Mathematics, Geography, and Astronomy. At fourteen he went to sea, where he continued, with few interruptions, all his life. Marrying the daughter of an eminent Portu- guese navigator, he became possessed of numerous charts and journals, which increased his thirst for dis- covery.

7. First, to the Senate of Genoa; second, to King John II., of Portugal; third, to Henry VII., of Eng- land, and, fourth, to the court of Spain.

8. (a) Columbus made four voyages. (b) In the first voyage he discovered San Salvador, Cuba, and Hispaniola; in the second, Jamaica, and other neigh- boring islands; in the third, Trinidad, and the coast of South America in 1498; in the fourth he explored the coast of Darien in 1503.

9. A German geographer, Waldsee-Müller, in re- publishing the adventures of Americus Vespucius, a companion of Columbus, suggested that the name of this writer should be applied to the country discovered by Columbus.
10. Columbus, supposing the lands he had discov- ered were the outlying islands of India, called the natives Indians.
11. First, the discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa in 1513, and, second, the circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan in 1520.
12. He was promised the life Vice-royalty of all the countries he might discover, and died in poverty and obscurity, requesting that his chains be buried with him.
13. Columbus, San Salvador, 1492; Ponce de Leon, Florida, 1512; Balboa, South Sea (Pacific), 1513; Cordova, Yucatan, 1517; Magellan, rounded S. America and crossed the Pacific Ocean, 1520; De Ayllon, Carolina, 1520; Cortez, Mexico, 1519–21; De Narvaez, Florida, 1528; De Soto, Mississippi River, 1541; Espejo, New Mexico, 1582.

14. (a) England claimed that portion of North America lying between Labrador and Florida, and from ocean to ocean. (b) This claim was based upon the discovery of Labrador and southward explorations by the Cabots, in 1497.

15. Frobisher, Drake, Gilbert, Gosnold, and Smith.

16. In 1578, by Gilbert, in 1583, and again in 1587, by Raleigh.

17. France claimed the valleys of the St. Lawrence, Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. She attempted to make these claims good by planting military stations, missions, and trading posts at strategic points throughout the region.

18. Verrazani, 1524, the coast from North Carolina to New York; Cartier, 1535, St. Lawrence River; John Ribaut, 1562, South Carolina; De Monts, 1605, Nova Scotia; Champlain, 1609, Lake Champlain.

19. At Port Royal in 1605 by De Monts, and Quebec in 1608 by Champlain.
20. Holland claimed the Hudson valley as far east as the Connecticut, and the land embraced in the present States of New Jersey and Delaware, and the eastern shores of Maryland and Virginia. This claim was based on the discoveries of Henry Hudson.
21. To found an asylum for the Huguenots, a sect of French Protestants who were suffering from persecution at home.
22. 1st. The hostility of the natives. 2nd. The jealousy among the rival claimants to the country. 3rd. The absence of any great object of conquest, as existed in Mexico and Peru. 4th. The distance from Europe and the inconvenience of transferring settlers in large numbers to new homes.
23. (a) Southward along the coasts of Spain, Portugal, and Africa to the Canary Islands, thence nearly westward to the Bahamas. (b) Gosnold in 1602 shortened the passage 3,000 miles by sailing directly from England to Massachusetts.
24. St. Augustine, by the Spanish, 1565; Port Royal, N. S., by the French, 1605; Jamestown, by the English, 1607; New York, by the Dutch, 1613.
25. (a) The London Company and the Plymouth Company, named from the residence of their principal members. (b) James I. granted to the first company all lands lying between the 34th and 38th parallels of north latitude, to the Plymouth Company the land lying between the 41st and 45th parallels. Both grants extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
26. The company, consisting of 105 persons, designed for the settlement under the command of Captain Newport, contemplated landing on Roanoke Island; but a violent storm carried them northward into Chesapeake Bay. Finding a good harbor off Point Comfort, so named on account of their recent peril, they went up the James River, where on the 8th of May, 1607, forty miles above its mouth they selected a site for their future city.
27. They were mostly from cities, unused to labor and hardships; and, ignorant of the means to be employed in obtaining food, they were more of a burden than a help to the few who were capable of founding a colony in the wilderness.
28. The attention of the settlers was so occupied by a glittering, yellowish sand, found in a small stream, that for months nothing was thought or talked of but to dig, wash, refine, and load gold. In this delusion nearly all participated, and everything looking to permanent comfort was neglected.
29. For the utter disregard of the personal rights, wishes, and needs of the colonists themselves. They were dated 1606, 1609, and 1612, respectively.
30. The winter of 1609–10 was known as the “Starving Time.” The influence of Smith, the controlling spirit of Jamestown, being removed by his return to England, the colonists became a prey to laziness, disease, and famine. In six months they were reduced from 490 to 60.

31. It was called by Governor Yeardley at Jamestown, June 19, 1619. This was the origin of the "House of Burgesses" in Virginia.
32. Twenty negroes were sold to the Jamestown colonists by the captain of a Dutch trading vessel in 1619. Their labor was found so profitable in the cultivation of tobacco that many others were afterward imported.
33. It was passed in 1651, and enforced in 1660. It required that all colonial commerce should be carried on in English vessels, and that all tobacco should be shipped to England.

34. Governor Berkley, of Virginia, failing to provide sufficient defence against the Indians, the people in 1676 proceeded against them under a popular leader named Nathaniel Bacon. The Governor denounced Bacon as a traitor, and refused him a commission. Bacon marched against the Governor, driving him and his party out of Jamestown. The rebellion was ended by the death of Bacon.
35. The first, in 1622; the second, in 1644.
36. (a) Pocahontas was the daughter of the Indian chief Powhatan. (b) She saved the life of Captain Smith, the leader of the Jamestown colony, often brought food to the colonists, and in 1613 married John Rolfe, an English planter. Through her influence the friendship of the Indians was secured to the English.
37. New York was settled in 1613, on Manhattan Island by Dutch traders.
38. Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, William Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant.
39. Delaware, under the name of New Sweden, was settled at Wilmington by Swedes and Finns in 1638, under the auspices of Oxenstiern, the minister of Gustavus Adolphus. New Sweden was claimed by the Dutch, and in 1652 the whole region was conquered and added to New Netherland.
40. It was applied originally in reproach to the dissenters from the established church of England during the reigns of James I. and Charles I. They professed to follow the pure word of God, in opposition to all traditions and human institutions and ceremonies.
41. (a) They were earnest, sober-minded people, governed in all things by religious principles and their convictions of duty. (b) For twelve years they had been wanderers in Holland, without a home, without a country. They longed for an asylum where they could rear their children free from evil influences, and worship God according to the dictates of their consciences.
42. (a) Most were governed by a community interest, that is, they shared the results of their labor in common. The practice was soon abandoned. (b) The only advantage it possessed was in keeping the settlers together for mutual defence, but it encouraged improvidence among the indolent.
43. Roger Williams, an eloquent minister, after exciting many bitter discussions, was banished for advocating greater freedom of thought and action than was tolerated by the majority. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, claiming special revelations from heaven, aroused such violent and bitter controversy among the clergy that she, too, was soon after banished. Quakers were whipped, fined, sent out of the colony, and four were executed.

44. (a) Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut. (b) It was formed for protection against the Indians, French, and Dutch.
45. It opened July 14, 1675.
46. Its cause was the jealousy of the Indians at the encroachments of the whites and an attempt to exterminate them before they became too numerous. Many settlers were massacred, but at length uniting their forces and pursuing the Indians to their retreats, the whites within a few months destroyed nearly the entire force of savages. Philip was shot by a faithless Indian.
47. Massachusetts, refusing to comply with the provisions of the Navigation Act, Charles II. seized upon her conduct as an act of disobedience, and made her a royal province, appointing Sir Edmund Andros as royal governor of New England.
48. The Salem witchcraft.
49. The first English settlers were from Massachusetts. The Dutch had previously established trading posts along the Connecticut River.
50. The Pequod War was begun in 1637 by the massacre of thirty whites. The principal battle was on the Mystic River. The tribe perished in the action of June 4, 1637.

51. Rhode Island was settled first by Roger Will-iams, and later, by exiles from Massachusetts, taking refuge there on account of religious persecutions.
52. It was "the first legal declaration of liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America."
53. Bigotry and religious intolerance prevailed among all the dominant sects, both in Europe and America, to such an extent that the weaker denomina-tions found security from persecution only among the wilds of America.

54. The Duke of York, afterwards James II., claimed the territory by virtue of a grant made by his brother Charles II. The colonists, composed largely of English, grew restless under the stern rule of Gov-ernor Stuyvesant, and longed for the freedom granted the neighboring colony of Connecticut. An English fleet appearing in the harbor, demanded the surrender, and the Governor, unable to resist the threatened attack, was forced to surrender.

55. By Puritans, Quakers, and Scotch Presbyte-rians. This was doubtless due to the benevolence and charity of its illustrious founder, William Penn, who desired to establish a colony for the persecuted of all sects and nations.

56. Faith in Christ was a necessary qualification for voting and holding office; but no one believing in "Almighty God" should be molested in his relig-ious practices.
57. "It was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken." While the Indians waged war almost continuously with other colonies, they never shed a drop of Quaker blood.
58. Maryland was settled in 1634, at St. Mary's, by Lord Baltimore [Cecil Calvert], as a refuge for persecuted Catholics.
59. It secured to all Christians liberty to worship God according to the dictates of their own conscience.
60. The Toleration Act, passed by Rhode Island in 1647, gave protection to every kind of faith and worship, thus including the universally persecuted Jew, while that of Maryland extended protection to all forms of Christianity alone.
61. Claiborne, a member of the Jamestown Council, having established trading posts in territory claimed by both the Virginia colony and the representatives of Lord Baltimore, refused to submit to the latter's authority. Being convicted of murder and other crimes, he fled from the province; but returning in 1637 with a large mob, he broke up the government. Governor Calvert the next year regained possession of his government. Order was soon restored, and Claiborne was driven from the colony.
62. During the wars of Cromwell the Protestants gaining supremacy in the Maryland Assembly, deprived the Catholics of the protection of the laws. A civil war ensued, which continued till Cromwell's death, when the rights of Lord Baltimore were restored.
63. Mason and Dixon's line separates Pennsylvania from Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia. It was surveyed by Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English surveyors, between 1763 and 1767.
64. It was named after Charles IX. of France, by John Ribault.
65. Clarendon and others to whom Charles II. had granted the region known as Carolina, contemplated the founding of a great empire. John Locke, the most eminent philosopher of his time, was engaged to draft a scheme and charter for the new province. This instrument, known in history as the “Grand Model,” gave almost unlimited power to a body of nobles, but entirely overlooked the rights of the masses. Among a people accustomed to the hardships of pioneer life and compelled to govern themselves, there was no room for such a code, and the proposed constitution failed.
66. Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe, in 1733, as a home for English debtors.
67. The size of farms was limited, women could not inherit land, and the importation of rum and slaves was prohibited. These prohibitions occasioned discontent and impaired the financial prosperity of the colonists to such an extent that the trustees, growing tired of their charge, gave up their claim, and Georgia became a royal province.
68. By French Huguenots.
69. Eliot, Marquette, Allouez, Hennepin.
70. Every right the people had enjoyed was denied them, while their taxes were largely increased. Contrary to the wishes of the people, the Church of England was established, and the meetings of the people, except for the election of town officers, were prohibited.

71. The Dutch Reformed Church was introduced into New York about 1614; the Episcopal, 1608; the Roman Catholic, in 1634; the Mennonites, in Pennsylvania, in 1692; the Tunkers or General Baptists, 1719; the Moravians, in 1741; the Shakers, in 1774; the Wesleyan Methodists, in 1766; the Universalists, in 1760.

72. With few exceptions, every settlement made generous provision for the education of the children.

73. King James having fled to France upon the opening of the English Revolution of 1688, France espoused his cause, and declared war against England. The natural jealousies existing between the subjects of these two rival powers soon developed hostilities among the colonies.

74. The influence of the French was ever exerted in winning the Indians to their side. The missionaries of France converted many of the tribes to the Catholic faith. French traders and settlers mingled and married among the Indians, and in every relation affiliated with them upon terms of far greater intimacy than did the English.

75. The attacks and massacres of Schenectady and Haverhill by the French and their Indian allies, from which the colonists suffered heavily and the capture of Port Royal, Acadia by the English colonists under Gov-ernor Phipps.
76. The treaty of Ryswick, by which each party held the territory it had at the beginning of the war.
77. Queen Anne's War, known in Europe as the War of the Spanish Succession, was caused by the jealousy of William III., at the growing power of the Bourbon family. The colonies were at once involved, and from 1702 to 1713 experienced all the horrors of Indian barbarity.
78. The principal events of Queen Anne's War were the capture of St. Augustine and St. Marks, by the South Carolinians, the attack on Charleston by a French fleet, the attack and massacre of Deerfield and the capture of Port Royal. The war was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht, by which Acadia and New-foundland were ceded to England.
79. King George's War, caused by the conflicting territorial claims of France and England, opened in 1744, and continued four years. Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, was wrested from the French by the British and Colonists, but by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, was restored to the French.
80. The bitterest feelings existed between the French and English settlers engendered by the three preceding wars.
81. The French occupied and claimed the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, from the lakes to New Orleans. The English were scattered along the Atlantic Coast between Maine and Florida, and extending westward to the Alleghanies, but claimed the territory between their western settlements and the Ohio River.
82. Washington was descended from an old English family whose original name was Wessyngton, members of which were prominent in different periods of English history. His great-grandfather, who came to America in 1657, was distinguished in the early Indian wars. His father, Augustine Washington, died when he [George] was eleven years old.
83. Washington by nature possessed a vigorous and robust constitution, and excelled in the youthful sports of his time. In his studies he was surpassed by none. His manuscript-school books, still preserved, attest the precision and order of his mind. Like most men who have excelled in military tactics, he had a marked fondness for mathematics. His motives and morals were as pure as his patriotism was incorruptible.
84. The French having erected forts upon territory claimed by the English in western Pennsylvania for the purpose of menacing the English settlers and breaking up the trade of the Ohio Company, Governor Dinwiddle, under orders of the General Assembly of Virginia, despatched Washington to inquire into the cause of the measures the French had pursued, and to ask that the forts be evacuated and the troops removed.
85. The capture of the following: Fort du Quesne, Louisburg, Crown Point and Ticonderoga, Niagara, and Quebec.

86. (a) It commanded the Ohio River and formed the gateway of the west. (b) General Braddock. (c) His force was defeated and himself killed. (d) It was captured by Washington in 1758.
87. Generals Amherst and Wolf captured Louisburg in 1758, Crown Point and Ticonderoga were evacuated at the approach of General Amherst in 1759, and the same year Niagara was taken by General Johnson.
88. The capture of Quebec by General Wolf.
89. (a) The French lost their entire American possessions, — giving to England all east of the Mississippi except two small islands, south of Newfoundland, and ceding to Spain New Orleans and all her territory west of the Mississippi. (b) England obtained control of all North America, except the south west, and the glory of a renowned military conquest. (c) The Colonists lost 30,000 men and spent $16,000,000, a third only of which was returned by the mother country; but the burdens of the war gave them the strength, courage, and independence which developed the revolution.
90. Washington, Gates, Arnold, Morgan, Putnam, Montgomery, and Stark?
91. About two and a half millions.
92. Royal, Charter and Proprietary.
93. Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, King's, Brown, Queen's, Dartmouth, and Hampden Sidney. William and Mary was the only college which received a donation from the English government, taking its name from its principal donors.
94. At Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1639. The "Boston News Letter," issued in 1704, was the first permanent newspaper.

95. The people of New England were until the Revolution more homogeneous than those of other colonies. The influence of the early Puritans, with their rigid adherence to the literal interpretation of the Scriptures, shaped every motive of public and private action; gaming, racing, theaters, and nearly every form of frivolity was prohibited. The middle colonies, though peopled by representatives from nearly every country of northern Europe, were essentially Dutch in their social customs. While the severest laws of morality were inculcated and enforced, the people enjoyed greater freedom and means of pleasure than their northern neighbors. The Southern colonies being more sparsely settled, were less rigidly governed by those religious and sumptuary laws peculiar to municipal corporations, for which the New England colonies were early distinguished. Greater freedom of conduct and luxury of living prevailed than elsewhere, though church attendance was obligatory in most of the Southern colonies, as in New England.

96. Oct. 12, 1492, Columbus discovered San Salvador; May 23, 1607, Jamestown settled; June 28, 1619, first Representative Assembly in America; Dec. 21, 1620, landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth; Feb. 22, 1732, Washington born.

97. De Soto discovered the Mississippi River, 1541; Leonard Calvert colonized Maryland, 1634; Roger Williams settled Rhode Island, 1636; D'Iberville founded Mobile, 1702; Sir Wm. Pepperell, in command of colonists, captured Louisburg, 1745.
98. (a) In 1696. (b) First exported in 1698.
99. In 1688 or 1690 at Kaskaskia, Ill., by the French.
100. With few exceptions, the early governors of Virginia were aristocratic and tyrannical, and caring nothing for the masses, opposed every measure calculated to elevate the people. Governor Berkley is credited with saying, "I thank God there are no free schools nor printing presses here, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years."
101. With the utmost disregard for Colonial interests, the government sought to stifle with various restrictions the manufacturing and commercial spirit of the colonists.
102. The only books published in America before the Revolution were a few histories, religious treatises, and political essays. Up to this time no great poem or work of fiction had been produced in America.
103. English, Dutch, Scotch, Irish, French, Negroes, Germans, Swedes, and a limited number of Finns, Norwegians and Spaniards.
104. They were descendants of men who had fled from oppression, and braved and suffered the hardships of the wilderness for the blessings of civil and religious liberty. They possessed a freedom, inherited from these ancestors, as responsible as it was enjoyable. The incompetence of the British officers and the heroism and prowess of their own officers and men during the wars with the French had shown them the power which they possessed within themselves.

105. 1st. The NAVIGATION ACT. 2nd. WRITS OF ASSISTANCE, authorizing custom-house officers to break open stores, dwellings, and ships, in search of merchandise on which it was suspected no duty had been paid. 3rd. The STAMP ACT, requiring all legal instruments of writing, as notes, deeds, bonds, and even newspapers, almanacs, and other printed matter to be stamped. 4th. The BOSTON MASSACRE. 5th. The BOSTON TEA PARTY, and the BOSTON PORT BILL. 6th. The TRADE RESTRICTIONS imposed upon the colonies by the English government. 7th. The GENERAL TREATMENT of the settlers as an inferior class of people.

106. TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION. The British government attempted to tax the colonies without their consent in order to raise money to defray the expenses of the French and Indian War.

107. James Otis, in Boston, when he said in a speech in reference to the Writs of Assistance, “ To my dying day I will oppose, with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instruments of slavery on the one hand, and villainy on the other.”

108. The houses of stamp officers were mobbed, prominent officials were hung in effigy; people agreed to use no article of British manufacture; associations, called the “ Sons of Liberty,” were formed for the purpose of resisting the stamp law. The day upon which the stamp act was to go into effect “was observed as a day of mourning,” and in every way possible the people manifested their determination to resist the oppression of the British Government.

109. (a) The Mutiny Act required the colonies to provide British soldiers with quarters and supplies.
(b) The government, in order to quell the rebellious spirit of the colonists determined to place a military force among them. (c) The people were indignant; they thought it bad enough to be taxed, but to be compelled to feed and shelter their oppressors seemed beyond all endurance. Most of the colonial assemblies absolutely refused to furnish the shelter or subsistence.

110. Faneuil Hall was erected by Peter Faneuil in 1742. It originally comprised a market place on the ground floor and a town hall above. It was the rendezvous of the Revolutionary spirits for which reason it has been called the “Cradle of Liberty.”

111. The Tories supported the British government, the Whigs opposed it.

112. By the Boston Port Bill, passed by Parliament, by which ships were forbidden to take in or discharge their cargoes at the port of Boston.

113. The first was convened at Albany, N. Y., in 1754, for the purpose of adopting a plan of union against the French and Indians. The second, representing nine colonies, met in New York, October, 1765, for the purpose of remonstrating against the Stamp Act. The third, known as the “First Continental

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON U. S. HISTORY.
Congress," met in Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774, to concert a plan of action and union against the tyrannical measures of Parliament.

114. (a) The battle of Lexington April 19, 1775. (b) The capture of military stores collected at Concord. (c) The complete union of the colonies.

115. At Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. It voted to raise 20,000 men and appointed General Washington commander-in-chief. A petition to the King was ordered and sent, but George III., regarding them as rebels, refused to be petitioned.

116. To prevent the British using Canada as a rendezvous and base of supply, an expedition under Generals Schuyler, Montgomery, and Arnold was sent to occupy the province. St. Johns and Montreal were captured by Montgomery; but in the attack on Quebec, the Americans were repulsed with the loss of General Montgomery, and the expedition proved a failure.

117. British evacuation of Boston; Attack on Fort Moultrie; Battles of Long Island, White Plains, and Trenton.

118. By Richard Henry Lee, June 7, 1776.

119. (a) By Thomas Jefferson. (b) July 4, 1776, by a majority of one colony. (c) By all members present,—56. (d) It was everywhere in the States just formed greeted with the firing of cannon, the ringing of bells, and other demonstrations of exultation.
120. In the battles of Trenton and Princeton.

121. La Fayette, Barons de Kalb and Steuben, Count Pulaski, and Thaddeus Kosciusko.
122. (a) Burgoyne's purpose was to force his way from Canada to New York, and thus cut off New England from the other colonies. (b) His force consisted of 10,000 regulars, Canadians and Indians.
123. By the two battles of Saratoga, Sept. 19 and Oct. 7, 1777, in the latter of which he was so completely worsted that he was compelled to surrender his entire army.
124. Generals Schuyler, Gates, Lincoln, Arnold, Morgan, Stark, and Kosciusko.
125. June 20, 1782.
126. While Washington was encamped at Valley Forge, using every means to keep the army together, through that long, gloomy winter, intrigues were on foot to supersede him in command by friends of Gates, whose brilliant success was contrasted with the late reverses of Washington. These were principally conducted by one General Conway. So great was the indignation upon this becoming known that the instigators were ashamed to acknowledge the part they had taken in the intrigue.
127. In a letter written by Washington at Valley Forge, he says: “Without arrogance, or the smallest deviation from truth, it may be said that no history, now extant, can furnish an instance of an army suffering such hardships as ours has done, bearing them with the same patience and fortitude.”

128. The untiring exertions of Benjamin Franklin and the surrender of Burgoyne.
129. Without the assistance of France in money, ships, and troops, it is scarcely probable that the colonies would have succeeded without a struggle greatly prolonged.
130. Princeton, Bennington, Brandywine, Saratoga, Germantown.

131. (a) In 1775, and in each year following till 1780, Congress issued bills of credit, called continental money, till the amount reached $200,000,000. (b) For want of confidence of the people in the redemption of these bills, and the flooding of the country with counterfeits by the British, this money depreciated in value till $100 in bills were worth but a dollar in specie.

132. Marion, Sumter, Pickens, Lee and Hayne.

133. (a) Indebtedness and disgrace caused by extravagance, dissipation, and gambling, and charges resulting in a reprimand by Washington, inflamed him to resentment. (b) While it temporarily grieved the Americans and caused apprehensions of more serious results, it united the army and people in a more vigorous effort in expelling the British. (c) His reward was £6,315, a colonelcy in the English army, and the contempt of everybody.

134. (a) The revolt of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey troops on account of non-payment for service and insufficient supplies and clothing. (b) Agents of Sir Henry Clinton offered the mutineers large rewards to join the British army; but while they were in revolt, they were not traitors; they arrested the emissaries and gave them up as spies.
135. Battle of Monmouth, arrival of the French fleet, capture of Savannah by the British.
136. Stony Point, Paul Jones's Naval battle, repulse of the Americans and French at Savannah.
137. Robert Morris of Pennsylvania.
138. He never gained a decided victory, but his defeats had all the effect of success. Again, it is to be noticed that the British retreated after each victory they claimed, and only pursued the Americans after their defeat by Morgan at the Cowpens.
139. Surrender of Charleston to the British, battles of Hanging Rock, Camden, and King's Mountain.
140. Battle of the Cowpens, Greene's Retreat, battles of Guilford Court House, and Eutaw Springs, and Surrender of Cornwallis, Oct. 19, 1781.
141. (a) By the treaty of Paris, September 3, 1783. (b) John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson, though the latter did not serve.
142. Many of the officers at the close of the Revolution, doubted the ability of the people to form an efficient government; and many and urgent were the proposals made to Washington that a monarchy be established and he accept the crown. Washington indignantly repelled the offer.
143. (a) The "Articles of Confederation" constituted the bond of union of the States which declared themselves independent of Great Britain. (b) They were adopted by Congress, November 15, 1777. (c) According to their own provisions they were not binding until ratified by all the States, which did not occur till March 1, 1781. (d) By these articles Congress had power to declare war and contract debts, but could not raise a dollar by taxation. It could advise all things, but could enforce nothing.

144. The manifest failure of the Articles of Confederation, the deranged condition of the finances of the country, and the numerous controversies verging upon open hostilities between several of the States, convinced the people that immediate steps must be taken to revise the bond by which the States were united. After several attempts to secure a meeting of representatives from the several States, on May 25, 1787, the delegates present organized by electing George Washington president of the Convention, and proceeded at once to the work in hand. The idea of revision was early abandoned; and after a deliberation of four months and three days, the Constitution as we have it to-day, except the Amendments and the manner of electing the President, was published to the people.

145. (a) Federalists and Anti-Federalists. (b) The Federalists favored the Constitution and sought to increase the powers of the national government, and thus strengthen the Union at home and abroad. The Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution on the ground that it gave too much authority to Congress, thus weakening the power of the States and might ultimately lead to the establishment of a monarchy.
(c) Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison were among the most prominent advocates of the Constitution.

146. (a) March 4, 1789. (b) North Carolina and Rhode Island. (c) George Washington, by a unanimous vote.

147. The change of occupation, associations and general practice of the people produced a greater looseness in morals and manners. That high sense of integrity which had existed before the war, gave place to more slippery notions of honesty and honor. The atheistical philosophy, which was preparing the way for the horrors of the French revolution, spread over the country and threatened to wreck the religious sentiments of the people. Commerce was entirely neglected, but cut off from foreign supply, the people were compelled to look to their own ingenuity for the manufacture of those articles needed in the struggle, and for the usual avocations of life.

148. Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State (then styled Secretary of Foreign Affairs); Henry Knox, Secretary of War; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; and Edmund Randolph, Attorney General.

149. The treasury was empty and the government without credit. The frontier was ravaged by hostile Indians. Spain refused the navigation of the Mississippi, and England ignored all commercial treaties thus far proposed.

150. (a) Hamilton proposed the payment of the national debt, foreign and domestic, and the assumption of the State debts contracted during the war.
(b) These measures at once gave confidence in the stability and integrity of the government.

151. At the second session of Congress an act was passed fixing the seat of government after the year 1800 on the Potomac River. In accordance with this act, Maryland and Virginia ceded to the U. S. a tract of land 10 miles square which was termed the "District of Columbia." The City of Washington was founded on the Maryland side in 1792, Washington himself laid the cornerstone of the capitol. The Virginia portion, containing forty square miles, was receded to that State in 1846.

152. (a) The Republican and Federalist parties.
(b) Thomas Jefferson and Edmund Randolph were the leaders of the Republican party, Alexander Hamilton and John Adams of the Federalists.

153. A majority of the people, grateful for the aid of France in the American Revolution, fervently desired the success of the French Republic. The President considering the true policy of this country was non-interference in the affairs of Europe, issued a proclamation of neutrality.

154. (a) The Alien and Sedition laws passed in 1798.
(b) The Alien law authorized the President to order any alien, whom he should judge dangerous to the United States, to leave the country. Under the Sedition law, any person could be punished, by fine or imprisonment, for speaking, writing, or publishing anything false or malicious against the government, the President, or Congress.

155. The legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, in response to the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws, asserted that a State had a right to judge for itself how far the national authority should be considered binding.

156. Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803 for fifteen million dollars.

157. In August, 1807, by Robert Fulton, who made the voyage from New York to Albany in the first steamboat, the Clermont.

158. The aggressions committed by British cruisers in executing the '' Orders in Council,'' in maintaining the right of search for alleged British subjects, and the impressment of American seamen, often taken from American vessels.

159. (a) The country was poorly prepared for war. The army numbered but ten thousand men, while to contend with the formidable naval power of England, which included a thousand vessels, we could boast but ten frigates and a few old worthless gunboats. (b) The Federalists.

160. To invade and conquer Canada.

161. The general result of the military expeditions into Canada was disastrous to the Americans, while the naval engagements were almost without exception successful.

162. The Army of the West, under General Harrison, for the recovery of Michigan; the Army of the Center, under General Dearborn, for the invasion of Canada by the way of Niagara River, and the Army of the North, under General Wade Hampden, for the protection of the northern frontier and ultimate coöperation with the other armies in the invasion of Canada.

163. Though New England generally opposed the War of 1812, Massachusetts took the lead, considering it ruinous to the interests of the country, wrong in its origin, and in its progress, characterized by the grossest mismanagement.

164. (a) A convention of delegates from most of the New England States, which met at Hartford, Ct., Dec. 15, 1814. (b) The object was to consider the condition of the States represented with reference to the prosecution of the war. (c) Beyond the recommendation of several amendments nothing was done.

165. Perry's Victory, battles of the Thames, Lundy's Lane, Plattsburg, and New Orleans.

166. By the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.

167. While the terms of the treaty left the questions of the war unsettled, the claims of England were never renewed. The United States gained the respect of European nations and at once took her place among the leading powers of the world.

168. Restoration of the public credit; war with the Indians in the Northwest Territory; Jay's Treaty; admission to the Union of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee; and the invention of the cotton gin.
169. Hostilities with France, death of Washington, and removal of the national capital to Washington.
170. The Federalist party had become so weakened by its opposition to the War of 1812, that Monroe, the Republican candidate, was elected almost unanimously.
171. (a) The Whig party succeeded the Federalist; while the Republican party became known as the Democratic party. (b) The Whigs advocated a protective tariff and a general system of internal improvements; the Democrats opposed these.
172. The Seminole war; the purchase of Florida; the admission of Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri into the Union; adoption of the "Missouri Compromise" and La Fayette's visit.
173. First ship built in New England — the "Blessing of the Bay," July 4, 1631; the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776; death of Adams and Jefferson, July 4, 1826; death of James Monroe, July 4, 1831; surrender of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863.
174. Pending the admission of Missouri, violent debate arose on the question whether it should be a free or a slave State. It was finally agreed in 1820 that Missouri might come in as a slave State, but that slavery should be prohibited in all territory, belonging to the United States, west of the Mississippi, and north of parallel 36° 30'.
175. In 1819, the American Government agreeing to pay to citizens of the United States five million dollars, due them from Spain, and give up all claim to the present State of Texas.
176. In President Monroe's annual message, in 1823, alluding to the South American colonies, recently recognized as sovereign powers, he declared that "the American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers."
177. Four candidates were in the field, and no one receiving a majority of the electoral vote, John Q. Adams was elected by the House of Representatives.
178. Both were early enlisted in their country's cause. Both were bold, ardent, unyielding patriots. They were both members of the committee appointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence, and they formed the sub-committee appointed by the other members to make the draft of it. While Jefferson was the author of the Declaration, Adams was its great advocate on the floor of Congress. Both had been ministers abroad, both vice-presidents, and both presidents, and both died on July 4, 1826
179. For unprecedented internal improvements. During Mr. Adams's presidency the Erie Canal was opened, in 1827 the first railroad was completed in Quincy, Mass.; though steam locomotives were not used till 1829.

180. The removal of officials belonging to an opposite party and appointing political adherents.

181. France had acknowledged the claim of the United States to five million dollars, but refusing to make the payment, President Jackson proposed that reprisals should be made upon the French property until the claim was paid.

182. In 1832.

183 The political leaders of South Carolina, chief of whom were Robert Y. Hayne, senator from that State, and John C. Calhoun, then vice-president, held that it is the right of a State to determine for itself how far it would yield obedience to the laws of the United States. South Carolina asserting the principle of a protective tariff to be unjust and unconstitutional, called a convention, which, November 24, 1832, passed an ordinance of nullification, declaring the tariff laws null and void. Preparations were made to resist the enforcement of these laws in that State, but the prompt action of the President, and a compromise tariff passed by Congress, averted the threatened calamity.

184. 1st. The flooding of the country with a large amount of paper currency by the banks holding the public funds, thus favoring an unwarrantable spirit of speculation. 2nd. The withdrawal of the surplus public funds from the banks to be distributed among the States, causing a sudden contraction of the specie circulation from the inability of the banks to meet the demand. 3rd. The President's specie circular, ordering payment for public lands to be made in gold and silver. 4th. Heavy importations, requiring payment in gold.

185. In 1842, by Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton.

186. In vetoing the measures of the party which had elected him to office.

187. 1st. That Texas should adopt a constitution, and lay it before Congress on or before January 1, 1846. 2nd. That all mines, minerals, fortifications, arms, navy, etc., should be ceded to the United States. 3rd. That new States might hereafter be formed out of said territory.

188. First, an unwillingness to involve the country in a war with Mexico, owing to unsettled disputes regarding the boundary of Texas; and, second, anti-slavery men opposed its annexation on the ground that Texas being slave territory, its admission would extend the area of slavery.

189. (a) The United States founded their claim to Oregon upon the expeditions and explorations of Captain Gray, in 1792, and Lewis and Clark in 1804-5, and on the purchase from Spain of her rights to that territory. The English based their claim upon the operation of British fur companies within the territory. (b) The present boundary was established by treaty in 1846.

190. (a) The annexation of Texas. (b) By an action in which Captain Thornton, with some fifty dragoons, was captured, April 26, 1846, though war was not formally declared till May 11. (c) Till February 2, 1848. (d) By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. (e) The United States gained a vast territory, extending south to the Gila River and west to the Pacific, and agreed to pay Mexico fifteen million dollars, and to assume her debts due to American citizens to the amount of three million more.

191. All the important battles.

192. (a) 1st. The people of the slave States contended that the territory acquired by the blood and treasure of the whole Union from Mexico should be open to slaveholders with their slaves as well as with their other property. 2nd. California asked admission as a free State, although a portion of her territory lay south of the proposed line of compromise in which slavery should be permitted. 3rd. Petitions were pouring in from the north praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. 4th. The south was greatly exasperated by the assistance rendered fugitive slaves to escape. 5th. Texas set up a claim to a part of the acquired territory, which if allowed, would extend slavery to the region claimed. (b) By the passage of the Omnibus Bill.

193. 1st. California was to be admitted as a free State. 2nd. Utah and New Mexico were to be formed as territories without any provision concerning slavery. 3rd. Texas was to be paid ten million dollars to give up her claim on New Mexico. 4th. The slave trade was to be abolished in the District of Columbia. 5th. A Fugitive Slave Law was to be enacted providing for the return to their owners of slaves escaping to a free State.

194. (a) The Kansas-Nebraska Bill provided for the organization of two territories—Kansas and Nebraska, in which the question whether they should be free or slave, should be determined in each territory by its inhabitants. (b) Its author was Stephen A. Douglas. (c) Its legal effect was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. (d) Its political effect was the most bitter sectional strife the country had known.

195. The rescinding of the Missouri Compromise, by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in May, 1855.

196. (1.) The Federalists. (2.) Republicans. (3.) Democrats. (4.) Whigs. (5.) Free Soilers. (6.) Republicans (opposed to the extension of slavery). (7.) Americans or Know-Nothings. (8.) Constitutional Union Party. (9.) Liberal Republicans. (10.) National Greenbackers. (11.) Prohibitionists.

197. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise, civil war in Kansas, and treaty with Japan.

198. (a) Dred Scott and his wife were slaves belonging to a United States army surgeon, who took them into Illinois and afterwards to United States territory north of the Missouri Compromise line. Claiming their freedom on the ground that they had been carried into free territory by their master, the United States Supreme Court, in 1857, through Chief-Justice Taney, declared that slave-owners might take their slaves into any State of the Union without forfeiting authority over them. (b) At the north it produced great indignation, the effect being it was considered, the removal of the last barrier to the legal extension of slavery throughout the country. The people of the south regarded it as only a right guaranteed them by the Constitution.

199. The southern leaders declared after the election of Mr. Lincoln that he was a sectional candidate, pledged to the overthrow of slavery, and assuming the right of secession, declared that its exercise was necessary to protect them from aggression on the part of the Federal Government.

200. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas, organized the government; Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, entered the confederation later in the spring.

201. (a) April 14, 1861, by the capture of Fort Sumter, by the Secessionists. (b) April 26, 1865, by the surrender of Johnston's army to Sherman, though the rebel forces west of the Mississippi did not surrender till May 26.

202. Their interest in the cotton product of the South, together with their jealousy of the growing power of United States, caused them to accord to the Southern Confederacy the rights of belligerents, and to furnish them aid in the way of arms and money.

203. With the exception of the victories of the Union army in West Virginia, the occupancy of Missouri by Union forces, and the capture of Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, and the forts at Port Royal Entrance, South Carolina, by the Union navy and army, the military advantage was entirely with the Confederates.

204. 1st. To confine the military operations within the Confederate States. 2nd. To enforce the block-ade of the Southern ports. 3rd. To open the Mis-sissippi River. 4th. To capture Richmond, the Confederate capital.

205. The result of the battle of Bull Run convinced the Northern people that the preservation of the Union could be accomplished only by the most gigantic struggle. After this battle extraordinary efforts, extreme measures and unflinching determination char-acterized every act of the people, the government and the army till the great work was completed.

206. The Union victories of 1862 were Fort Donel-son, Pea Ridge, Shiloh, Antietam, Iuka and Murfrees-boro; the principal Confederate victories were the Seven-Days' battles before Richmond, Second Battle of Bull Run, Cedar Mountain and Fredericksburg.

207. The Union army numbered about 700,000 men, while that of the Confederate was about half this number.

208. (a) January 1, 1863, by President Lincoln. (b) It included all slaves in the insurgent States except such parts of Louisiana and Virginia as were under national authority. (c) As the legitimate issue of the rebellion.

209. (a) Two. (b) The first was checked by the battle of Antietam, Sept. 17, 1862; the second by the battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 2, and 3, 1863.
210. (a) July 1, 2, 3, and 4, 1863. (b) The battle of Gettysburg and surrender of Vicksburg, July 4, by which the Confederates lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 60,000 men.
211. Chickamauga and Chancellorsville.
212. To divide the Confederacy and ultimately to coöperate in the attack on Richmond from the South.
213. 1st. Ignorance of the real intentions of the Southern leaders. 2nd. Absence of any definite preparation in the beginning. 3rd. Want of sufficient number of trained officers. 4th The prudence, tact, and military skill of the Confederate officers and valor of the Southern soldiers, 5th. The need of a commanding officer for the first three years, regulating the movements of the different armies for the accomplishment of a definite purpose.
214. The capture of Port Royal Entrance, the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac, the destruction of the Alabama by the Kearsarge, and the capture of the forts in Mobile Bay by Farragut.
215. Irwin McDowell, George B. McClellan, John Pope, Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, George G. Meade, and U. S. Grant.
216. While thousands of men were fighting for the preservation of the Union in the national armies, there were many in the North who sympathized with the Southern insurgents. These, with emissaries from the South, too cowardly to enter the ranks, sought every opportunity to thwart the efforts of the government in subduing the rebellion.
During the draft for troops in New York and elsewhere, forcible resistance was attempted resulting in terrible riots, causing the destruction of millions of property and many lives.

217. 2,690,000 men.

218. (a) May 1, 1865, when the number under arms was 1,000,000 men. (b) The daily expense at this time was $3,500,000 per day.

219. Including pensions up to 1883, the amount was not far from $4,000,000,000.

220. The North emerged from the war richer and stronger than ever before; while the South was reduced to poverty and greatly diminished in numbers.

221. 1st. By a system of internal revenue, as taxes on incomes, manufactures, etc. 2nd. By the issuing of $500,000,000 treasury notes as a circulating medium. 3rd. By loans of various forms, for which the bonds of the U. S. were given.

222. By the 13th Amendment, declared adopted by the States as a part of the Constitution, December 18, 1865.

223. 1st. Equal civil rights shall be guaranteed to all, without regard to race or color. 2nd. Representation in each State shall be in proportion to the number of voters. 3rd. No man who broke his civil oath to engage in rebellion shall hold office, or vote for president till permitted by special act of Congress. 4th. The national debt, including bounties and pensions to soldiers, shall be held inviolable. 5th. The rebel debt shall be held illegal and void. 6th. No compensation shall be allowed for emancipated slaves.

224. By general amnesty and pardon.

225. By military governors appointed by the President, because, according to the plan of reconstruction, their own State governments were declared merely provisional.

226. Troubles growing out of the difference of opinion between President Johnson and Congress respecting the “readmission of the seceded States,” occasioned much bitterness of feeling between Johnson and that body. No less than seventeen bills submitted for the President's signature, were returned with his veto — most of which were afterwards passed by the requisite two-thirds majority of both houses. Finally, upon the President's removing Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, without concurrence of the Senate, the House of Representatives by a vote of 126 to 47 impeached Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, of high crimes and misdemeanors in office. The President was acquitted, but only by one vote.

227. The American government claimed reparation from the English government for depredations committed by the Alabama and other English-built-and-manned privateers during the Civil War. The refusal of the English government to pay the damages caused by these vessels, produced much bitter feeling, and even threatened war. A tribunal consisting of five arbitrators from different nations, acting under the provisions of the treaty of Washington, met in Geneva, Switzerland, and on Sept. 14, 1872, awarded the sum of 15 1/2 million dollars in gold to be paid by Great Britain to the United States, for the satisfaction of all the claims " known as the Alabama claims."

228. Both parties claiming the victory, Congress agreed to refer the contest to a joint electoral commission, composed of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. This commission decided that 185 electoral votes had been cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks.

229. John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and Martin Van Buren.

230. Harrison, Taylor, Lincoln, and Garfield.

231.
Presidents. Party. Inaugurated. Years in office.
George Washington.........Federal, 1789 8
John Adams............... " 1797 4
Thomas Jefferson.........Republican 1801 8
James Madison............ " 1809 8
James Monroe............. " 1817 8
John Quincy Adams.......Whig, 1825 4
Andrew Jackson...........Democrat, 1829 8
Martin Van Buren......... " 1837 4
William H. Harrison......Whig, 1841 1/12
John Tyler............... " 1841 311/12
James K. Polk............Democrat, 1845 4
Zachary Taylor...........Whig 1849 11/3
Millard Fillmore......... " 1850 22/3
Franklin Pierce..........Democrat, 1853 4
James Buchanan........... " 1857 4
Abraham Lincoln..........Republican, 1861 41/8
Andrew Johnson........... " 1865 37/8
U. S. Grant.............. " 1869 8
R. B. Hayes.............. " 1877 4
James A. Garfield........ " 1881 61/2 mos.
Chester A. Arthur........ " 1881 31/2 y.
Grover Cleveland.........Democrat, 1885 4
Benjamin Harrison........Republican, 1889

232. (a) In 1792, by Eli Whitney. (b) By its invention, the annual production of cotton in the Southern States was increased from five thousand to over five million bales, a quantity equal in value to seven-eighths of all the cotton produced on the globe. By this wonderful increase in the civilized world's commodity, “Cotton became king,” and slavery, his scepter, with which he sought to rule the world. Without this invention the South would never have attained its present agricultural importance, and slavery, for the want of profitable continuance, would not have lingered on our continent till its baleful influence drenched the country with the people’s blood.

233. Washington, Jackson, Harrison, Taylor and Grant.

234. For the first bloodshed in the Revolution and in the Great Civil War.

235. The Commissioner of Agriculture.

236. In 1690, at Vincennes, as a trading post by the French.

237. General Lyon, August 10, 1861 ; Generals Stevens and Kearney, September 1, 1862 ; Colonel Dahlgren, February, 1864 ; General Sedgwick, May 9, 1864.

238. (a) A protective tariff is a duty imposed on imported goods for the purpose of encouraging their manufacture at home. Free trade means no duty whatever, or a light duty for revenue only. (b) The North has generally favored a protective tariff, the South free trade. (c) Clay, Webster and Calhoun (during his earlier career). (d) Calhoun, Benton, and Hayne.

239. Abraham Lincoln, Republican party; Stephen A. Douglas, the northern wing of the Democratic party; John C. Breckenridge, the pro-slavery Democratic party; John Bell, the Constitutional Union party.

240. (a) In 1755, at St. Genevieve, by the French. (b) April 8, 1812. (c) August 10, 1821.

241. In 1769 at San Diego.

242. Revolutionary war; war with Indians in north-west Territory, 1793—4; war with Tripoli, 1801—5; second war with Great Britain 1812—14; war with the Creeks, 1811—14; war with Algiers, 1815; Black Hawk War, 1832; Seminole War, 1835—37; war with Mexico, 1846—8; the Civil War, 1861—5; the war with the Sioux, 1862, and again in 1877.

243. (a) By conquest, purchase, annexation, exploration, and occupancy. (b) By conquest: the original territory from England; partly by conquest and partly by purchase: California, Nevada, etc., from Mexico; by annexation: Texas from Texas; by exploration and occupancy: Oregon; by purchase: Louisiana, from France, Florida from Spain; Gadsden tract, from Mexico, Alaska from Russia.

244. Bancroft's History, Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries.

245 They were required to rescind their ordinances of secession, declare void all debts contracted in support of the Rebellion, and vote to adopt an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery.

246. In Massachusetts, Bunker Hill; in New York, Saratoga; in Pennsylvania, Gettysburg; in Maryland, Antietam; in Virginia, Yorktown; in Tennessee, Nashville, and Murfreesboro; in Georgia, battles before Atlanta; in Mississippi, battles in vicinity of Vicksburg; in Arkansas, Pea Ridge; in Kentucky, Perryville.

247. General George H. Thomas.

248. (a) Four; viz., 1857, 1858, 1865, and accomplished in 1866. (b) Cyrus W. Field.

249. 1st. The Articles of Confederation constituted a mere bond of union between independent States; — the Constitution is the expression of a people constituting and establishing themselves an independent and indivisible nation. 2nd. The power of Congress, under the articles of Confederation was only delegated power, the States reserving the sovereignty to themselves; — the power of Congress, under the Constitution comes direct from the people. 3rd. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress could merely recommend, leaving the sovereign States to act as their local interests might dictate; — under the Constitution, Congress, representing the will of the people, authorizes, and the executive enforces. 4th. Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, could apportion the general debt among the States, and recommend that each pay its just share; — under the Constitution, the national debt is paid by appropriations from the national treasury.

250. During King William's War Massachusetts issued bills of credit to pay the expense of Governor Phipp's expedition against Canada.
251. Three orators: Patrick Henry, Clay and Webster; statesmen: Hamilton, Madison and W. H. Seward; poets: Longfellow, Bryant, and Whittier; historians: Bancroft, Prescott, and Motley; novelists: Cooper, Irving, and Hawthorne; inventors: Eli Whitney, Morse, and Edison.
252. John Hancock, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Roger Sherman, Thomas Jefferson, Eldridge Gerry, Richard Henry Lee, Charles Carroll, Samuel Adams.
253. The rank of General has been held by George Washington, U. S. Grant, W. T. Sherman and P. H. Sheridan; Lt. General by Washington, Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan, — Scott, by brevet.
254. Under the Articles of Confederation no such officer was provided as President. The Constitution, which succeeded the Articles of Confederation, was completed by the convention, September 17, 1787, but owing to the delay in its ratification by the requisite number [9] of States, it did not go into effect until March 4, 1789; during the interim both executive and legislative powers were exercised by Congress.
255. The purchase of Alaska, the Centennial Celebration, settlement of the fishery dispute, the railroad riots, and the assassination of President Garfield.
256. November 15, 1883, the United States Supreme Court decided that the first and second sections of the Act of Congress of March 1, 1877, entitled "An act to protect all citizens in their civil and legal rights” were unconstitutional. These acts refer to granting colored persons equal accommodations in hotels, railroad cars, and theatres.

QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT.

1. Define government as applied to communities.
2. What does the term nation in a political sense mean?
3. What should be the chief object of every government?
4. (a) Name the various forms of government known to history. (b) State which of these are now in existence.
5. (a) Explain what is meant by a republican form of government. (b) Give five examples.
6. What term defines the government of the U. S.?
7. What analogy exists between the government of the U. S. and the several States?
8. Show whether the form of government under which we live is "the best" for all classes.
9. What do you mean by a written constitution? and how does it differ from an unwritten constitution?
10. Whence are the laws of this country mainly derived?
11. By what bonds were the States united from 1775 to 1789?
12. State in the fewest words possible the objections to the Articles of Confederation.
13. Write correctly the Preamble to the Constitution.
14. Which of the several objects set forth in the Preamble do you regard the most important? Give your reason.
15. What is the Congress of the U. S.? and of what does it consist?
16. (a) How often, and when, does Congress assemble? (b) What is the constitutional term of its existence? (c) What do you mean by the forty-fourth Congress?
17. (a) What is the House of Representatives? (b) Of how many composed (1884)? (c) Why are the members called Representatives? (d) Eligibility? (e) What is the basis of representation (1884)?
18. What is the constitutional definition of a citizen?
19. Where and for what purpose does the word slavery occur in the Constitution?
20. (a) What is the principal object in taking the census? (b) How often taken? (c) Name some other facts obtained by the census than population.
21. Define the following terms used in the Constitution: electors; oath; affirmation; judgment.
22. State what bills must originate in the House of Representatives, and why.
23. Under what circumstances does the House of Representatives elect the President? How many times, and when did this occur?
24. How is the U. S. Senate composed?
25. What are the conditions of eligibility to the U. S. Senate?
26. By whom and for what term are Senators chosen?
27. Is the President of the Senate pro tempore, when the Vice-President has succeeded to the presidency, Vice-President of the U. S.? Give your reason.
28. When does the Chief Justice preside over the Senate?
29. What is impeachment? By whom made? By whom tried?
30. What is an executive session of the Senate? Why so called, and what business is transacted at such session, and in what manner?
31. (a) When is the Vice-President of the U. S. elected by the Senate? (b) When has such an election occurred?
32. What punishment under the Constitution may follow conviction, on impeachment, by the Senate?
33. What constitutes a quorum in Congress?
34. Name the objects in taking the vote by yeas and nays in the U. S. Congress.
35. On what does the duration of Congress depend?
36. What is a bill as used in the Constitution?
37. (a) By how many processes may a bill become a law? (b) Give the several steps of each process.
38. (a) Is the veto power of the President qualified or absolute? (b) State what you can respecting the exercise of this power by the different Presidents.
39. Give an explanation of a writ of habeas corpus.
40. When, why, and by whom may the writ of habeas corpus be suspended?
41. Why are export duties from States prohibited?
42. What is the object of the provision restricting the disbursement of public money?
43. State why army appropriations cannot extend beyond two years.
44. State clearly what is meant by a bill of attainder.
45. What is an ex-post-facto law?
46. Who declares the punishment of treason? To whom is the punishment limited?
47. Why does the Constitution in the 14th Amendment prohibit the payment of certain debts?
48. Give a comprehensive definition of civil liberty.
49. What Constitutional provisions are made for the exercise of religious freedom?
50. What personal rights of speech, freedom of the press and right of petition are guaranteed by the Constitution?
51. State a reason why the Senate suffrage can never be changed by Constitutional amendment.
52. Why are insurrections more liable to occur under our government than under a monarchy?
53. What rights and powers are reserved to the respective States?
54. What is the origin of the State obligation to the Federal Union?
55. Why are amendments equally binding on such States as do not ratify them as upon others?
56. What terms of the Constitution particularly establish the supremacy of the U. S. authority?
57. Name the commercial powers which the States are forbidden to exercise.
58. Under what circumstances would a State be justified in raising troops without the consent of Congress?
59. For what purpose are inspection laws enacted?
60. What is the term of office of Supreme Court judges?
61. What was the origin of trial by jury?
62. What is the difference between a grand and petit jury?
63. Under what conditions may a person be deprived of his property?
64. How is treason against the U. S. defined?
65. In whom is the executive power of the U. S. vested?
66. What conditions of eligibility are required in the President?
67. How many and what methods are provided for the election of President of the U. S.?
68. Give a brief outline of the method of electing the President of the United States.
69. Who would become President if the Constitutional methods prescribed failed in the election of that officer?
70. State the extent of power given the President over pardons and reprieves.
71. Define the following terms: Ambassador, Minister, Consul.
72. What officers constitute the President's cabinet?
73. Name the instances in our history in which the Vice-President has been called to fill the unexpired term of the President.
74. What special propriety is there in prescribing the election of Vice-President by the Senate, in case the electors fail in electing that officer?
75. In what respect do the duties of the President of the Senate differ from those of the Speaker of the House?
76. How is the Supreme Court of the United States established, and how organized? Of how many judges does it consist?
77. How is a person having a claim against a State to obtain relief?
78. Name the various offices and bureaus in charge of the Department of the Interior.
79. Explain what is meant by "minority represen-tation."
80. Name some exceptions to universal suffrage in the several States.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERN-MENT.

1. The term government signifies the organized means a nation employs for securing the rights of the people and for perpetuating its own existence.
2. A nation is a political community, independent of all others, creating and changing its own constitution and enacting its own laws without hindrance from any other community.
3. The good of the governed.
4. (a) Patriarchal, Theocratic, Monarchical, Aristocratic, Democratic, Republican. (b) Monarchical and Republican.
5. (a) A Republican government is one whose laws are made and executed by representatives chosen by voters at stated times. (b) The United States, France, Switzerland, Mexico, Chile.
6. A Federal-Republican government.
7. The National government and State governments have each three distinct branches or departments: the legislative, executive, and judicial. The President of the nation corresponds to the Governor of the State; the vice-president of the former, to the lieutenant-governor of the latter. The nation has its congress, and the State has its legislature. The nation has its federal judiciary, and the States have their system of courts.
8. It is the best for an intelligent and virtuous people; but for the ignorant and depraved it is the worst form which could be devised, since the power is likely to fall into the hands of corrupt intriguers and mercenary demagogues influenced by no motive but self-interest, and amenable to no power save that of might.
9. A written constitution is a written instrument embodying the principles or fundamental laws which govern the nation. An unwritten constitution is the character of a nation as implied in the institutions and usages of its society.
10. From England.
11. For the first six years, by the ties of common interest, without any written bond of union; after that, by the Articles of Confederation.
12. They were antagonistic to the spirit, genius, and constitution of the people whom they were designed to mould into one nation.
13. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
14. The 5th, to “promote the general welfare,” because it implies, in a general way, all the others.
15. The law-making power of the United States. It consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives.
16. (a) Congress must assemble at least once every year, on the first Monday in December. (b) It can never extend beyond two years. (c) The forty-fourth Congress means the forty-fourth time a new Congress, i.e., the House of Representatives has been organized, which must occur every alternate year.
17. (a) The House of Representatives is the most numerous branch of Congress. Its members are elected by the people. (b) It is composed of 325 members, which number will not be changed before March, 1893. (c) Because they act, and speak, and vote as the agent of the people who elect them. (d) A Representative must have attained the age of 25 years, must have been a citizen of the U. S. seven years, and must be an inhabitant of that State from which he is chosen. (e) From March, 1883, to March, 1893, each State is entitled to one representative for every 151,912 of its inhabitants.

18. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.
19. Only in the 13th Amendment for the purpose of its abolition.

20. The apportionment of representatives. (b) Every ten years. The first was taken in 1790. (c) Besides the number of inhabitants, their ages, sex, color, and ability to read and write, we obtain statistics of facts relating to agriculture, commerce, manufacture, etc.

21. Electors in the Constitution means voters. An oath is a solemn declaration made with an appeal to God for the truth of what is said. An affirmation is a solemn declaration made by one who is unwilling to take an oath from conscientious scruples. A judgment is a solemn determination of a fact by competent judicial authority.

22. “All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives,” because since the people are to pay the taxes, if any are imposed, it is proper that their representatives should be the prime movers in any measures that require money to prosecute them.

23. When the electors shall fail to elect a President, in the manner prescribed, the election devolves on the
House. This has occurred twice: the first time in 1801, when Thomas Jefferson was elected on the thirty-
sixth ballot; the second instance was in 1825, when John Quincy Adams was elected on the first ballot.

24. The Senate is composed of two members from each State.
25. A Senator must be thirty years of age, have been a citizen of the United States nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.
26. Senators are chosen by the Legislatures of their respective States for a term of six years.

27. The President of the Senate pro tempore is not
Vice-President of the United States. The Vice-Presi-
dent is an officer of the United States, and cannot be
a member of Congress. A person may be eligible to
the office of Senator, and consequently to the position
of President pro tem., though ineligible to the Vice-
Presidency. Example: the President pro tem. might
not be a native-born citizen.

28. When the President is tried the Chief Justice presides.

29. An impeachment is a solemn and specific accusa-
tion brought against a public officer for misconduct in
office. The House has the sole power of preferring
articles of impeachment. The Senate has the sole
power to try all impeachments.

30. An Executive Session is a special meeting of Senators called for the purpose of confirming Presidential appointments or ratifying treaties. It is so called because in such cases the Senate acts on the recommendations of the President. The meeting is held with closed doors, the members being, generally, under an injunction of secresy.

31. (a) When the electors shall fail to elect a Vice-President. (b) Richard M. Johnson in 1837 was elected Vice-President by the Senate.

32. 1st, Removal from office; and, 2nd, Disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States.

33. A majority of each House.

34. To preserve a record of the vote of each member on any matter voted upon.

35. 1st. On the Constitutional limitation which cannot extend beyond two years. 2nd. On the pleasure of the two Houses, subject to the foregoing restrictions. 3rd. On the pleasure of the President of the United States, when the two Houses cannot agree on the time of adjournment.

36. A bill is the draft of a proposed law.

37. (a) Three processes. (b) First process: 1st. The bill shall pass both Houses of Congress. 2nd. It shall be presented to the President. 3rd. If he approve it he shall sign it.
Second Process: 1st. The bill shall pass both Houses. 2nd. It shall be presented to the President. 3rd. If he disapprove it, he shall return it to that House in which it originated. 4th. That House shall enter its objections at large on their journal. 5th. They shall proceed to reconsider it; and if, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of the House shall agree to pass it, it shall be sent, with the objections, to the other House. 6th. The other House shall reconsider the bill; and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law.

Third Process: 1st. The bill shall pass both Houses. 2nd. It shall be sent to the President. 3rd. He neglects to approve or return it. 4th. It becomes a law at the end of ten days (Sundays excepted), unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevent its return.

38. (a) The veto power of the President is only qualified, not absolute. In this respect it differs from the veto power of the British Sovereign, in whom it is absolute. (b) Nearly all the Presidents have exercised the prerogative. Tyler vetoed five bills, and Johnson, twenty-one. Bills have been passed over the veto of but three Presidents—viz., one in the administration of Mr. Tyler, four in that of Mr. Pierce, and seventeen in that of Mr. Johnson.

39. It is a writ of relief ordering the release of any one imprisoned or wrongfully restrained of his liberty. If the court on inquiry decide that the person is justly restrained he is remanded to custody, otherwise he is set at liberty.

40. The writ of habeas corpus may be suspended during a rebellion, when the public safety may require it. The power of suspension belongs to Congress. From 1861 to 1865, Congress vested the power in the President.

41. The Prohibition is to prevent taxing the inter-ests of any State to its detriment, and giving undue advantages to others. The production of the several States being different, the burden of taxation would be as unequal as the exports.

42. To secure strict faithfulness in the public ex-penditures. No officer of the U. S. or of Congress can draw a dollar of public money except by appro-priations made by law.

43. This constitutional provision was due to the fear that the army might become a power too formid-able to be consistent with the rights and liberties of the people.

44. It is a special act of the legislative body, inflicting capital punishment on a person for high crimes, without having convicted him before a court of law. A person against whom such an act was passed was said to be attainted and outlawed. His blood became so corrupted that he could neither inherit from his ancestry, nor transmit by hereditary descent to his heirs.

45. An ex-post-facto law is one which makes an act criminal which was not so when committed.

46. Congress. The punishment is limited to the person convicted; in no legal sense does it reach his posterity.

47. These debts were incurred in aid of the rebellion against the U. S. Their repudiation is designed as a penalty on those who aided the rebellion by investing in Confederate bonds.

48. "Civil liberty is the natural liberty of mankind so far, and only so far restrained as is consistent with the public good." — Pliny.

49. "No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States."
"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof."

50. No law shall be made "abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances."

51. Art. V. of the Constitution provides that "No State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate."

52. On account of the greater freedom our people enjoy than those under other forms of government, that freedom is, correspondingly, more liable to be abused.

53. All such rights and powers are reserved to the States as are not expressly, or by necessary implication, delegated to the general government.

54. It is based on their assent to the Constitution of the U. S. Having accepted the terms of the union, they became subordinate to the national authority.

55. Because, having entered the Union, they agreed to the terms upon which its Constitution might be amended.

56. Sect. 2, Art. VI. : ''This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding."

57. 1. To coin money. 2. To issue bills of credit. 3. To make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts. 4. To pass any law impairing the obligation of contracts

58. Necessities for protection against invasion or insurrection might be so great as to render a delay dangerous; in which case the State government would be justified in arming and equipping its own troops for the emergency.

59. Inspection laws serve to maintain the standard and purity of articles designed for exportation and domestic use.

60. During good behavior, or life. Any judge of the U. S. Court having held his commission ten years, and having attained the age of seventy years, may resign his office and receive the same salary during life which was payable to him at the time of his resignation.
61. Trial by jury originated in England in the 9th century during the reign of Alfred the Great.

62. A grand jury consists of from 12 to 23 men, whose duty is to make careful inquiry of offenses committed within the district for which they are chosen, and to make presentment of the same. A majority is required to find an indictment. A petit jury consists of 12 "good and lawful men," selected to try the offenses against which indictments are found, or for the trial of issues of fact. A unanimous vote in most States is necessary to convict.

63. The public good may require private property for public roads, railroads, arsenals, forts, etc. In these cases private property may be taken by authority of law, but not without just compensation to the owner.

64. "Treason against the United States shall consist in levying war against them, or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort."

65. In the President of the United States.

66. He must be a natural born citizen of the U. S., must have attained the age of 35 years, and have been 14 years a resident within the United States.

67. Two methods: first, by electors appointed for that purpose; if this method fail the election devolves on the House of Representatives.

68. The following are the steps taken in the election of President:
1st. The electors, previously appointed, shall meet in their respective States on the first Wednesday in December, and vote by distinct ballots for President and Vice-President.
2nd. The votes are signed, certified, sealed, and addressed to the President of the Senate at the seat of government of the United States.
3rd. The President of the Senate, at a joint meeting of the two Houses of Congress, called the second Wednesday of February, shall open the certificates, and the votes are counted by tellers appointed by the House and the Senate.
4th. The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of the electors appointed.
5th. If no person have a majority of the electors appointed, the election of President devolves on the House of Representatives.
69. The Vice-President.
70. " He shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in the cases of impeachment."
71. An Ambassador is an officer employed by government to represent, and to manage its interests, at the seat of government of some other government. A Minister has the same duties as an Ambassador, but is regarded as inferior in rank. A Consul is an officer whose duty it is to protect the rights, commerce, merchants and seamen of his government in the country to which he may be appointed, and to aid any commercial transactions between his own and such foreign country.

72. Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Postmaster-General, and Attorney-General.

73. 1. John Tyler succeeded William Henry Harrison, who died April 4, 1841. 2. Millard Fillmore succeeded Zachary Taylor, who died July 9, 1850. 3. Andrew Johnson succeeded Abraham Lincoln, who was assassinated April 14, 1865. 4. Chester A. Arthur succeeded James A. Garfield, who died September 19, 1881.

74. This provision seems to be designed as a compliment to the Senate on account of the position the Constitution provides for the Vice-President in the Senate.

75. The Speaker of the House has the appointment of standing committees; but since the President of the Senate is not a member of that body, he has no such privilege unless granted by the Senate.

76. The supreme court of the United States is established by the Constitution and organized by Congress. The judges of the Supreme Court are one Chief Justice and eight associate justices.

77. He may petition the Legislature for redress, unless courts of claims are established for such purposes, in which case he may present his claim by petition or otherwise.
78. The Patent Office, Census Office, Land Office, Bureaus of Mines, Indian Affairs, Pensions, Education.
79. In the case of election of representatives in some States, each qualified voter may cast as many votes for one candidate as there are representatives to be elected, or may distribute the same, or equal parts thereof, among the candidates, as he shall see fit.
80. In Connecticut and Massachusetts those who are unable to read an article in the Constitution are excluded from voting. Seven States exclude paupers from suffrage. Georgia, Nevada, Massachusetts and New Hampshire make the payment of taxes a requisite for voting, except in certain cases.

QUESTIONS ON BOTANY.

1. State resemblances and differences between plants and animals.
2. What is meant by the flora of a country?
3. Explain the application of the terms species and genus.
4. (a) How are plants designated as to their term of life? (b) Define and give examples of the terms you employ.
5. Distinguish between deciduous and evergreen trees, and give two illustrations of each.
6. (a) Define germination. (b) What does it re-quire?
7. Name and define the parts of the embryo.
8. Upon what characteristic of the early growing plant is founded the most important subdivision of flowering plants?
9. Define and apply correctly the terms endogens and exogens.
10. What distinction is observed between the leaves of endogenous and exogenous plants?
11. Give a diagram-outline of the vegetable sub-kingdoms known as Phaenogamia and Cryptogamia.
12. Name and locate the parts of a flower.
13. Define the terms, perianth, androecium, gynoecium.
14. Enumerate the attributes possessed by a typical flower.
15. Explain the terms used in distinguishing the typical flower.
16. How are leaves of the calyx and corolla designated ?
17. When is a flower said to be (a) perfect? (b) complete? (c) apetalous? (d) staminate? (e) pistillate?
18. What are glumes and pales?
19. What is pollen? Where found?
20. Define the term pericarp, and state which form is dehiscent and which indehiscent.
21. Give examples of the following: Drupe, Tryma, Pome, Hesperidium, Samara.
22. What are the offices of the root?
23. Name some of the principal forms of roots.
24. State the difference between epiphytes and parasites.
25. What terms are applied to those branches tending to produce adventitious roots?
26. Define the terms caulis, culm, trunk.
27. What peculiarity is observed with respect to the twining of different vines?
28. What distinction can you name between the rhizome and the creeper?
29. Is the tuber a root? State your reason.
30. What is a bulb? Name its most common forms.
31. How does a flower-bud differ from a leaf-bud?
32. What various positions upon the plant may the leaf-bud occupy?
33. Define vernation, and enumerate the various forms of bud folding.
34. What are the common forms of leaf arrangement on the axis?
35. Name the parts of a complete net-veined leaf.
36. How do leaves contribute to the nourishment of plants?
37. What is the characteristic venation of the three grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom?
38. Name and define ten of the most common forms of leaf-outlines.
39. What are the divisions of a compound leaf called? To what are they usually attached?
40. Give the terms used to describe the margin of leaves.
41. What terms are employed in describing the surface of leaves?
42. What is a tendril and its use?
43. What do you mean by the term metamorphosis, as applied to flowers?
44. (a) Define inflorescence. (b) Name the two forms.
45. What is the peduncle? Pedicel?
46. Name the principal varieties of axillary inflorescence.
47. Describe the following: umbel, spadix, panicle, catkin, raceme.
48. Name the parts of the anther.
49. Define and give an example of multiple fruits.
50. How are plants nourished, clothed, protected?
51. (a) What are cryptogams? (b) Give illustrations. (c) Where do they grow? (d) What useful purpose do they serve?
52. What is the elementary organism of the plant?
53. Name the different forms of cells.
54. What chemical elements compose the outer and secondary cell walls?
55. Name the contents of the vegetable cell.
56. What is chlorophyll?
57. (a) Of what does the growth of plants consist? (b) Explain the process by which this is accomplished.
58. What different forms of tissue are formed of cells?
59. Describe the tissues found in vegetation.
60. (a) What are the breathing-pores of plants? (b) How are these affected by moist and dry weather?
61. (a) What is the construction of vegetable glands? (b) What is their use?
62. Into what four classes is the vegetable kingdom, according to modes of growth, divided?
63. Name and locate the structural parts of Exogens.
64. What and where is the cambium layer?
65. State the characteristic structure of endogenous plants.
66. Upon what peculiarity of growth is based the distinction of Exogens and Endogens ?
67. Describe the mode of growth in Acrogens.
68. Name some of the lowest forms of vegetation, and state to what class they belong.
69. Show wherein animal life is dependent upon the vegetable kingdom.
70. Of what does the substance of plants mainly consist, and how and whence is this derived?
71. Name the vital phenomena upon which the life of a plant depends ?
72. In what respect are some plants and insects mutually dependent ?
73. How are generic and specific terms in Botany distinguished?
74. Upon what principle is the absorption of fluids in a direction contrary to gravitation?
75. What fact proves the importance of a rotation of crops in agriculture ?
76. Describe the upward and downward flow of the sap and its use in the plant economy.
77. In what respect are plants and animals mutually dependent ?
78. Explain the principles upon which the "natural system" of plant classification is based.
79. Contrast the characteristic differences between Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.
80. Name fruits belonging to the following orders: Rosaceæ, Saxifragaceæ, Ebenaceæ, Artocarpaceæ, Crassulaceæ.
81. To what natural orders do the sunflower, pea, lettuce, parsley, and sweet potato belong?
82. What is the fruit of the strawberry plant?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON BOTANY.

1. Plants, like animals, are organized bodies composed of distinct parts, endowed with vitality but without sensation. Like animals, the presence of every organ is essential to completeness in plants, but the power of volition and perception of animals is absent in plants.
2. The flora of a country is the system of vegetable species native in a given region or locality.
3. The term species embraces such individual plants as may have originated from a common stock, bearing essential resemblances to each other as well as to their common parent. A genus is an assemblage of species closely related to each other in the structure of their flowers and fruit.
4. (a) Annual, biennial, and perennial. (b) An annual plant continues but one season; as, oats, corn; a biennial germinates and bears leaves only the first season, and blossoms, bears fruit and dies the second; as, cabbage, turnip, parsnip; a perennial continues many years; as, trees and shrubs.
5. Deciduous trees lose their foliage in autumn; as, oak, hickory; evergreens retain their leaves and verdure throughout the season; as, pines, magnolias.
6. (a) Germination is the awakening and development of the embryonic plant within the seed. (b) It requires warmth, moisture, air, and shade.
7. The embryo consists of the radicle, the descending part, forming the root; the plumule, a stem bud, which forms the ascending axis of the plant; and the cotyledons, the seed lobes, destined to become the first leaves of the plant, shown in the two thick leaves of the bean as it emerges from the ground.
8. The number of cotyledons; as, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
9. Endogens are plants which grow by internal accretions; as, wheat, grass; exogens are those whose stems grow by external accretions; as forest trees.
10. Endogenous plants have, in most cases, parallel veined leaves, while leaves of exogenous plants are net veined.

11. Cohorts.
Examples.
Phænogamia.

PROVINCE I. EXOGENS, or DICOTYLEDONS.
CLASS I. ANGIOSPERMS.
CLASS II. GYMNOSPERMS.
A. Dialypetalæ, or Polypetalous Exogens—Roseworts.
B. Gamopetalæ, or Monopetalous Exogens—Phloxworts.
C. Apetalæ, or Apetalous Exogens—Pokeworts.
D. Conoideæ, or Cone-bearing Plants—Pines.

PROVINCE II. ENDOGENS, or MONOCOTYLEDONS.
CLASS III. PETALIFERÆ, or AGLUMACEÆ.
CLASS IV. GLUMIFERÆ.
E. Spadicifloræ—Aroids.
F. Florideæ—Lilyworts.
G. Graminoideæ—Grasses.

Cryptogamia.

PROVINCE III. ACROGENS, The Point-Growers.
CLASS V. ANGIOSPORES.
H. Lycopodales—Lycopods.
I. Filicales—Ferns.
J. Muscales—Mosses.

PROVINCE IV. THALLOGENS, The Mass-Growers.
CLASS VI. GYMNOSPORES.
K. Lichenales—Lichens.
L. Algales—Seaweeds.
M. Fungales—Fungi.

12. The floral envelopes and the essential floral organs. The floral envelopes consist of one or more circles of leaves surrounding the essential organs. The outer circle is called the calyx; the inner, if any be present, is called the corolla. Within the envelopes are the stamens, small thread-like organs varying in number from one to one hundred. The pistils occupy the center of the flower.
13. Perianth is used to designate both the calyx and corolla; the stamens are collectively called androecium; gynoecium is used for the entire collection of pistils.
14. The typical flower should be complete, regular, symmetrical, alternating, and each organ distinct.
15. The term complete implies that the four sets of organs are arranged in as many concentric circles; regular, that the organs of the same name are all similar; symmetrical, that it has the same number of organs in each circle; alternating, that the several organs in each set stand not opposite to, but alternating with the organs of the adjacent set; distinct, that all organs are free from each other.
16. The leaves of the calyx are styled sepals, those of the corolla, petals.
17. (a) A flower is perfect when it has both stamens and pistils. (b) It is complete when it has stamens, pistils, calyx, and corolla. (c) It is apetalous when the calyx is present without the corolla. (d) It is staminate when it has stamens without pistils. (e) It is pistillate when it has pistils without stamens.

18. Glumes and pales represent the floral envelopes of the grasses.
19. Pollen is the fecundating yellow dust contained in the cells of anthers.
20. The pericarp is the envelope inclosing the seed. The fleshy pericarp, as the berry, apple, cherry, etc., is indehiscent ; the dry pericarp, as the pea, mustard, etc., is dehiscent.
21. Drupe, — cherry, peach; Tryma, — butternut, hickorynut; Pome, — apple, haw; Hesperidium, — orange, lemon; Samara, — ash, maple.
22. 1st. To support the plant in position. 2nd. To imbibe from the soil the food necessary to the growth of the plant.
23. The principal axial forms are the ramous, fusiform, napiform, and conical; the principal inaxial forms are fibrous, tubercular, coralline, nodulous, and moniliform.
24. Epiphytes, sometimes called air-plants, are those whose roots are fixed upon other plants, while the epiphyte itself derives its nourishment wholly from the air. Parasites are those whose roots, penetrating to the cambium layer of other plants and trees, appropriate the stolen juices to their own growth.
25. Cions, suckers, stolons, offsets, slips, layers, cuttings, and runners.
26. Caulis is the term applied to the annual leaf-stems of herbaceous plants. The culm is the stem of the grasses and the sedges. The term trunk is applied to the stems of trees.

27. The hop vine invariably winds with the sun, that is, from left to right; while others, as the morn-ing-glory, revolves in a contrary direction.
28. The rhizome is a prostrate, fleshy, rooting stem, often marked with scars, as in bloodroot; while the creeper is more slender, much branched, many jointed, and sends out rootlets in every direction, binding the soil into turfs wherever it abounds.
29. The tuber is not a root. It is the thickened portion of the subterranean stem and produces buds.
30. The bulb is a thickened mass of scales with a small axis, the whole forming a bud. The most com-mon forms are tunicated, as the onion, and scaly, as in the lily.
31. A leaf-bud contains the rudiments of a leafy stem or branch folded up in such a manner as to occupy as little space as possible; the flower-bud con-tains the same elements transformed into the rudimen-tary organs of a flower.
32. With regard to position, the leaf-bud may be terminal or axillary. In addition to these, buds may be accessory or adventitious.
33. Vernation signifies the mode of arrangement and folding of the leaf organs within the bud. The following terms denote the leaf folding within the bud : reclined, conduplicate, plicate, circinate, convolute, involute, revolute.
34. Alternate; i.e., one above another on opposite sides. Scattered; i.e., irregularly spiral. Opposite; i.e., two against each other, at the same node. Resolute; i.e., clustered regularly.
35. Blade, petiole, stipules, margin, apex, base, midvein, veins, veinlets, venules.
36. The leaves are the organs of respiration and digestion, without which the plant would soon die.
37. The leaves of Exogens, or Dicotyledons, are net-veined; those of Endogens, or Monocotyledons, are parallel-veined; the leaves of Cryptogams are fork-veined, dividing and subdividing in a forked manner.
38. Ovate, having the outline of an egg; orbicular, circular; lanceolate, lance-shaped, tapering gradually toward the apex; deltoid, like the Greek letter Δ; elliptical, formed like an ellipse; cordate, heart-shaped; auriculate, ear shaped lobes at base; sagittate, arrow-shaped; cuneate, wedge-shaped; reniform, kidney-shaped.
39. The divisions of a compound leaf are called leaflets, and are usually attached to the rachis.
40. Dentate, toothed; serrate, having teeth pointing forward; crenate, with rounded teeth; undulate, wavy-edged; repand, indented like the margin of an umbrella; spinous, projecting veins; incised, cut; crispate, crisped.
41. The leaf surface may be glabrous (smooth), scabrous (rough), pubescent, covered with soft, short hair, villous, when the hairs are long and weak, sericeous, when the hair is fine and silky, lanuginous, wooly, tomentous, matted like felt, floccose, when soft and fleecy.
42. A tendril is a thread-like appendage furnished to weak-stemmed plants as their means of support.
43. The metamorphosis of a flower is the transfor- mation of the leaf to form the flower.
44. (a) Inflorescence is the arrangement of flow- ers on the stem. (b) The two forms are axillary, in which the flowers originate from axillary buds, and terminal, in which the flower buds are terminal.
45. The peduncle is the flower stalk. Divisions of the peduncle are termed pedicels.
46. The spike, spadix, catkin, raceme, corymb, umbel, panicle, thyrse, and head are the principal varieties of axillary inflorescence.
47. An umbel consists of several pedicels of nearly the same length radiating from the same point; a spadix is a thick, fleshy rachis, with flowers closely sessile or imbedded on it; a panicle is a compound in- florescence formed by an irregular branching of the pedicels of the raceme, as in oats; the catkin is a slender, pendent spike with scaly bracts, as in the oak and willow; the raceme is a rachis bearing its flowers on distinct, simple pedicels.
48. Filament, anther-lobe, connective, and valves.
49. Multiple fruits are formed by the union of many separate flowers, as the pineapple.
50. The first nourishment the plant requires is de- rived from the albumen contained within the seed; afterward the sap, laden with the requisite food elements, permeates every tissue, and deposits within each organ its appropriate food. The leaves and other parts of plants are covered with hairs, which, with the bark, serve as clothing. The sharp thorns, spikes and prickles, with which many plants are supplied, would seem to imply a provision for self-defense.

51. (a) Cryptogams are flowerless plants. (b) Mosses, ferns, lichens, seaweed, mushrooms. (c) They grow on rocks, sand, tree-trunks, cinders, etc. (d) They form the basis of all vegetable and animal life. By the decay of successive generations of these simple forms soil is formed and fertilized, and the growth of higher orders, as grains, grasses and trees, is rendered possible.

52. The cell, a closed sac of membrane containing a fluid, by its multiplied aggregation, makes up the mass of all vegetation.
53. Spiral, annular, porous, and reticulated.
54. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
55. While some cells contain nothing but air and others solid matter, the greater number are filled with both fluids and solids. These are the cytoblast, a globular atom, designed to form new cells, and protoplasm, the nourishing semi-fluid.

56. Chlorophyl is the green coloring matter of leaves.

57. (a) The growth of plants consists of the development of new cells. (b) The primordial utricle divides into two or more parts by new walls growing from its sides till they meet, and thus cells multiplying by millions, build up the fabric of the plant.
58. Cellular tissue, termed parenchyma; fibrous tissue, or pleurenchyma; vascular tissue, or trachenchyma; laticiferous tissue, or cienchyma.
59. Parenchyma, the most common form of tissue, is composed of spheroidal cells. It is found in all young growths,—the pith, leaf, and stem; in the pulp of fruits, and in the soft parts of all plants. Pleurenchyma consists of elongated cells cohering by their sides in such a way as to form continuous fibre, as in flax and hemp. Trachenchyma is a tissue of vessels and tubes. These extend lengthwise and form rows of cells joined end to end, and fuse into one by the absorption of the contiguous walls. Cienchyma is a system of milk vessels, secreting the peculiar juice of the plant, as opium, gamboge, resin, etc.
60. (a) Little chinks in the leaf-epidermis, termed stomata. (b) Each stoma is guarded by cells of such construction as to open in moist weather and close in dry.
61. (a) Glands are cellular structures within the epidermis, or at the base of a hair, or at its summit. (b) Their use is to elaborate and contain the peculiar secretions of plants, such as oils, resins, honey, poisons, etc.
62. Into Exogens, or outside-growers, Endogens, or inside-growers, Acrogens, or point-growers, and Thallogens, or mass-growers.

63. 1st. The pith, consisting of parenchyma, which occupies the central part of the stem. 2nd. The medullary sheath, a thin, delicate tissue, composed of spiral vessels, which immediately surrounds the pith. 3rd. The wood proper, which is arranged in concentric zones or layers about the central mass. This consists of two kinds — the sap-wood and heart-wood. 4th. The bark, covering and protecting the wood. It consists of the three parts — the inner or white bark, the middle or green bark, and the outer or brown bark.

64. The cambium layer is a mucilaginous-sap solution of the starchy deposits of the preceding year. It is between the wood and white bark, serving to loosen the latter, and thus render it easy to peel from the wood.
65. The stem of an endogenous plant is composed of tissues similar to those of the exogenous stem, but there is no distinction of bark, wood, pith, or annual layers in the endogen.
66. Upon the characteristic method of annual accretions; — in the Exogens the yearly increments are added to the outside, while the addition of new material in the Endogens is to the interior.
67. The stems of Acrogens advance beneath or above the ground, full formed, growing only at the end.
68. Mildew, frog spittle, lichens, seaweeds, puff-balls and mushrooms, belonging to the Thallogens, or mass-growers, are among the lowest forms of the vegetable kingdom.

69. The process of vegetation consists in imbibing the crude matters of the earth and air, and elaborating into food the elements which animals require for their growth and sustenance.

70. The substance of plants consists mainly of water derived from the moisture of the air and the soil, through the absorptive powers of the leaves and roots.

71. Absorption, circulation, exhalation, assimilation, and secretion.

72. The propagation and continuance of certain species of plants in a given locality require cross-fertilization. This is effected sometimes by insects, which, attracted by the brilliant tints and savory juices contained within the nectary, in return for the honey they extract, carry the fertilizing pollen from the anther to distant plants of the same species.

73. Generic names are nouns, and should always begin with capitals. Specific names are generally adjectives, and should not begin with capitals except when derived from the name of a country or person, or when the term may be a noun.

74. It is due to the physical principles of capillary attraction and endosmose.

75. If wheat, buckwheat, peas, and cabbage be grown upon the same land, it will be observed that the wheat will select the silica, the buckwheat, the magnesia, the pea, the lime, and the cabbage the potash, each for its peculiar want.

76. Starting from the roots as crude sap, in the form of colorless water, charged with minute quantities of gases and mineral salts, it passes upward dissolving the dextrine and sugar of the cells and gaining in density, till it reaches the leaves, where it parts with a large portion of the water by exhalation, and receives carbon in return. After undergoing important chemical changes, under the action of the air and light, it becomes rich in nutritive material and returns upon its downward course through the barky tissues, distributing to every organ its due proportion of appropriate food.

77. The carbonic acid exhaled by animals if left to accumulate would in time destroy all animal life upon the globe. The necessities of the plant demand this gas, and in the very process of its appropriation the life-giving oxygen, so essential to animal existence, is returned by the plant to the atmosphere.
78. The natural system is based upon the natural affinities and resemblances of plants by which nature has distinguished them into groups and families.
79. Dicotyledons grow by new layers external to the wood, but inside of the bark; their leaves are net-veined, flowers rarely three-parted, seeds with two or more cotyledons, and with an axial root extending downward from the radicle. Monocotyledons grow by scattered, internal wood bundles; their leaves are parallel veined, flowers generally three-parted, seeds with one cotyledon, while the radicle never produces an axial root.
80. Rosaceæ: cherry, apricot, plum, almond, peach. Saxifragaceæ: hydrangea. Ebenaceæ, persimmon. Artocarpaceæ: fig, osage orange, mulberry. Crassulaceæ: currant, gooseberry.
81. The sunflower belongs to the order of Compositæ; the pea, to the Leguminosæ; lettuce, to the Compositæ; parsley, to the Umbelliferæ; the sweet potato to the Convolvulaceæ.
82. It consists of the entire inflorescence developed into a mass of united pericarps.

QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY.

1. Define the terms Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene.
2. Name the primary animal tissues.
3. (a) What are membranes? (b) State their uses.
4. Name the principal membranes of the body.
5. What is the number and names of the ultimate elements composing the human body?
6. Describe the bones and state their uses.
7. What is the composition of bone at different periods of life?
8. How many bones in the human body?
9. Draw an outline showing the relative position of the different bones in the human skeleton.
10. (a) Name and illustrate the different kinds of movable joints. (b) State how their movements are facilitated.
11. (a) With what are the bones covered? (b) What is the purpose of this covering? (c) What peculiar disease originates beneath this covering?
12. What is the use of the synovia?
13. What mechanical and botanical principle is illustrated in the long bones?
14. State the process by which nature repairs a broken bone.
15. (a) What are sprains? (b) What care do they require?
16. (a) Name the characteristic property and law of muscles. (b) What diversity of form is observed in the adaptation of the muscles to their various position and uses?
17. What is the general arrangement of muscles with respect to each other?
18. Into what two classes, with respect to action, are the muscles divided? Illustrate each class.
19. (a) How many muscles in the human body? (b) How are the muscles of the limbs distinguished as to their use?
20. Name two important muscles in each of the following regions: head, front part of trunk, back part of trunk, upper limbs, lower limbs.
21. Name some of the uses which muscles serve in the animal economy.
22. (a) Of what are tendons composed? (b) State their use.
23. Show how the bones are used as levers of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd classes.
24. State the effect upon the muscles of (a) use (b) disuse, (c) misuse.
25. Why should one abstain from severe exercise immediately before and after eating?
26. State the proper method and necessary extent of educating muscles.
27. How does the character of a child's early muscular training determine his habits of action in later life?
28. What organs constitute the nutritive apparatus?
29. Name the digestive organs.
30. What preparatory changes does food undergo before it becomes nourishment for the body?
31. Name, locate, and state the use of the salivary glands.
32. Name and locate the fluids involved in the process of digestion.
33. Trace a particle of food from the mouth until it reaches the blood.
34. What is the principal use of the saliva?
35. State the conditions upon which the health of the digestive organs depend.
36. Under what circumstances is digestion most perfect?
37. What does the term absorption comprehend?
38. Name the absorbents.
39. What are the principal secretions and excretions of the human body?
40. What is the length of time required for digestion?
41. State the object of cooking food, and how this is secured.
42. Mention the evils arising from rapid eating.
43. Name the organs of circulation.
44. Describe the heart.
45. Why is there sometimes said to be two hearts?
46. Describe the circulation of blood, distinguishing between pulmonary and systemic circulation.
47. How does the blood differ in color in different parts of its circulation? State the cause.
48. What time is required for the complete circulation of the blood through the system?
49. How is a backward flow of blood prevented?
50. What is the normal temperature of the body?
51. Which end of a ruptured artery should be tied? Why?
52. Define coagulation, and state its use.
53. State the use of circulation of the blood.
54. Name the three classes of organic substances used for food.
55. How do you account for the arteries being deep-seated, while the veins are generally superficial?
56. How and through what organ is the oxygen admitted to the blood?
57. State the functions of the lymphatics; of the lacteals.
58. How can you distinguish in external hemorrhage, whether the blood comes from an artery or a vein?
59. Name the animal and vegetative functions of the body.
60. What three evils result from tight lacing?
61. Name the respiratory and vocal organs.
62. State the immediate and ultimate object of respiration.
63. How does the amount of air inhaled compare with the quantity exhaled?
64. In what way may the variety of tones of differ- ent voices be accounted for?
65. Upon what does the strength of the voice de- pend?
66. Are the lungs filled and emptied completely by respiration? What is the importance of this provis- ion?
67. What diseases are apt to attack the respiratory organs? How can these be provided against in the school room?
68. What anatomical changes cause the change in a boy's voice at puberty?
69. What three natural remedies for consumption are suggested by physiology and hygiene?
70. Explain the origin and progress of a cold.
71. What is congestion? How indicated?
72. State the conditions upon which pure blood is dependent.
73. What physical evils result from impure blood?
74. What is the usual number of respirations per minute? How can the frequency be diminished?
75. Into what two secondary systems may the ner- vous system be divided?
76. (a) Describe the two kinds of matter which compose the nervous system. (b) State their func- tions.
77. Give a brief description of the human brain.
78. What is the spinal cord? What means of protection suggest its importance?
79. Where is the seat of pain? Illustrate.
80. Name in order the effects of alcohol on the nervous system.
81. Why, in apoplexy, when the right side of the body becomes paralyzed, is the left side of the face usually affected?
82. Give examples of associated sensations in which nerves are excited by sight, hearing, and smell.
83. What are the functions of the cerebrum and the cerebellum respectively?
84. Name the nerves of special sense and state in what they differ from other nerves.
85. Name habits which particularly impair the nervous system.
86. What conditions are essential to the highest mental development and vigor?
87. (a) What is meant by "reflex action of the spinal cord?" (b) Give examples. (c) State its use.
88. Describe the globe of the eye and name its parts.
89. How do we change the vision in looking from near objects to distant ones in the same direction?
90. (a) What four classes of substances excite the sense of taste? (b) Locate the sense of taste.
91. Where is the sense of touch most delicate? How may this be shown?
92. What purpose does the skin serve?
93. State the office of perspiration.
94. What deleterious effects result from having the air too dry in occupied rooms?
95. State briefly some important directions regarding the manner of dressing most conducive to health.
96. What effect does the loss of sleep have upon the body and the mind?
97. Show in what manner bathing is beneficial?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY.

1. Anatomy is the description of the form and position of the organs of animal bodies. Physiology is the description of the uses of these organs. Hygiene treats of the preservation of health.
2. The primary tissues are the fibrous, areolar, cartilaginous, which collectively form the connective tissues, and the adipose, sclerous, muscular, tubular, and nervous tissues.
3. (a) Membranes are thin, extended, soft, transparent tissues, formed by fibers interwoven like network. (b) They serve to cover some part of the body, or to absorb or secrete certain fluids.
4. The principal membranes are the basement, serous, synovial, and mucous membranes.
5. There are fourteen ultimate elements, viz.: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, iron, magnesium, and fluorine.
6. The bones are firm and hard, combining strength and lightness. They serve as a framework or skeleton for preserving the shape of the body and for the protection of its most delicate organs, and for the attachment of muscles.
7. The bones consist of animal and mineral matter. In early life the animal matter predominates; at maturity the proportion is about one part of animal to two parts of mineral matter; while, as age advances, the quantity of mineral matter greatly exceeds that of animal substance.
8. The number of bones varies at different periods of life. In childhood the number is greater than in later life, many bones consisting of two parts growing together, forming but one bone in the adult. The number usually given, exclusive of the teeth, is 208.
9. The Head.
The Cranium.
Frontal bone.
Two Parietal bones.
Two Temporal bones.
Sphenoid bone.
Ethmoid bone.
Occipital bone.
The Face.
Two Superior Maxillary bones.
Inferior Maxillary bone.
Two Malar bones.
Two Lachrymal bones.
Two Turbinated bones.
Two Nasal bones.
Vomer.
Two Palate bones.
The Ears.
Hammer.
Anvil.
Stirrup.
The Trunk.
The Spinal Column.
Cervical Vertebræ.
Dorsal Vertebræ.
Lumbar Vertebræ.
The Ribs.
True Ribs.
False Ribs.
The Sternum.
The Os Hyoides.
The Pelvis.
Two Innominata.
Sacrum.
Coccyx.
The Limbs.
The Upper Limbs.
The Shoulder.
Clavicle (2).
Scapula (2).
The Arm. Humerus. Radius and Ulna. The Hand. 8 Carpal bones. 5 Metacarpal bones. 14 Phalanges. The Lower Limbs. The Leg. Femur. Patella. Tibia and Fibula. The Foot. 7 Tarsal bones. 5 Metatarsal bones. 14 Phalanges.

10. (a) Movable joints are of three kinds — the Planiform, the Hinge, and the Ball and Socket joints. The Planiform joint is found where gliding movements are required, as in the carpus and metacarpus; the hinge joint, where there is motion in two directions only, backward and forward, as in the knee and the elbow; the ball and socket joint, where there is free movement in all directions, as in the hip and shoulder joints. (b) They are provided with cartilage where the surfaces are in contact, and supplied with synovial membrane and connecting ligaments.

11. (a) The bones are covered, as with a sac, by a dense, white, fibrous membrane called periosteum. (b) It serves to transmit blood-vessels into the bone, thus furnishing nutriment, and gives insertion to muscles, tendons, and ligaments. (c) The disease called “felon” commences in or beneath the periosteum.
12. The use of the synovia is that of a lubricating fluid, enabling the surface of the bones to move more freely upon each other, preventing friction and consequent wear.
13. The shafts of long bones are made hollow, giving not only lightness but strength, according to the principle of mechanics, that with a given amount of material, a hollow cylinder will sustain more weight than a solid one of the same dimensions. The culms of grasses illustrate the same principle.

14. The blood which flows in consequence of the injury is gradually absorbed, and gives place to a watery fluid, which, thickening from day to day, acquires at the end of two weeks, the consistency of jelly. This begins to harden by a deposit of new bone-substance, until in five or six weeks, the broken bone is united.

15. (a) Sprains are caused by a twisting, straining, or tearing of the connecting ligaments of bones from their attachments. (b) As a sprain may be as serious as a broken bone, care should be exercised, lest the use of the limb before the ligament is restored to its place may impair its usefulness.

16. (a) The characteristic property of muscles is contractility, and the law is that they shall contract toward the center. (b) The general forms or shapes of muscles are spindle-shaped, radiate, penniform, bi-penniform, and orbicular.

17. With the exception of twelve single muscles, they are all arranged in pairs, each having its antagonist; so that as they contract and expand alternately, the bone to which they are attached is moved to and fro.

18. Into voluntary, those which are under the control of the will, as the muscles of the limbs, and involuntary, those which cannot be controlled by the will, as the muscles of the heart.

19. (a) The number exceeds five hundred. (b) In regard to their use the limb muscles may be distinguished as flexors, those used to bend the limbs, and extensors, those which are used to extend the limbs.

20. Head and neck: oral, orbicular and masseter; front part of trunk: the external oblique and the straight abdominal; back part of trunk: the trapezius and the superior serrated muscles; the upper limbs: the biceps and the radio-carpal extensor; the lower limbs: the gluteal and sartorius.

21. They give form and symmetry to the body, enclose the cavities, and form a firm, defensive, but yielding wall in the trunk, cover and move the limbs, and give to some of the joints their principal protection. By means of muscular action, the heart beats, the blood circulates, and respiration is carried on.

22. (a) Tendons are composed of the inelastic, white-fibrous tissue, and possess great strength. (b) They serve to convey the contractile power of muscles to the bones, and connect the muscles with the bones.

23. The movements of the head illustrate a lever of the first class: the back or front is the weight, the backbone is the fulcrum, and the muscles at the back or front of the neck are the powers by which we toss or bow the head. Raising the body on tiptoe illustrates a lever of the second class: the toes resting on the ground is the fulcrum, the weight of the body is the weight, and the muscles of the calf, the power. Raising the lower jaw illustrates a lever of the third class. Another familiar example is the elbow, in which the fulcrum is at the joint, the weight is the forearm and hand, and the power is in the biceps and brachial muscles.

24. (a) By judicious use muscle grows larger, and becomes hard, compact, and darker-colored.

(b) By disuse, it decreases in size, and becomes soft, flabby and pale. (c) By misuse, the muscle is often strained and blood vessels burst in our efforts to perform feats beyond our muscular power.

25. Because the vigor of the system is needed for the digestive functions. Nature can sustain in vigorous activity but one function at a time.

26. The training of muscles to the performance of any exercise in which the highest excellence is desired should be begun in early life, and continued regularly and systematically till every muscle and every fiber is under the control of the will.

27. An individual's speech, writing, singing, attitudes, walking, and actions are all determined by his first movements in these exercises. If exactness is not required in the beginning, and continued during the formative period of habit, awkwardness and impropriety must always characterize the exercises and movements of the individual through life.

28. The nutritive apparatus includes the digestive, the absorptive, the circulatory, the assimilatory, and the respiratory organs.

29. The digestive organs are the mouth, teeth, salivary glands, palate, pharynx, œsophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and spleen.

30. 1st. Digestion, by which the food is reduced to a soluble condition. 2nd. Absorption, by which, when digested, it is imbibed into the blood. 3rd. Circulation, which carries the enriched blood to the various parts of the system. 4th. Assimilation, by which each tissue derives from the blood the materials necessary for its support.
31. The salivary glands consist of three glands on each side of the mouth. The parotid gland is situated in front of the external ear and behind the angle of the lower jaw. The submaxillary gland is situated within the angle of the lower jaw. The sublingual gland is situated on the floor of the mouth, beneath the side of the tongue. They all secrete a liquid called saliva.
32. 1st. The saliva in the mouth; 2nd. The gastric juice, in the stomach; 3rd. The bile, in the small intestines. 4th. The pancreatic juice, in the small intestines. 5th. The intestinal juice, in the small intestines.
33 From the mouth, where the food is chewed and insalivated, it passes through the pharynx and œsophagus at the cardiac orifice into the stomach. Here it undergoes a churning process until every particle is subjected to the action of the gastric juice, which digests the albuminoid substances in it, and changes them to albuminose. The work of the stomach being completed, the food passes through the pyloric orifice into the small intestines, where it is subjected to the pancreatic fluid, the bile and the intestinal juice, which digest the starch and fat, changing the starch into sugar and the fat into chyle. Here the digested mass, called collectively the chyle, is absorbed by the lacteals and blood vessels and taken into the general circulation.

34. It moistens the food and thus facilitates digestion.

35. 1st. The quantity of food; this should simply equal the waste of the system. 2nd. The quality of food, which should be nutritive and digestible. 3rd. The manner of taking food. Food should be neither too hot nor too cold; it should be sufficiently masticated and taken at regular intervals. 4th. The system should be mentally and physically conditioned to receive food.

36. When the action of the cutaneous vessels is energetic, the mind free from absorbing thought, excitement or depression, the blood well purified, and the muscular system duly exercised.

37. Absorption is the general term for that process by which all soluble substances, external to the animal body, are introduced into the tissues of the body. It includes also the process by which portions of the living tissues are themselves removed, or absorbed within the body.

38. The absorbents are the lymphatic vessels of the small intestines, termed lacteals, lymphatic glands, vessels, and ducts, and the thoracic duct.

39. Mucus, sebaceous matter, perspiration, tears, serous fluid, saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, intestinal juice, and bile.

40. From two to four hours, according to the nature of food, state of the system and perfection of mastication.
41. The object of cooking food is to render it more palatable and easily digested. Cooking breaks the cells and softens the fibers of which the food is composed.

42. 1st. The food is swallowed without sufficient saliva. 2nd. The particles of food are so large as to hinder the action of the gastric juice, which is often weakened by the use of drinks poured down with the food. 3rd. We do not realize the quantity eaten until the stomach is overloaded. 4th. Failing to get the taste of our food we think it insipid, and resort to condiments which over stimulate the digestive organs.

43. The heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins.

44. The heart is the hollow muscle enclosed in a sac, termed pericardium. It is situated between the lungs. It is conical in shape, the apex pointing downward, forward, and to the left. Its only attachments are the large blood-vessels by which it is joined to the vertebral column.

45. On account of the division of the heart by a muscular septum into two parts — the right and left. Each of these contains two apartments, termed auricles and ventricles, the ventricles being next the apex. The two sides have no communication, each performing a separate function. The right is sometimes termed the pulmonic heart, the left, the systemic heart.

46. In pulmonic circulation the right auricle after receiving the blood from two large veins, contracts and sends it into the right ventricle. This in turn contracts and sends it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where it is purified and becomes a bright arterial blood. Here the systemic circulation begins by the entrance of the blood into the left auricle, which, contracting, sends it to the left ventricle, from which it is transmitted through the aorta to all parts of the system, from which it returns through the capillaries and veins to the right auricle to repeat its course as before.

47. As the blood visits the different organs it both gives out and gathers up materials. In the arterial circulation it is enriched with food, and scarlet with oxygen received in the lungs; returning from the organs it has fed, it is impoverished in quality and purple in color.

48. The entire mass is believed to make the circuit in from one to two minutes.
49. A backward flow in the auricles is prevented by the contraction of muscular fibers about the mouths of the veins, and by valves in the veins.
50. About 98° Fahrenheit.
51. The end next to the heart, because the blood in arteries flows from the heart.
52. Coagulation is a thickening or hardening of the blood. It is serviceable in stopping the flow of blood from a wounded vein.
53. Circulation of the blood carries nutrition to all parts of the system, and also carries impurities to the lungs to be exhaled.
54. Farinaceous, saccharine, and albuminous.
55. An injury to the more important arteries would soon result in death, hence, they are deep-seated for protection. For the same reason the larger veins are deep-seated.

56. By a process called endosmosis the oxygen of the air passes through the tissues of the lungs.
57. The lymphatics gather up materials that may still be of benefit to the blood. The lacteals carry nutrition from the intestines to the thoracic duct.
58. By observing the manner of the flow. The arteries throw out the blood by jets at each beat of the heart, while the veins bleed regularly.
59. The animal functions are sensation and volition. The vegetative functions, which are common to both animals and vegetables, are digestion, assimilation, absorption, secretion, excretion, growth, respiration, and generation.

60. 1st. It disturbs the circulation. 2nd. It restricts the action of the stomach and impairs digestion. 3rd. It prevents proper and sufficient respiration.

61. The respiratory and vocal organs are the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi, and the lungs.
62. The immediate object of respiration is the purification of the blood; the ultimate object is the production of heat, motion and nervous energy.
63. The volume of air inhaled in an ordinary inspiration is about one pint, the quantity expelled, a little less than one pint.
64. The tones of different voices are modified by the shape and size of the vocal apparatus. A large larynx usually gives a deep-toned voice, a smaller one, a thin-toned or high-pitched voice.

65. Upon the capacity of the chest, the development of the muscles used in vocalization, and the extent of vibration of the vocal cords.
66. No. If they were completely emptied the air cells would collapse, and the blood then in the lungs would not be purified.

67. Consumption, bronchitis, pneumonia, lung fever, asthma, etc. By having the room ventilated and warmed, and teaching the children to sit, stand, and walk erect, and breathe deeply and vigorously.

68. The larynx grows larger, and the vocal cords longer and coarser, thus deepening the tones and lowering the pitch.
69. Plenty of pure air properly breathed, sunlight, and frequent bodily exercise.

70. A cold frequently arises from a change in clothing, putting on a thinner garment, or sitting in a cool place, or a draft when heated. The skin becomes chilled and the perspiration checked. The pores are closed and the blood is driven to the lungs for purification. Oppression of the lungs ensues, breathing becomes difficult and the extra mucus is thrown off by coughing. From this condition fever, headache, pneumonia, or pleurisy is developed.

71. Congestion is an excessive accumulation of blood in any part of the body. It is indicated by an unusual redness in the parts affected.
72. Pure blood is obtained only by a healthy action of the respiratory organs, which in turn depends upon a constant and sufficient supply of pure air.

73. The carbonic acid is retained in the blood; the brain works sluggishly; the muscles become inactive; the heart acts imperfectly; the secretions are deteriorated; the food is not properly assimilated; and the whole body becomes weak.
74. About eighteen per minute. By training and habit the number may be much diminished.
75. The cerebro-spinal system, consisting of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves given off by them to all parts of the body, and the sympathetic system, composed of nerves and ganglia, mainly distributed to the viscera of the body.
76. (a) The nervous system is composed of two kinds of matter, — the gray and the white. The gray consists of small, ashen-colored cells, forming a pulp-like substance; the white is composed of glistening, white fibers, averaging about 1/5000 of an inch in diameter. (b) The gray cells act as generators of nervous force, while the white fibers serve as conductors of this nervous force, having a velocity of about 100 feet per second.
77. The brain, the seat of the mind, is the great volume of nervous tissue lodged within the skull; it consists of two parts: — the cerebrum, or brain proper, and the cerebellum, or “little brain.” The cerebrum lies in the front and upper part of the skull, the cerebellum, in the lower and back part. The whole floats securely in a bed of liquid surrounded by three membranes, — the pia mater and the dura mater and the arachnoid.

78. The spinal cord, or “ marrow,” is a cylindrical mass of soft nervous tissue, which occupies the tunnel fitted for it in the spinal column. It is composed of the same substances as the brain; but here the white matter surrounds the gray, instead of being encompassed by it. The importance of the spinal cord is apparent from the extreme care taken to protect it from external injury.

79. In the mind. If the “ funny bone ” behind the elbow receives a blow, the effect is at once sent to the brain, which refers the shock to the ends of the nerve in the third and fourth fingers, where the pain will seem to be.

80. 1. Excitement. 2. Muscular weakness. 3. Mental weakness.
81. The nerves cross from the brain to the opposite side of the body, while the facial nerves come from the side of the brain affected.

82. Disagreeable odors and unpleasant sights produce nausea; the savory odor of cooking food and the peeling of a lemon make the mouth water; while the rasping sound heard in filing a saw produces in some persons the utmost irritability.

83. The cerebrum is the instrument through which the powers of memory, reason, and judgment manifest themselves. The cerebellum presides over the muscular movements of the body.

84. The nerves of special sense are the auditory, optic, and olfactory nerves. They differ from other nerves in being neither sensitive nor motor, their office being simply to convey the sense of hearing, seeing, and smelling.

85. The opium habit, the use of alcohol, tobacco, and the excessive use of tea and coffee.

86. Each faculty of mind should receive its due share of cultivation and exercise.

87. (a) The reflex action of the spinal cord is the involuntary action of certain muscles independent of the agency of the will. An impression made on the surface of the skin, is conveyed to the cord, which reflects back the motor impulse to the muscles so as to excite them to action. (b) Examples are numerous: nearly every act of our daily routine is an illustration—walking, eating, standing erect. (c) By the reflex action of the cord we are protected from a thousand perils. We involuntarily throw up our hands as a shield from danger, we instinctively wink to protect the eye, and upon seizing a heated substance, we instantly drop it before the command could come from the brain.

88. The globe of the eye consists of three concentric layers—the sclerotica, with the cornea in front; the choroidea, with the iris in front; and the retina, which is internal. These compose most of the solid part of the eyeball, which is a hollow sphere filled with three semi-fluid substances—the aqueous humor, the crystalline lens, and the vitreous humor.

89. The convexity of the lens is changed by means of ciliary muscles. The lens is made more convex for near objects and less convex for those more distant.
90. (a) The sour, as certain acids; the sweet, as sirup and sugar; the bitter, as quinine; and the salt, as common salt. (b) The margin and the tip of the tongue.

91. The sense of touch is most acute on the palmar surface of the fingers. If two needles one-twentieth of an inch apart are pressed against the end of the finger two impressions are felt. No where else on the body will this occur when the needles are so near together.
92. The skin aids in keeping the tissues and organs in their places, and protects the delicate nerves, lymphatics and blood vessels found beneath it.
93. It regulates the temperature of the body. When exercise warms the body the perspiration is exuded upon the skin and its evaporation reduces the temperature and keeps the system from being overheated.

94. When the confined air is warm and dry it absorbs too much of the moisture from the lungs and skin, and produces a dry and feverish condition of the system.
95. All garments should be as light as is consistent with the warmth and comfort of the wearer. Two or three thicknesses of flannel is warmer than double the weight of cotton or linen; and in a climate subject to sudden and extreme changes, flannel is preferable at all seasons of the year.
96. Continued loss of sleep produces debility of the nervous system, nervous excitability, disturbed breathing, palpitation of the heart, and dyspepsia; while insanity, particularly in those engaged in absorbing mental labor, frequently follows as the final punishment for disregarding Nature's laws.
97. The skin becomes covered with a mixture of oil, dust, etc., which if permitted to remain interferes with the excretory powers of the skin. In addition to removing this accumulation, water, if moderately cool, throws the blood back upon the internal organs, quickens the action of the heart and communicates the stimulus to the whole system; reaction sets in, and a return of the blood to the surface invigorates the vital powers to an extent unknown by him who never indulged the luxury.

QUESTIONS ON ZOÖLOGY.

1. Explain the terms biology, zoölogy, and natural history.
2. How does the nutrition of plants differ from that of animals?
3. Give a comprehensive definition of animals
4. Name and define the three great physiological functions.
5. Name some of the most celebrated naturalists who have devoted much attention to zoölogy.
6. Show in what manner we are dependent upon the animal creation.
7. How is mankind benefited by a knowledge of the habits of animals?
8. (a) What are fossils? (b) In what way do they aid the geologist?
9. How is paleontology dependent upon zoölogy?
10. Name the systems of organs found in those animals exhibiting the highest order of structure.
11. Define the terms absorption and exhalation.
12. State what is meant by a cell in animal structure.
13. Upon what is the study of zoölogy chiefly based?
14. State the general plan of classification of the animal kingdom by naming the groups beginning with the highest division.
15. According to modern naturalists, what principles determine the classification of animals into classes, orders, families, etc.?
16. Upon what principle is all scientific classification of animals based?
17. Name the six subkingdoms into which the animal kingdom is commonly divided.
18. What animals constitute the Vertebrates?
19. Name the five classes composing the Vertebrata.
20. How do the bones of vertebrates differ from shells of mollusks?
21. In what respect do the teeth differ from bone?
22. What are the characteristics of the Mammalia?
23. Name the orders of the Mammalia, and after each give an example.
24. In what consists the superiority of the frame of man over that of other animals?
25. Why are monkeys sometimes classed as Pedimana?
26. State the anatomical distinctions between man and the monkey.
27. Explain the meaning of complete and double circulation as applied to mammals.
28. How can you prove that cartilage is the basis of all the bones?
29. Write the dental formula of man.
30. What is meant by "facial angle?" How does man compare in facial angle with some of the lower orders?
31. Name the three families of the Quadrumana, and state which most resembles man.
32. Can the Quadrumana be trained to be of any service to man? Give your reasons.
33. State to what families the following monkeys belong: Mandrill, Spider Monkey, Aye Aye, Gorilla, Chimpanzee.
34. What are the prominent characteristics of the Carnivora?
35. Into what families are the Carnivora divided?
36. Classify the Carnivora according to their means of locomotion, and give examples.
37. How do the senses of the Carnivora compare with those of other animals? Why this provision?
38. What is the typical family of the Carnivora? Why?
39. Describe the digestion of the Ruminantia.
40. Name the more important families of the Ungulata, distinguishing those which are artiodactyl from those termed perissodactyl.
41. Name ten animals termed ruminants.
42. State resemblances and differences between the three species of the camelidae?
43. What fossil animals are included in the Proboscidea?
44. Describe and name the uses of the elephant's trunk.
45. Name the families of the Cetacea, and state from which whalebone and sperm are obtained.
46. To what order do bats belong?
47. What peculiar habits distinguish the bats?
48. Name some of the most important insectivora.
49. Describe the dentition of the rodents.
50. Classify the Rodentia according to families, and give at least one example of each.
51. Which of the rodents is the most valuable to man?
52. State two characteristics of the Edentata.
53. What is the peculiar characteristic of the Marsupialia?
54. For what are the Mammalia of Australia remarkable?
55. What structural phenomena are exhibited in the Platypus?
56. Name the orders of birds, with an example of each.
57. State the modifications in the form of birds which adapt them for flight.
58. How is the bird's plumage rendered waterproof?
59. How do the bones of birds differ from the bones of mammals?
60. Describe the respiration of birds.
61. Explain the perching apparatus of birds.
62. Describe the digestive apparatus of birds.
63. (a) What temperature is required for the hatching of eggs? (b) How is the chick aided in escaping from the shell?
64. Explain the terms, granivorous, carnivorous, gregarious, omnivorous, ruminants.
65. Give the orders of reptiles with an example of each?
66. How does the digestive apparatus of reptiles differ from that of mammals and birds?
67. Describe the circulatory system of reptiles.
68. What is the structural characteristic of the thoracic cavity of reptiles?
69. Compare the special senses of reptiles with those of the higher orders.
70. Name five extinct orders of the Reptilia.
71. Compare the heart of a serpent with that of a fish.
72. Explain how serpents are capable of swallowing animals larger than themselves.
73. How is the poison of a venomous snake communicated to the object bitten?
74. Where are alligators and crocodiles respectively found?
75. Show the propriety of applying the term “amphibians” to the Batrachia.
76. Name the orders of the Batrachia.
77. In what way is the toad helpful to the gardener?
78. Compare a fish with a land vertebrate in respect to respiration, locomotion, digestion.
79. Name and locate the fins of a fish, and state which correspond to the anterior and posterior limbs of vertebrates.
80. Into what four classes are fishes divided according to Agassiz? Give examples.
81. What enables the flying fish to "fly?"
82. Name the subkingdoms which form the Invertebrates.
83. Name the classes of Articulata with examples.
84. Give some of the most prominent structural characteristics of the Articulates.
85. How are insects distinguished from other Articulates?
86. How do insects breathe?
87. Describe the sting of an insect, and state how it differs from an "ovipositor."
88. Trace a particle of food in the digestive organs of an insect by naming the organs through which it passes to the intestine.
89. Describe the metamorphosis of insects.
90. Name and define the seven orders of insects, and give two examples of each.
91. Are young flies smaller than old flies?
92. What orders belong to the Arachnida?
93. Give the characteristics of the arachnids.
94. Describe the Crustacea as a class.
95. What remarkable restorative power over lost limbs is possessed by crustaceans?
96. Explain the molting of a crustacean.
97. Name the orders of Crustacea according to the most general authority, and give examples of each.
98. State the different methods by which worms multiply.
99. How does the earth-worm benefit the soil?
100. (a) Explain how the tape-worm is nourished. (b) How it grows. (c) How it is developed in the human system.
101. How do Mollusks differ from the higher branches?
102. Describe the circulatory system of Mollusks.
103. Name and briefly describe the commonly recognized classes of Mollusca.
104. What is the structure of the Radiata?
105. Describe the digestion of the Asteroids.
106. What is the simplest form of animal which has been discovered?
107. Classify the following animals by naming the Subkingdom, Class, Order, and Family to which they severally belong: Orang-outang, Jaguar, Otter, Goat, Zebra, Mole, Armadillo, Swallow, River Tortoise, Frog, Salmon, Butterfly, Locust, Scorpion, Hair-snake, Slug, Oyster, Madrepore, Jelly-fish, Deer, Sperm Whale, Rat, Sparrow, Hawk, Quail, Pelican, Alligator, Katydid, Cuttle-fish, Sea Urchin.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY.

1. Biology (bios, life; and logos, discourse) is the study of living objects of all kinds. It includes the sciences of Botany and Zoology. Zoology (zoön, animal; and logos, discourse) treats of animals. The term Natural History, formerly applied to the study of all natural objects, is now limited to Zoology.

2. Plants live upon purely dead or inorganic substances, as water, carbonic acid, ammonia, converting these into organic substances; as starch, cellulose, sugar, etc. Animals have no power of living on inorganic substances; they require ready-made organic compounds, which plants furnish.

3. Animals are living beings, nourished wholly by organic food, and which have sensation and the power of voluntary motion, consuming oxygen and giving off carbonic acid.

4. 1. Functions of Nutrition, those by which an animal is able to live, grow and maintain its existence as an individual. 2. Functions of Reproduction, those by which the perpetuation of the species is insured. 3. Functions of Relation, those by means of which external objects are brought into relation with the organism, and by which it in turn reacts upon the outer world.

5. Aristotle, Linneas, Cuvier, Buffon, and Agassiz.

6. First, a great portion of our food is derived from the animals of the forest, field and waters. Second, all our most valuable articles of apparel we get from this source. Third, dyes, varnishes, glues, ivory, bone, and a thousand other articles employed in the arts we take from the animal world.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY.

7. Zoology teaches mankind what animals are useful to him, and what ones are harmful. It teaches us how to protect those which may be of use, and how to destroy those which do us harm.

8. (a) The remains of ancient organic bodies discovered in the earth. (b) Fossils aid the geologist in tracing out the different rock formations, and finding the coal and other materials essential to supply the wants of civilized man.

9. Fossil remains of animals can be understood only when studied by the aid of facts and principles of zoölogy.
10. Respiratory, digestive, absorbent, circulatory, secretory, excretory, motory, reproductive and nervous systems.
11. Absorption is the act by which organisms imbibe into their tissues the fluids which surround them. Exhalation is the act of sending forth fluids in the form of vapor through the external and internal surfaces of the animal.
12. A cell is the ultimate structural element of the animal composition. It is a minute vesicle filled with a viscid liquid named protoplasm; i.e., the first to form. Within the vesicle there is a central particle termed the nucleus, and within this, there is, in many cases, a still smaller particle called nucleolus.
13. Upon the classification of animals according to their relations and affinities.
14. The first division is into Subkingdoms or Branches; 2nd. Classes; 3rd. Orders; 4th. Families; 5th. Genera; 6th. Species.
15. Subkingdoms are characterized by plan of structure; classes, by the manner in which the plan is executed; orders, by the complication of structure; families, by form, as determined by structure; genera, by details of execution in special parts; species, by the relation of individuals to one another, and by the proportion of their parts.

16. Upon structure and upon form as determined by structure.
17. 1. Vertebrata. 2. Articulata. 3. Mollusca. 4. Echinodermata. 5. Coelenterata. 6. Protozoa.
18. All animals which have an internal jointed skeleton, and a brain and spinal cord along the dorsal side.
19. Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia, Pisces.

20. The bones are living and vascular animal tissues, growing and changing by internal additions and modifications. Shells grow only by additions to and modifications of the circumference.

21. The teeth are in part composed of bony material called cement, but their principal substances are dentine and enamel; enamel being harder than any other tissue of the body, having but a trace of animal tissue, the teeth are far more durable than the bones.

22. The Mammalia are warm-blooded, air-breathing vertebrates, which bring forth living young, and nourish them with milk. Their skin is usually covered with hair, fur or wool. Their lungs are separated by a diaphragm from the abdominal cavity. The heart has four cavities; the circulation of the blood is double and complete.

23. Bimana, man; Quadrumana, monkey; Carnivora, lion; Ungulata, horse; Proboscidea, elephant; Sirenia, dugong; Hyracoidea, daman; Cetacea, whale; Chiroptera, bat; Insectivora, mole; Rodentia, beaver; Edentata, anteater; Marsupialia, opossum; Monotremata, duckbill.

24. The framework of man is superior to that of the animals in its adaptability for the greatest variety of movements.

25. Because of their power of opposing the great toe to the other toes, making the hind feet become hands.

26. Monkeys may be distinguished from man anatomically by the spinal opening in the cranium being in the posterior third of the base; by the single curve of the vertebral column; by the shortness of the thumb which does not reach the base of the index finger; by the long and narrow pelvis; by the obtuse angle of the foot with the leg; and by the disproportionate length of the arms, which in most species, reach to the knee.

27. The circulation in mammals is complete because all the blood circulates through the lungs before going through the body; and it is said to be double because the blood passes through two sets of capillary vessels, one set belonging to the lungs, the other set to the body.

28. This may be shown by placing a bone in weak muriatic acid for a few days, when the mineral substance will be dissolved, and the cartilage having the same form and size as the bone will remain.

29. Incisors, 2-2/2-2; Canine, 1-1/1-1; Pre-molars, 2-2/2-2
Molars, 3-3/3-3 = 32.

30. The "facial angle" is formed by the intersection of two lines projected in the following manner: the first extends from the lower opening of the ear to the base of the nose; the second starting from the most prominent part of the forehead, intersects the first at the most prominent part of the upper jaw. In the White race this angle varies from 75° to 95°; in the ape it is 40°; in the dog, 20°.

31. The three families of the quadrumana are the Simiidæ, the Cebidæ, and the Lemuridæ. The Simiidæ resembles man most.

32. None have ever been trained to render any useful service, and such training is probably impossible from their disposition, being selfish, crafty, thievish, and malicious.

33. The Mandrill, to the Simiidæ; the Spider Monkey, to the Cebidæ; the Aye Aye, to the Lemuridæ; the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee, to the Simiidæ.

34. 1st. They feed wholly or mainly on flesh. 2nd. They have long, sharp teeth, fitted for cutting and tearing rather than grinding. 3rd. The stomach is simple and the intestines relatively short, perfectly adapted to their easily digestible food. 4th. Their feet are provided with toes, which are often armed with sharp claws. 5th. In most cases the Carnivora are without clavicles.
35. Felidæ, as the lion, cat; Viverridæ, civet, ich-neumon; Hyenidæ, hyena; Canidæ, dog, wolf; Mustelidæ, weasel, otter; Ursidæ, bear; Procyonidæ, raccoon; Otariidæ, eared seal, sea bear; Phocidæ, common seal; Rosmaridæ, walrus.
36. Digitigrades, those which walk on the toes without touching the heel to the ground; as the cat, tiger; Plantigrades, those which in walking place the sole of the foot flat on the ground; as the bear, rac-coon; Pinnigrades, those which progress by means of fin-like paddles; as the seal and walrus.
37. Since the carnivora live almost entirely by prey which they must capture, their senses are more acute than those of any other order.
38. The Felidæ, because they exhibit the peculiar characteristics of the order more than any other family.
39. In the Ruminantia the stomach is composed of four compartments. The food is swallowed as the animal grazes, and is passed directly into the paunch or first stomach; thence into the reticulum or second stomach, where it is moistened and formed into pellets, which afterward ascend through the œsophagus to the mouth to be chewed while the animal rests. The food, now in the form of chewed cuds, is again swallowed, passing directly into the leaflet or third stomach, sometimes called many plies, on account of its numerous folds. From this it passes to the fourth stomach or caillette, which is the true organ of diges-tion.
40. The artiodactyl Ungulata are: Camelidæ, Giraffidæ, Bovidæ, Antilocapridæ, Cervidæ, Hippopotamidæ, Suidæ, Dicotylidæ; the perissodactyl Ungulata are: Equidæ, Rhinocerotidæ, Tapiradæ.
41. The giraffe, bison, buffalo, goat, chamois, ox, deer, moose, sheep, gazelle.
42. The camel, dromedary, and llama resemble one another in having no horns, being provided with two toes and cushioned feet, and being all ruminants. They differ in their dorsal structure and habitat, the camel having one hump, the dromedary, two and the llama none. The camel is adapted to cold climates, the dromedary to hot climates, and the llama, by reason of its hooked toes, is adapted to the rugged mountains of the Andes.
43. The mastodon and the dinotherium.
44. The elephant’s proboscis or trunk is a long cylindrical organ composed of several thousand muscles, and endowed at its terminus with the most delicate sensibility. The trunk is remarkable for its power and agility. It is the organ of touch, smell, prehension, and defense.
45. The families of the Cetacea are delphinidæ, balænidæ, and physeteridæ. Whalebone is obtained from the upper jaw of the balænidæ. Sperm is obtained from cranial cavities in the physeteridæ.
46. To the Chiroptera.
47. The bats fly during the night, concealing themselves in daylight in caves, hollow trees, and dark places, hanging by the hooks or nails of their hind feet. Their large ears and broad wings possess such a delicate sensibility that they are enabled to fly quickly and safely through the most complicated passages.

48. The mole, shrew, hedgehog, kabung.

49. In each jaw they have two chisel-shaped incisors, between which and the molars there is a space without teeth, canines being wanting. The incisors are long, slightly curved and deeply rooted. The edges are kept sharp by friction and growth. The molars are usually ridged transversely, and the jaws have a backward and forward motion as required in gnawing.

50. Muridæ, rats and mice; Geomyidæ, gophers; Castoridæ, beaver; Sciuridæ, squirrels; Hystricidæ, porcupine; Caviidæ, Guinea-pig; Leporidæ, hares and rabbits.

51. The beaver on account of its fur.

52. They are all toothless and painfully deliberate in their movements.

53. The Marsupialia at birth are extremely small, and are immediately received into a pocket or pouch, formed by folds of the skin of the mother's abdomen. Here they are nourished till they are able to take care of themselves.

54. In belonging, with a few exceptions, to the order of Marsupialia.

55. It has the form of an otter with many of his habits, and the bill of a duck and webbed feet.

56.
PASSERES, sparrows.             HERODIONES, herons.
PICARIÆ, woodpeckers.           ALECTORIDES, rails.
PSITTACI, parrots.              LAMELLIROSTRES, geese.
RAPTORES, vultures.             STEGANOPODES, pelicans.
COLUMBÆ, doves.                 LONGIPENNES, gulls.
GALLINÆ, turkeys.               PYGOPODES, auks.
BREVIPENNES, ostriches.         SPHENISCI, penguins.
LIMICOLÆ, snipes.

57. The breast bone is greatly enlarged to furnish support for the muscles which move the wings; while the fore limbs below the elbow are more or less consolidated to give firmness in striking the air in flight.

58. By the oil with which the feathers are dressed, and which is furnished by a gland situated on the tail.

59. In being much lighter. The marrow found in the bones of mammals is replaced by air in the bones of birds.

60. Respiration in birds is most complete. Not only the lungs perform this function, but the bones and feathers aid in the act of breathing. It is claimed that if the windpipe be tied a bird will breathe through a broken bone.

61. A large muscle extends down the thigh-bone, terminating in a tendon, which passes in front of the knee, and continuing downward and backward, passes behind the heel-bone; here it divides, sending branches to all the toes. When the bird stands erect the toes are extended, but as it crouches, the limbs being bent, the muscle and tendon are shortened, and in the act the toes are flexed and grasp the perch. This flexion is seen in the stepping of fowls, the flexing of the toes being involuntary.

62. The stomach is composed of three parts,—the crop, which is an enlargement of the gullet, a membranous stomach lined with numerous glands which furnish juices to moisten the food, and the gizzard, in which the food is finally digested.

63. (a) 104° Fahr. (b) By a horny point at the extremity of the bill by which the shell is pierced.

64. Granivorous, living upon grains or other seeds. Carnivorous, living upon animal food. Gregarious, living in numbers or herds. Omnivorous, feeding indiscriminately on all kinds of food. Ruminants, animals which chew the cud.

65. Testudinata, turtles; Loricata, alligator; Lacertilia, lizards; Ophidia, snakes.

66. It is shorter in proportion than in warm blooded vertebrates. The transition from the œsophagus to the stomach is by a pouch-like dilatation. The small intestines have but few coils, and the large intestines are short. Digestion is sluggish.

67. The blood of reptiles is much cooler than in animals or birds. The heart has only three cavities instead of four, two auricles and one ventricle. The arterial blood from the lungs goes into the left auricle, and the venous blood from all parts of the body into the right auricle; both are poured into the single ventricle, thus mixing the pure and impure blood; hence the sluggishness of these animals.

68. Reptiles having no diaphragm, there is no division between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and the lungs are not connected with air-sacs placed in various parts of the body.

69. The eyes of reptiles differ but little from those of birds; the hearing is less complete than it is in either mammals or birds; the sense of smell is but little developed; while the sense of touch is almost wanting.

70. *Ichthyopterygia, Sauropterygia, Pterosauria, Anomodoutia, Deinosauria.*

71. The heart of a serpent has three cavities, — two auricles and one ventricle; while a fish has but two cavities, — one auricle and one ventricle, containing only impure blood.

72. The lower jaw articulates with the skull by means of a quadrate bone, and this in turn is movably jointed to the cranium. The two halves of the lower jaw are loosely united by ligaments and muscles. By reason of this peculiar arrangement serpents have the power of opening the mouth to an astonishing extent.

73. The upper jaw contains a pair of long, curved fangs, which, when not in use, are pointed backward, and concealed in a fold of the gum. Each fang is perforated by a fine tube, connecting with the duct of the "poison-gland," located under and behind the eyes. When the snake strikes at any object, the poison is forced through the fang into the wound, partly by the contraction of the muscles of the glands, and partly by the action of the jaw.

74. The alligator in the New World, the crocodile in the Old World.

75. The term “amphibians” is applied to the Batrachia on account of their “double life,”— the tadpole stage passed in water during which they breathe by gills like a fish, and a mature stage passed in air, during which they breathe by lungs.

76. Anoura, as frogs and toads; Urodela, as salamanders and newts; Amphipneusta, as siredons; Apoda, as the blind worm.

77. The toad is an enormous eater; his daintiest food is the insect tribe that infest the gardens. A half dozen toads in a large garden will devour all the insects that destroy the young plants.

78. While respiration in the land vertebrates is performed by means of lungs, in fishes it is effected by means of gills; the limbs of fish corresponding to the locomotive members of land vertebrates are but little developed. Owing to the simplicity of the intestinal canal, digestion in fishes is very rapid.

79. The fins of fish are termed pectorals, corresponding to the fore or anterior limbs of the higher vertebrates; ventrals, corresponding to the posterior limbs, dorsal, on the back; anal, beneath the tail; and caudal, at the end of the tail.

80. Into Salachians (cartilaginous skeleton), as Sharks, Rays; Ganoids (enameled), as Gar-pikes; Sturgeons; Teleosts (perfect bone), as Perch, Salmon, Marsipobranchii (pouch gills), as Lampreys, Lancelet.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. 321
81. The so-called flying of this fish is due to an excessive development of the pectoral fins, by which it is enabled to sustain itself in air for only a few seconds.
82. The Articulata; the Mollusca; the Echinodermata; the Coelenterata; the Protozoa.
83. Insecta, as insects; Myriapoda, as centipedes; Arachnida, as spiders; Crustacea, as lobsters; Annelida, as worms.
84. The bodies of Articulates consist of a series of transversely jointed rings, more or less movable, composed of a substance termed chitine. The external parts are usually hard, and constitute the only skeleton the animal may be said to have. The limbs, when present, are like the body — composed of jointed rings. Each distinct segment of the body possesses an independent nerve center, though these are all connected, both with each other and with the outer integument.
85. In the true insects the three divisions of the body, the head, thorax, and abdomen, are always distinct from one another; there are never more than three pairs of legs in the adult, and these are borne upon the thorax; the abdomen has no locomotive appendages.
86. Breathing in insects is effected by means of air-tubes which branch throughout the animal, and which receive the air through air-holes, arranged along the side or posterior part of the body. The blood is aerated by absorbing air through delicate membranes of the tubes.

87. The sting is a kind of hollow lancet connected with an internal sac of poison, which the insect injects into the wounds it inflicts when enraged. The ovipositor, or piercer, is a jointed tube used for conducting eggs into holes where they are left to be hatched.

88. The food in some insects is chewed by means of mandibles by a horizontal motion; in others it is merely sucked in, and passes into a more or less folded cavity, termed the crop, from which it goes into a second muscular cavity or gizzard. The gizzard is adapted for crushing the food, by having, in many cases, teeth-like plates of chitine. From this the food passes into the true digestive organ, termed the chylific stomach, and thence to the intestine.

89. The metamorphoses comprise three stages. The moth in passing from the egg state becomes a larva. If legs are present, the larva is a caterpillar; if absent, a grub or maggot. In this state the larva is a voracious eater, and grows astonishingly, as may be seen in the common tobacco worm. At growth it usually rolls itself into an apparently lifeless oval or conical body called a pupa or chrysalis. After a time, varying in length in different species, it sheds its pupa covering and comes forth an imago, or perfect insect.

90. 1. Hymenoptera (membrane-winged), bees, wasps.
 2. Lepidoptera (scaly-winged), butterflies, moths.
 3. Diptera (two-winged), flies, mosquitoes.
 4. Coleoptera (sheath-winged), beetles, weevils.
 5. Hemiptera (half-winged), harvest-flies, bugs.
 6. Orthoptera (straight-winged), locusts, crickets.
 7. Neuroptera (nerve-winged), dragon-flies, ant-lion.

91. They are not. Flies come forth in the imago full grown. The small flies belong to a different species.
92. Araneæ, as the spider; Pedipalpi, as the scorpion; Acarina, as the mite, cattle tick.
93. The Arachnids have the head and thorax closely united; four pairs of legs; they are without antennæ or wings; and, in general, undergo no metamorphosis, but molt their skin six times before coming to maturity.
94. The Crustacea (hard covering) are covered with a crust or shell. The body consists of segments, most of which, in the higher orders, are united into one piece, called the cephalo-thorax. Most crustaceans live in water, and breathe by means of gills or branchiæ.
95. All Crustaceans have the power of repairing injuries to themselves. Thus, if a leg or other appendage is broken off another soon grows in its place.
96. As the Crustacean grows it becomes too large for its shell. A rent is formed through the back and the animal slips out, leaving a shell as much like itself as when it encased the living creature.
97. Decapoda, ten-footed, as lobsters, crabs, and shrimp; Tetradecapoda, fourteen-footed, as wood-lice and sand-fleas; Entomostraca, insect-like, as horse-shoe crabs and barnacles.
98. Most worms multiply by eggs; some by self-division, called germination or fission; while a few are viviparous.
99. The earth or angle worm eats the organic mat-ter found in the earth. The rejected worm casts together with the burrowing and working of the worms over the soil often converts barren wastes into pro-ductive land.
100. (a) The tape worm is without digestive organs or alimentary canal, hence all nourishment is absorbed through the walls of its body. (b) The worm grows by increase in the number of joints near the head, the older ones, containing eggs, ripening and falling away. (c) The detatched joints escaping to the world scatter the eggs, which enter the system of other animals, usually some omnivorous feeder like the hog. Here only the eggs will hatch. The embryo pierces the flesh and becomes hydatids. The meat of such tainted hogs, containing, the larvæ of these is eaten raw or insufficiently cooked, and develop in the human system the tape worm.
101. Mollusks are neither jointed nor radiated in their internal structure, but are composed of yielding tissues of great contractile power enveloped by a mus-cular skin called the mantle. In most cases the mol-lusk is protected by a hard shell.
102. The circulatory system of the higher orders of the Mollusca consists of a distinct heart, having an auricle and a ventricle, arteries and veins. The auricle receives the colorless aerated blood from the gills, while the ventricle drives it through the body.

103. 1st. The Cephalopoda have muscular appendages or arms around the head, two stout horny jaws; two large eyes; and the body is sometimes covered by a shell. 2nd. The Gasteropoda have the abdomen provided with a single foot by which all movements are effected. While some are naked, most live in an univalve shell. 3rd. The Acephala or Lamellibranchiata have no apparent head, and live in a shell composed of two valves. 4th. The Tunicata or Ascidians have a soft, elastic covering instead of a shell. 5th. The Brachiopoda (arm-footed) have two ciliated arms, the shell composed of two valves, one above and one below opening by a system of muscles instead of hinge ligaments as in the oyster. 6th. The Polyzoa grow in clusters, hence the name (many animals). They resemble plants in their general appearance so much as to be sometimes called mass-animals.

104. The Radiata diverge in all directions from a central axis, — they are without ends or sides. The lateral symmetry observed in the higher forms is here replaced by a circular symmetry from the center, similar to the growth of plants, from which resemblance the radiates are often called plant-animals.

105. The Asteroids force their prey into a cavity on the under side by means of tentacles, when the stomach by a peristaltic movement protrudes and envelopes the food, which by the action of the fluids secreted by the animal, goes through the process of digestion.
106. The Bathybius, belonging to the Monera, a structureless living albuminous jelly.
107. Consult TENNY's Elements of Zoology or STEEL's Fourteen Weeks in Zoology.

QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY.

1. Define Natural Philosophy. Physics.
2. Give the general properties of matter.
3. What are the specific properties of matter?
4. How does a molecule differ from an atom?
5. Name the great forces in nature.
6. State and illustrate the difference between cohesion and adhesion.
7. In what three forms does matter exist?
8. What is the difference between annealing and welding?
9. State Newton's Laws of Motion.
10. What is the absolute unit of force?
11. Give the law of reflected motion.
12. What are the two laws of gravitation?
13. (a) How does weight decrease above and below the earth's surface. (b) Where is it nothing?
14. Write the three formulas for falling bodies, explaining the characters you employ.
15. How does the initial velocity of a body projected upward compare with the final velocity of a falling body?
16. What is meant by the random of a projectile?
17. How far will a body fall in ten seconds?
18. Give the laws of the pendulum.
19. (a) What is the length of a second's pendulum in the United States? (b) Where would it be longer?
20. Explain what is meant by a 10 horse-power engine.
21. What are the three general laws of machines?
22. Describe the three classes of levers.
23. Give formulas for the solution of lever problems.
24. With a lever of the first class in which the distance between the power and fulcrum is 4 feet, and the distance from the weight to the fulcrum is 2 feet, how great a weight can be balanced by a man weighing 150 pounds?
25. Write a formula for the wheel and axle.
26. State the law of wheel-work.
27. What is a pulley? How many kinds?
28. How do you find the weight balanced by a given power with a system of pulleys having a continuous rope?
29. Give rules for determining the advantage gained by using an inclined plane.
30. How is the advantage gained by the use of a screw estimated?
31. What means are employed for diminishing the friction between two surfaces?
32. State the law of liquid pressure.
33. How is the pressure of a hydrostatic press found?
34. Give a rule for finding the liquid pressure on the bottom of any vessel.
35. How may the pressure of water against the side of a vessel be found?
36. Upon what property of liquids is the spirit level constructed?
37. State clearly what is meant by specific gravity?
38. How would you find the sp. gr. of a piece of iron?
39. Give a rule for finding sp. gr. of a body lighter than water.
40. How is the weight of any substance determined from its specific gravity?
41. (a) What is the pressure of the air at sea level? (b) How high a column of mercury does this pressure sustain? (c) What height does it raise water in a pump?
42. Describe and state the uses of the barometer.
43. State the velocity of sound in air and in water.
44. With what velocity will water flow from an opening 64.32 feet below the surface of the water? Give the work, and state the law upon which this is based.
45. How would you determine the volume of water discharged by a river in a given time?
46. Name the different kinds of water-wheels in use, and state how much of the water power is made available by each.
47. What is Mariotte's law governing the compressibility of air?
48. Explain the action of the lifting pump.
49. How is the earth's magnetism shown by polarizing a bar thrust in the ground?
50. State the law of electric action.
51. What is the velocity of light?
52. How does the intensity of light and heat vary?
53. Give three laws for the refraction of light.
54. Upon what principles are sounds transmitted by the telephone?
55. Name and define the methods of diffusion of heat.
56. Upon what facts does the action of the thermometer depend?
57. How much steam will a cubic foot of water make?
58. Give the law of thermodynamics.
59. How is the vibrating movement of the piston in a steam-engine produced?
60. How do images appear in convex mirrors?
61. Name the different kinds of lenses. Into what two classes may they be divided?
62. Explain how objects are perceived by the organs of the eye.
63. A, who can row 6 miles an hour in still water, heads his boat straight across a stream flowing 4 miles an hour: how far and with what velocity does his boat move to reach the opposite shore, if the stream is 4 miles wide?
64. A body weighs 50 lbs. at the earth's surface; what is its weight 500 miles below the surface?
65. What would be the difference in weight of a 100 lb. ball 1000 miles above the earth's surface and 1000 miles below the surface?

66. How far above and below the earth's surface should a Troy pound be taken to weigh 3 ounces?

67. How far will a two-pound weight fall during (a) the fourth second of its descent? (b) What will be the entire distance fallen? (c) With what velocity will it strike the earth?

68. A body is thrown directly upward with a veloc- ity of 112.56 feet; (a) What velocity will it have at the end of the fourth second? (b) In what direction is it moving?

69. What will be the time of vibration of a pendu- lum 30 inches long, and how many vibrations will it make in a minute?

70. How long must a pendulum be to beat once in 22/3 seconds?

71. A pendulum 5 feet long makes 400 vibrations during a certain time; how many vibrations will it make in the same time after the pendulum rod has been expanded 1/4 of an inch?

72. What is the horse-power of an engine that can raise 2000 lbs. 4800 feet in 3 minutes?

73. How long will it take a 10 horse-power engine to raise 50 tons 200 feet?

74. How far can a 20 horse-power engine raise 80 tons in 40 seconds?

75. What weight can be balanced by a lever having the following elements: power arm 71/2 feet, weight arm 8 inches, power 100 lbs.?

76. Required the power to balance a weight of 150 lbs., and the class of lever, if the power arm is 3 feet and the weight arm 4 feet.

77. Two men, A and B carry a barrel of flour (weight 210 lbs.) suspended from an 8-foot pole between them, but as B is only 7/8 as strong as A, it is required to know how far from each the weight should be placed.

78. Where should be the fulcrum of a 5-foot lever so that a weight of 40 lbs. at one end shall be balanced by 8 lbs. at the other?

79. What is the class and length of lever and distance from power to fulcrum of that lever with which a power of 1 kilogram will balance a weight of 4 kilograms placed 50 centimeters from the fulcrum?

80. What power will be required to move the pilot-wheel of a boat if the resistance of the rudder is 80 lbs. and the diameters of the wheel and axle are 4 feet and 8 inches respectively?

81. A weight of 540 lbs. is balanced by 60 lbs. on a wheel 12 feet in diameter; what is the diameter and circumference of the wheel's axle?

82. How much power will be required to draw 10 gallons (80 lbs.) of water from a well with a windlass 12 inches in diameter fitted with a winch 20 inches long?

83. What weight can be balanced by a system of 4 movable and 5 fixed pulleys, the power being 100 lbs.?

84. In a system of pulleys of two blocks, each containing 4 sheaves, the friction is 1/6 the power; required the power which will support 1200 lbs.

85. An inclined plane has a base of 12 feet and a height of 3 feet. What force acting (a) horizontally, that is parallel to the base, will balance a weight of 3 tons? (b) What force will be required if the force acts parallel to the plane?

86. A screw whose threads are 1/4 of an inch apart is turned by a lever 6 feet long. How great a force will be exerted by a power of 25 lbs., applied at the end of the lever, allowing 200 lbs. for friction?

87. Find the pressure on the base of a cylindrical cistern whose diameter is 5 feet, the water being 6 feet deep.

88. A dam 20 feet high and 100 feet from shore to shore is filled with water; what is the average pressure?

89. What is the total liquid pressure on the sides and bottom of a prismatic vessel containing 2 cubic yards of water, the bottom of the vessel being 2 by 3 feet?

90. What is the pressure on the bottom of a pyramidal vessel filled with water, the base being 3 by 4 feet, and the height being 10 feet?

91. The lever (2nd class) of a hydrostatic press is 8 feet long, the piston rod is one foot from the fulcrum; the area of the tube is 1/2 square inch, that of the cylinder is 120 square inches. Find the weight that may be raised by a power of 100 lbs.

92. The temperature of a school-room, as shown by a Fahrenheit's thermometer, is 68 deg., what temperature would be indicated by a Centigrade thermometer? By Reaumer's thermometer?

93. What is the specific gravity of a piece of metal which weighs 88.19 ounces in air, and when placed in a vessel even full of water displaces 11 ounces of the liquid?

94. A 16-ounce ball weighs 7 ounces in water, but upon being transferred to another liquid, weighs 11 ounces; what is the specific gravity of the second liquid?

95. Find the specific gravity of a piece of ice from the following conditions: a lump of ice weighing 8 lbs. is tied to 16 lbs. of lead. In water the lead alone weighs 14.6 lbs., while the lead and ice in water weigh 13.712 lbs.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

1. Natural Philosophy is the science which treats of all those phenomena of matter in which there is no change in the composition of the body. Physics is only another term for Natural Philosophy.
2. Extension, Impenetrability, Weight, Indestructibility, Inertia, Mobility, Divisibility, Porosity, Compressibility, Expansibility, and Elasticity.
3. Hardness, Tenacity, Brittleness, Malleability, Ductility.
4. A molecule is the smallest particle of matter that can exist by itself; while an atom is the smallest parti- cle of matter that can enter into composition.
5. Internal or Molecular Forces, Attraction of Gravitation, Heat, Light, Electricity, Magnetism, Vi- tal Force.
6. Cohesion is the force which holds together like molecules; adhesion is the force which holds together unlike molecules. Cohesion preserves the forms of bodies, as the parts of a stone, while adhesion holds the crayon marks to the blackboard.

7. In the solid, the liquid, and the gaseous forms.
8. Annealing is the process of rendering metals, glass, etc., soft and flexible by heating and gradually cooling. The process of welding is the union by cohe- sion of two pieces of iron or platinum by heating and hammering them together.

9. FIRST LAW. A body unaffected by any exter- nal force continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. SECOND LAW. A force produces the same effect whether the body on which it acts is at rest or in mo- tion, whether it acts alone or with other forces. THIRD LAW. Action and reaction are equal and in opposite directions.
10. It is the force, which acting for a unit of time upon a unit of mass, will produce a unit of velocity.
11. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and lies in the same plane.
12. 1st. Gravitation varies directly as the mass. 2nd. Gravitation varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centers of gravity.

13. Above the surface of the earth weight decreases as the square of the distance from the center of the earth increases. Below the surface it decreases simply as the distance from the surface toward the center increases. At the center of the earth there is no weight, because the influence of gravity there ceases.

14. v = velocity; s = space fallen each second; S = total distance fallen; g = 32.16; t = time; v = g × t; s = 1/2 g (2t—1); S = 1/2 g × t².

15. It is the same for any given distance.

16. The range of a projectile is the horizontal distance from its starting point to where it strikes the ground.

17. S = 1/2 g × t²; that is 1/2 of 32.16 × 10² = 1608 feet.

18. 1st Law. Vibrations of small amplitude are made in equal times.
2nd Law. The times of vibrations of two pendulums are to each other as the square roots of their lengths.
3rd Law. The lengths of two pendulums are directly proportional to the squares of their times of vibration, or inversely proportional to the squares of the number of their vibrations in a given time.

19. (a) 39.1 inches. (b) Toward the Poles.

20. A 10 horse-power engine is one having power to do 10X33,000 foot-pounds of work in a minute.

21. First, What is gained in intensity of power is lost in time, velocity, or distance.
Second. The power multiplied by the distance through which it moves equals the weight multiplied by the distance through which it moves.
Third. The power multiplied by its velocity equals the weight multiplied by its velocity.

22. In a lever of the first class the power and weight are at the ends, the fulcrum is between them.
In a lever of the second class the power and fulcrum are at the ends, the weight is between them.
In a lever of the third class the weight and fulcrum are at the ends, the power is between them.

23. P (power) : W (weight) :: W F (weight arm) : P F (power arm).

24. P: W::WF: PF;
150: X:: 2: 4; whence X= 300 pounds.

25. The power: Weight:: the radius, diameter, or circumference of the axle: the Radius, Diameter, or Circumference of the wheel.

26. The continued product of the power and the radii of the wheels equals the continued product of the weight and the radii of the axles.

27. A pulley is a wheel usually fixed in a block, and turning on its axis by means of a cord running in a groove formed on the edge of a wheel. There are two kinds — fixed and movable.

28. Multiply the power by the number of folds of the rope supporting the weight attached to the mova-ble block.
29. P (power): W (weight):: h (height): l (length). This rule applies only when the power acts parallel to the plane. If the power acts parallel to the base, we apply this formula: P: W:: h (height): b (base).
30. A given power will support a weight as many times as great as itself as the circumference described by the power is times as great as the distance between the threads.
31. 1st. By increasing the smoothness between the surfaces. 2nd. By placing some lubricant between the surfaces, as soap and black lead for woods, and oil for metals. 3rd. By making the surfaces of different material.
32. Liquids under the pressure of gravity only, press equally in all directions.
33. Multiply the pressure exerted by the piston by the quotient obtained by dividing the area of the cyl-inder by the area of the piston.
34. Multiply the area of the base in feet by the depth of the water in feet, and this product by 62 1/2 (the number of pounds in a cubic foot of water).
35. Multiply the area of the side in feet by one-half the height of water in feet, and this product by 62 1/2.
36. It is constructed upon the property of liquids to assume a horizontal surface.

37. The specific gravity of a body is its weight compared with the weight of an equal volume of another body taken as the standard.
38. Weigh the piece of iron in air and in water; divide its weight in air by the loss it sustains by weighing it in water.
39. Attach the lighter body to a piece of metal heavy enough to sink it; weigh the combination in air and in water. Find the loss of weight of the combined mass when weighed in water. Weigh the heavy body in air and in water, and find the loss. From the loss which the combined mass sustains in water subtract the loss which the heavy body alone sustains in water; the remainder will be the weight of water equal to the bulk of the lighter body. Divide the weight of the lighter body by this remainder.
40. Multiply the sp. gr. of the substance by 62½; the product is the weight of a cubic foot of the substance.
41. (a) 15 pounds per square inch. (b) It supports a column of mercury 30 inches high. (c) Theoretically, it raises water 34 feet; practically about 28 feet.
42. The barometer consists of a straight glass tube about 33 inches long, filled with mercury and inverted in a vessel containing mercury. It is used to indicate changes in the weather, and to measure the heights of mountains.

43. Sound travels in air, at 32° Fahr., 1,090 feet per second; in water, about 4,700 feet per second.
44. 64.32 feet ÷ 16.08 = 4; The square root of 4 is 2, the number of seconds; 32.16 × 2 = 64.32 ft., Ans. The law upon which this is based is: The velocity of a stream flowing through an orifice is the same as that acquired by a body falling freely from a height equal to the depth of the liquid.
45. Multiply the area of a cross section of the river's bed by the velocity of the stream, and this product by the time.
46. The undershot wheel, using about 25 % of the water power, the breast wheel, about 65 %, the overshot wheel, about 72 %, and the turbine wheel, using from 80 to 85 %.
47. The volume of space which air occupies is inversely as the pressure upon it.
48. The lifting pump consists of a hollow cylinder, within which is a piston working air-tight. At the lower end of both piston and cylinder is a valve opening upward. The cylinder is attached to a tube or “suction pipe” communicating with the water. As the piston is worked the air below it is gradually removed. The downward pressure in the pipe being thus removed, the pressure of the air, exerted upon the surface of the liquid, pushes the liquid up through the suction pipe and the lower valve into the cylinder. When the piston is again pressed down, the lower valve closes, the reaction of the water opens the piston valve, the piston sinking below the surface of the water in the cylinder. When next the piston is raised, its valve is closed by the weight of the water, and at the same time the water is lifted toward the spout and thrown out.

49. If an iron bar be placed in the earth and struck a sharp blow upon the upper end, that end becomes polarized.

50. Two bodies charged with like electricities repel each other; two bodies charged with opposite elec-tricities attract each other.

51. About 186,000 miles per second.

52. The intensity of light and heat varies inversely as the square of the distance.

53. First. Light entering a medium at right angles to its surface is not refracted.
Second. Light passing obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium is refracted toward the perpendicular.
Third. Light passing obliquely from a denser to a rarer medium is refracted from the perpendicular.

54. The sounds uttered cause air waves to beat upon the diaphragm and cause it to vibrate. Each vibration of the diaphragm produces an electric cur-rent in the wire. These currents are transmitted to the coil of the connected telephone, and there produce in the diaphragm of the connected instrument vibra-tions exactly like the original vibrations produced by the voice of the speaker.

55. Heat is diffused in three ways: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. Conduction is the trans-fer of heat from molecule to molecule. Convection is the transfer of heat by circulation. Radiation is the transfer of heat by waves moving in straight lines in all directions.

56. The action of the mercurial thermometer depends upon the facts that heat expands mercury more than it does glass, and that when two substances of different temperatures are brought into contact, the warmer one will give heat to the colder one until they have a common temperature.

57. About 1700 cubic feet of steam.

58. When heat is transformed into mechanical energy, or mechanical energy into heat, the quantity of heat equals the quantity of mechanical energy.

59. In a double-acting steam-engine, the steam is admitted by means of sliding valves, to the cylinder alternately above and below the piston.

60. In convex mirrors the images are virtual, erect, and smaller than their objects.

61. The Double-convex, Plano-convex, and Concavo-convex, or meniscus, are thicker in the middle than at the edges; while the Double-concave, Plano-concave, and Convex-concave, or diverging meniscus, are thinner in the middle than at the edges.

62. Rays of light entering the eye from an object, are refracted by the cornea and crystalline lens, and made to converge to a focus at the back of the eye, and form an image upon the retina. This image produces a sensation on the optic nerve, and conveys, in some unknown way, to the mind, a perception and knowledge of the external object.
63. (6 mi.)²+(4 mi.)²=52 sq. mi.; √52 = 7.21 + mi. velocity. If he rowed with a velocity of 4 mi. an hour he would drift 4 miles, but he rows 6 miles an hour, and therefore drifts ⁴⁄₆ or ²⁄₃ of 4 miles, or 2⅔ miles. (2⅔)²+(4)² = 23¹⁄₉ ; √23¹⁄₉ = 4.8 + miles.
64. The weight below the surface : the weight at the surface :: the distance from the earth's center : the distance from the center to the surface; that is w : W :: d : D; x lbs. : 50 lbs. :: 3500 mi. : 4000 mi. Ans. 43.75 lbs.
65. w : W :: d : D; x : 100 :: 3000 : 4000. Weight 75 lbs. below the earth's surface. w : W :: D² : d²; x : 100 :: (4000)² : (5000)². Weight 64 lbs. above the earth's surface. 75 lbs. — 64 lbs. = 11 lbs., difference. Ans.
66. w : W :: d : D; 3 : 12 :: x : 4000. Ans. 1000 miles from the earth's center. w : W :: D² : d²; 3 : 12 :: (4000)² : x². x = √12 × 16000000 / 3 = √64000000 = 8000 miles from the center, or 4000 miles above the surface.
67. (a) 16.08 ft. × 7 (twice the number of seconds less one) = 112.56 ft., distance fallen during the 4th second; (b) 16.08 × 16 (the square of the number of

344 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY.
seconds) = 257.28 ft., the entire distance fallen; (c) 32.16 (gravity) × 4 = 128.64 ft., velocity at the end of the 4th second.

68. 112.56 ft. (initial velocity) ÷ 32.16 (gravity) = 3½ seconds in rising. Since it rises but 3½ seconds, at the end of the 4th second it has been falling ½ second, and has a velocity of 32.16 × ½ or 16.08 ft.

69. 39.1 : 30 :: 1² : t², or t = .87+ seconds. Since the pendulum vibrates once in .87 seconds, it will vibrate as many times in one minute, or 60 seconds, as 60 ÷ .87+ = 68.9+. Ans.

70. 39.1 inches × (2⅔)² = 278+ inches.

71. The length of the given pendulum : the length of the pendulum increased by ¼ of an inch :: the square of the required number : 400². 60 inches : 60.25 inches :: x² : 400². Ans. 399.04+.

72. Horse power = (2000 × 4800) / (33000 × 3) = 96.9. Ans.

73. 2000 × 50 × 200 = 20000000 foot pounds ; 33000 × 10 = 330000 foot pounds; 20000000 min. ÷ 330000 = 60⅔ minutes. Ans.

74. Horse power = (Weight × distance) / (33000 × time in minutes). W. × distance = 33000 × time × H. P.; that is, (2000 × 80) × x = 33000 × ⅔ [40 sec.] × 20. 160000x = 440000, and x, or the distance, = 2¾ feet.
75. P : W :: WF : PF; 100 : x :: 8 in. : 90 in. Ans. 1125 lbs.
76. P : W :: WF : PF; x : 150 :: 4 ft. : 3 ft. Ans. 200 lbs., lever of 3d class.
77. 7/8 + 8/8 = 15/8, strength of both compared with A. 210 ÷ 15/8 = 112 lbs. carried by A; 210—112 = 98 lbs. carried by B. If B acts as fulcrum and A as power, we have
P : W :: W F : P F ;
112 : 210 :: x ft. : 8 feet.
Performing indicated operation, we have 4 1/5 feet as the distance the weight is from B; and 8 — 4 1/5 = 3 4/5 feet from A.
78. Since the weight is five times as great as the power, the power arm should be five times as long as the weight arm ; the weight arm plus 5 times the weight arm, or 6 times the weight arm, equals 60 inches, or the weight arm equals 10 inches and the power arm equals 50 inches.
79. The lever may be of the 1st or 2nd class.
Of 1st class: P : W :: W F : P F ;
1 kg. : 4 kg. :: 50 cm. : x cm.
The power arm, or distance from fulcrum to power, is 200 cm., and the length of lever is 200 cm. + 50 cm. = 250 cm. As a lever of the 2nd class the whole length would be 200 cm.
80. P: W:: d (diam. axle): D (diam. wheel);
x: 80:: 8 inches : 48 inches.
Performing operation, x equals 13 1/3; but since the wheel is to be moved, the power must be anything greater than 13 1/3 lbs.
81. P: W:: d: D;
60: 540:: x ft.: 12 ft. Diam. axle, 1 1/3 ft.
1 1/3 ft. X 3.1416 = 4.1888 ft., circumference of axle.
82. P : W :: d : D; x : 80 :: 12 : 2 X 20; power equals 24 lbs.
83. Since the number of fixed pulleys is one greater than the number of movable pulleys, the number of cords is one greater than twice the number of movable pulleys, or 9 ; and 100 lbs. X 9 = 900 lbs. Ans.
84. 4 X 2 = 8, number of cords. 1200 lb. ÷ 8 = 150 lbs. ; 150 lbs.— 25 lbs. (deducted for friction) equals 125 lbs. Ans.
85. (a) P : W :: h (height) : b (base); x : 6000 :: 3 ft. : 12 ft. Ans. 1500 lbs.
(b) (12 ft.)² = 144 sq. ft. (3 ft.)² = 9 sq. ft. 144 + 9 = 153 ; √153 = 12.3+ ft. P : W :: h (height) : l (length) ; x : 6000 :: 3 ft : 12.3+ ft. Ans. 1463.4+.
86. 6 X 12 X 2 X 3.1416 = 452.3904 inches circumference described by power. P : W :: d (distance between threads) : c (circum.) ; 25 : x :: ¼ inch : 452.3904 in. Performing operation, x = 45239.04 lbs. ; subtracting 200 lbs. for friction, we have 45039.04 lbs. Ans.
87. Area of the base equals 19.635 sq. feet. 19.635 X 6 X 62.5 lbs. = 7363.12+ lbs. Ans.
88. 20 X 100 = 2000 sq. ft. 2000 sq. ft. X 10 (half the height) = 20000 cu. ft. ; 62.5 lbs. X 20000 = 1250000 lbs. Ans.
89. The water in the vessel stands (5/6=) 9 ft. deep. The sides subjected to lateral pressure have an area of [(2 + 2 + 3 + 3) X 9] 90 square feet. 90 X 4½ = 405, number of cu. feet in a column producing lateral pressure. There are (2 X 3 X 9) 54 cubic feet in the vertical column. 405 + 54 = 459 ; 62½ lbs. X 459 = 28687½ lbs. Ans.

90. 3 X 4 X 10 = 120 cu. ft. 62½ lbs. X 120 = 7500 lbs. Ans.
91. The piston will move with a force of (8 X 100) 800 lbs. The area of the cylinder being 240 times greater than that of the piston, the weight will be 240 times 800 lbs., or 192000 lbs., or 96 tons.
92. The differences between the freezing and boil- ing points of Fahrenheit's, the Centigrade, and Reau- mer's thermometers are respectively (212—32) 180°, 100° and 80° ; hence, 1° Fahr. = ⁵⁄₉ C. and ⁴⁄₉ R. Subtracting 32° from 68°, we have 36° Fahr. above the freezing point. ⁵⁄₉ of this equals 20° C., and ⁴⁄₅ of it equals 16° R.
93. 88.19 ounces ÷ 11 = 8.01 = specific gravity.
94. 16 oz. — 7 oz. = 9 oz. ; 16 oz. — 11 oz. = 5 oz. 5 ÷ 9 = ⁵⁄₉. Ans.
95. Combined weight in air, 24 lbs.
Combined weight in water, 13.712 lbs.
Weight of water displaced by ice and lead, 10.288 lbs.
Weight of water displaced by lead, 1.4 lbs.
Weight of water displaced by ice, 8.888 lbs.
Specific gravity of ice (8 ÷ 8.888) = .9+. Ans.

QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING.

1. Give a comprehensive definition of education.
2. What is the essential process of education?
3. Explain what is meant by the “natural order of educating the faculties.”
4. Show the difference between “Learning and Education.”
5. State as many fundamental educational truths recognized by educators as you can.
6. What three kinds of knowledge should the teacher possess?
7. Into what three general classes are the mental powers commonly divided? Illustrate.
8. Define the following terms: Perceptive Faculties, Conceptive Faculties, Reflective Faculties, Intuition.
9. Explain the distinction between a mental power and a mental faculty.
10. What is included in the “Theory and Practice of Teaching?”
11. What items are included in the “History of Education?”
12. Name the six methods of instruction commonly recognized by educators.
13. Explain the difference between mere teaching and training.
14. State the commonly recognized requisites of a successful teacher.
15. What is meant by ''School Government?''
16. Is it true that good teachers, like true poets, are born, and not made by cultivation? Give your reasons for your answer.
17. Explain how a good teacher may be a poor educator.
18. Enumerate the means through which the perceptives are cultivated. With which is the teacher most concerned?
19. What training should the reflective powers of children under 15 years of age receive?
20. Name the most prominent mental qualities sought in the cultivation of the conceptive faculty. Give your reasons.
21. What course should a teacher pursue during the first day of school?
22. What items should be included in a teacher's contract?
23. Name four hygienic conditions which should receive daily attention by the teacher.
24. To what extent should a child of average mental power be trained during his first year at school?
25. Name five of the most common methods in teaching children to read.
26. Explain the advantages of instruction in phonics.
27. Explain the Word Method of teaching children to read.
28. Give the successive steps usually taken in teaching the Word Method.
29. What should be the teacher's purpose in teaching reading?
30. State how a teacher may learn his pupils' names during the first day of school.
31. Show whether it is or it is not necessary for teachers of the primary and intermediate grades to acquaint themselves with the higher branches.
32. What item should be daily recorded by the teacher?
33. What monthly summary is required to be reported by the teacher?
34. Enumerate five of the principal objects of a recitation.
35. Why should physiology and hygiene in some form be taught in all schools?
36. Name one or more studies which call into exercise the different faculties.
37. How far and when should the pupil be assisted in the preparation of his lesson?
38. Of what advantages is a daily programme?
39. What can you say regarding a teacher's tones in his school room?
40. Is a marked degree of excellence in the performance of reading, writing and arithmetic essential to success in teaching these branches?
41. Show clearly that the teacher is equally responsible for the physical and moral training of his pupils as for their intellectual training.
42. Name and illustrate the three methods commonly employed in conducting a school exercise.
43. State four advantages of school records.
44. How is moral responsibility best taught to pupils in school?
45. What methods should be employed in school to train the pupils in oral expression?
46. Is a teacher legally justified in correcting pupils, by punishment or other means, for misconduct on the road to and from school?
47. Is a teacher required to be at his school before the time of opening?
48. Name certain incentives to study which a teacher may not employ.
49. Enumerate what are commonly regarded as proper incentives to study.
50. In what respect are most unsuccessful teachers deficient?
51. Explain the Grube method of teaching numbers.
52. Why should Long Division be taught before Short Division?
53. How should written arithmetic be taught?
54. How should such subjects as long, square and cubic measures be taught?
55. How should dry and liquid measures and weights be taught?
56. What are the two chief purposes in studying the history of one's own country?
57. How should writing be taught?
58. What is the standard of excellence in teaching penmanship?
59. What are the advantages of oral spelling?
60. State briefly the advantages of written spelling.
61. How should the spelling lesson be prepared?
62. How may a written spelling lesson be most advantageously conducted?
63. Of what value is concert reading?
64. By what names should children in primary and grammar schools be addressed?
65. Of what advantage is the daily record of recitations?
66. State fully the disadvantages of keeping a daily record of recitations.
67. Why are pupils required to form lines in entering and leaving school buildings?
68. Specify the advantages of the self-reporting system.
69. What objections may be urged against the self-reporting system?
70. Explain the phonetic method of teaching children to read, and state its chief advantage.
71. In what does the phonic method of teaching children to read consist? State its advantage.
72. Name five or more educational reformers.
73. Who was Froebel? For what is he noted? What particular educational theories did he advocate?
74. Who was the author of “Emile?” What was the object of its publication?
75. For what is Roger Ascham chiefly noted?
76. State briefly the more prominent characteristics of Pestalozzi's educational principles. To what extent have these principles influenced the education of the present time?

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING.

1. Education is the process of securing rational freedom through the subordination of every power of
the mind and organ of the body to the laws of reason and morality.
2. Education from duc, to lead, and the prefix e, out, is the leading out, or the developing of those powers whose germs are found in earliest childhood.
3. The natural order of educating the faculties is in the order of their development and activity, viz. :
1st. The "perceptives," 2nd. The "conceptives," 3rd. The "reflectives."

4. Learning is merely the possession of knowledge,
as facts of history, science and literature ; while education signifies that mastery over one's own powers through training and development which enables him to accomplish more than would be possible with uneducated faculties. Learning gives us knowledge, but often leaves us with a barren possession. Education enables us to use whatever knowledge we have to the best advantage.
5. I. Any power under the control of the will may be cultivated or trained.
II. The powers are trained in one way, only ; viz., by wise use. This law of work is the one unchangeable law of progress everywhere.
III. The wisest training will be directed to those powers which are conspicuously active at the time.
IV. An indispensable prerequisite to any profitable training is careful attention to the matter in hand. [Hewett.]
6. First, a knowledge of the matter to be taught; second, a knowledge of the being whom he is to teach; and, third, a knowledge of the methods by which the matter is to be taught.
7. First, the intellect proper, as the capacity to comprehend ; second, the sensibility as the capacity to sympathize with the sufferings of others ; third, the will, as the power to choose or determine.
8. The perceptives are those faculties by which we obtain a knowledge of the outside world through the senses.
The conceptive faculties enable us to conceive or reproduce the image of absent objects.
The reflectives are those faculties by which we see the relations of objects through the agency of comparison, judging, reasoning, etc.
Intuition is that power by which we know certain truths or ideas without being taught.
9. A mental power is the ability to perform an intellectual operation ; while a mental faculty is a mental power acting entirely under the will; as observing, memory, judgment.

10. The Theory and Practice of Teaching includes the investigation of the various susceptibilities, powers and faculties of mind and the harmonious development of these powers and faculties so as to secure the best result of which they are capable.
11. I. The statement of the different theories, plans and processes of educators of the past. II. The suc- cess or failure of the theories described.
12. The Oral, Socratic, Text-Book, Discussive, Top- ical, and Lecture Methods.
13. Teaching is telling, explaining, illustrating; and stops short of requiring any action on the part of the pupil. It is exemplified in the lecture method of in- struction. Training includes as a preliminary step all employed in teaching, and requires the pupil to repeat, illustrate, amplify and do until every detail is familiar and every act performed with facility and precision.

14. First, he must have good health: this ensures that cheerful buoyancy which inspires respect and love in the minds of pupils. Second, he must have a knowl- edge of the branches which he proposes to teach: without this he can not have the confidence of his pupils. Third, he must possess skill in teaching: the lack of this soon engenders indifference and discontent among the scholars. Fourth, he must be a master to manage and command: that is, he must possess skill in management. He must foresee and forestall every tendency toward the disintegration of his educational forces.

15. School government is the subordination of all the elements involved in a given educational system to the demands of an enlightened and conscientious standard of human development of mind, body and heart.

16. This statement is often made by people of extended observation among the educational classes. Some facts which may be given in support of its truth are,—

I. The prominent characteristics of the most noted educators of all countries and ages were such as seem to have fitted them for their peculiar vocation and for no other.

II. It is observed that those ladies and gentlemen of our own time who have great success in teaching possess certain peculiarities of disposition which distinguish them by a marked contrast from their less successful colleagues.

III. It has been noted that persons without the greater number of the following traits have never been successful in the work of teaching: patience, human sympathy, cheerfulness, self-control, kindness, moral courage, enthusiasm, persistence, order, method, prudence, energy, governing power, will, vigilance, firmness, tact and promptness.

17. The teacher who imparts facts and drills his pupils with reference to impressions to be made on visitors on examination day, may be regarded as a fair teacher, since he “ larns the scholars ; ” but if he confine himself to data, definitions and rules, and ignore the relation of these facts, the impulses, motives and susceptibilities of his pupils, — if he neglect those mental germs of power whose development alone decides the cultured man, — in short, if he work not to secure that highest development of human power styled self-control, the results of his labors must class him as a poor educator.
18. The five senses: — seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling. The teacher is much concerned with the first and second of these, since the successful mental training of children is largely dependent upon the cultivation of the sight and hearing.
19. Experience teaches that if the perceptive and conceptive powers receive the attention of the teacher during the activity of these powers, little time or occasion will be afforded for the distinctive training of the reflective faculties of children under fifteen. The teacher should constantly avail himself of the passing activities of perception, memory and imagination displayed by his pupils to impart impressions conducive to the noblest manhood. Of course the slightest manifestations in pupils of any age to seek for causes, results and relations should never be discouraged.
20. I. Versatility, that the mind may have a wide range of observation and constant activity.
II. Strength, that the attention may be fixed in contemplation, and that impressions may be recalled with freshness and distinctness.
III. Precision, that the ideas and impressions obtained by observation and experience may be properly arranged for service in the higher exercise of reasoning and generalizing.

21. I. He should at once furnish every pupil something to do.
II. He should during the first half day learn the name of every pupil.
III. Within three hours he should have every member of the school engaged in the regular order of business.
IV. He should discourage disorder by his own deliberate and methodical movements.
V. He should at once establish the system he proposes to continue.

22. A teacher's contract should specify the time of opening, length of term, hours per day, holidays, wages, care of grounds, building and apparatus, and provisions for fuel, janitor work, suspension of pupils and agreement as to resignation of teacher.

23. I. The pupils' positions and movements in sitting, standing and walking.
II. Proper and sufficient ventilation of the schoolroom.
III. Sufficient light and proper position of pupils with respect to light.
IV. Calisthenic exercises to bring into judicious use neglected muscles.

24. He should be trained to write on slate or blackboard sufficiently well to have his writing easily read, to read without drawling words of one and two syllables, to spell orally by sound and by letter, the greater

number of words found in his reading lessons, to count by ones and twos to 100, to write numbers to 100, to count and write by the Roman method to L, and to name the days of the week, the months of the year and his county and State.

25. The Word Method, the Sentence Method, the Phonic Method, the Object Method, the Alphabet Method. Two or more of the above are usually employed by nearly all teachers.

26. A daily drill in phonics for a few months gives to the pupil a clearness and precision of speech which will permanently distinguish him from one who has not had this advantage.

27. The Word Method consists in presenting words as objects and teaching children to recognize them as individual units of the sentence. This method has to a great extent supplanted the old method of teaching the alphabet before words.

28. The attention of the pupils is called to some familiar object, upon which many questions are asked. As soon as the children's attention is secured and interest aroused a picture of the object is displayed, or drawn upon the board. The picture is discussed for some minutes, when the name of the object is printed beside the picture, and the children are informed that this too is a picture,—a word-picture. After holding their attention to this for a few moments they are directed to find other word-pictures like this on the chart. This comprises the first lesson. The pupils are dismissed to their seats and directed to copy the word-picture. At a later lesson other words are treated as the first, and words previously learned are reviewed, hunted for on the chart and formed into sentences. All words learned are printed on the board by the teacher and copied by the pupils, at first in Roman and afterward in script, until their forms become familiar.

29. I. To develop clear, pleasant and impressive speech in the delivery of extemporaneous or written language.
II. To cultivate the power of instantly grasping the thought as presented on the printed or written page.

30. Send as many pupils to the board as can be accommodated, and require them to write their names at the top in their best writing. Assign some simple exercise, to be placed on the board; when the work is completed, call pupils to face you. As each in turn is named to explain, his voice, face and name (written over his head) will associate themselves in your mind until you can, without difficulty, call the name of each pupil before you.

31. The so-called higher branches all extend the teacher's intellectual resources, and strengthen his power over difficulties. As the teacher's work consists mainly in "managing" his pupils, and cultivating in them a desire for knowledge and improvement, his familiarity with the higher branches gives him advantages in these efforts which render him infinitely more successful than he could be without them.

32. The daily attendance of all pupils belonging to the school.

33. The total enrollment and average daily attendance of pupils, together with such special items as may be required by the officers of the school.
34. I. To test the pupil's knowledge of the subject.
II. To cultivate the habit of careful preparation and accurate expression.
III. To supplement the information gained from the text-book.
IV. To direct the pupils in their preparation of the lessons.
V. To stimulate the pupils, arouse their attention and cultivate in them habits of investigation.
35. That the pupils may early learn the function and care of every organ of their bodies, that they may know the necessity of pure air, sufficient and wholesome food, alternation of rest and exercise and understand the dependence of the mental powers upon bodily health, physical restraint and moral culture.
36. The perceptive faculties are exercised by writing, drawing, spelling and botany; the conceptive faculties by reading, history, geography and composition; while the reflective faculties are best exercised and developed by mathematics, rhetoric and logic.
37. Only so far as to aid a partial comprehension of principles, — never in their application to the assigned lesson. A teacher may illustrate a principle by its application to work similar to that required. Assistance should be withheld until the teacher is satisfied the pupil has exhausted his own resources, and evinces signs of discouragement. Individual assistance should be given rarely in the presence of the class. Explain difficulties to the class, and command the attention of every member.
38. " A programme conduces to good order, diminishes the teacher's labor, cultivates methodical habits, and makes his teaching more effective."
39. Clearness of voice and distinctness of speech are indispensable in the management of classes; but the force must be constantly subdued and the pitch slightly below the natural to secure the respectful attention of pupils.
40. It is difficult to understand how a teacher unskilled in rapid, elegant penmanship, natural impressive and effective reading, and accurate and rapid arithmetical calculations, can inspire his pupils with sufficient admiration for these arts to desire more than the teacher presents as models. The highest skill in these branches, upon the part of the teacher, is essential to their successful teaching. Few teachers insist upon a higher standard than they, themselves, possess. Hence, but moderate skill in these branches may be expected from pupils whose teachers are not proficients.
41. To secure the highest intellectual attainments, certain previous conditions are essential: these are mental vigor and sensual restraint. The first of these is secured only through the judicious exercise and employment of the mental and physical organs. The second condition is attained by the training of the moral faculties to acts of justice, duty and self-denial. The vigorous body gives energy to the brain, and the self-poised conscience imparts accuracy and decision to the perceptions of the senses and conceptions of the mind.
42. I. Teaching, or instruction, by which the teacher orally or through the text-book, presents the principles of the subject in definition and illustration.
II. Development, or Socratic questioning, by which the teacher tells the pupil nothing, but by a series of skillful questions, beginning with what is already clear to the pupil's mind, he leads him step by step to comprehend the principle and its application.
III. Training, or drilling, by which through instruction, practice and criticism, the subject in all its details is fully mastered.
43. Accurate school records afford the following advantages: 1. They aid the teacher in classification and promotion of pupils. 2. They give information to parents and school officers. 3. They furnish important educational statistics. 4. They exert a beneficial influence upon both teachers and pupils.
44. By first explaining the rights and duties of pupils, and then insisting that these shall be mutually observed and respected. In addition, pupils should be taught early in their school life that the greatest success and happiness come only from individual independence, and that independence exists alone in a ready performance of duty, a cheerful self-denial and a conscious rectitude.
45. I. The pupils should be taught to breathe properly.
II. They should be drilled on the oral elements until every sound and combination can be distinctly and correctly uttered.
III. They should be subjected to frequent drills in voice slides and waves.
IV. The test of all reading exercises should be the ability of the teacher to understand every word read without referring to the text-book.
46. The Supreme Courts of a number of States have decided that school directors have the right to make rules governing the conduct of scholars on the grounds or on the road to or from school. The teacher is the directors' authorized agent and executive in all matters pertaining to the management of the school so far as their authority may be delegated to him. Before punishing pupils for misdemeanors committed on the road to or from school, teachers should have this authority duly given.
47. He is rarely required by law or contract to be present before the time of opening, but his interest in the welfare of his pupils and his zeal in his work should prompt him to be at his post early enough to forestall difficulties and make the necessary preparation to begin on time. A good teacher, like a good scholar, is always a little ahead of time.
48. Ridicule, force, additional tasks, fear of punishment, prizes, merit marks, and the granting of special privileges.
49. I. The desire for knowledge.
II. The hope to secure perfection.
III. The approbation of the teacher.
IV. The approbation of parents and friends.
V. The pleasure of overcoming difficulties.
VI. The enjoyment of useful employment.
VII. The prospect of a successful manhood.
50. They are deficient in management, otherwise termed tact, or governing power.
51. The Grube method consists in teaching beginners the combinations of numbers less than ten in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Various articles, such as buttons, beans, grains of corn, pebbles, etc., are at first employed until the children can perform the operations without these aids.
52. Since every step in the process of long division is placed before the pupil in figures, he can hold each step with his eye until the next is taken; and if an interruption occur or the teacher wish to repeat or impress the operation, the work as far as completed, remains before the eye. This is but an application of object-teaching, and presents the principle of division much more clearly than the process of short division, in which the operations are carried on almost entirely in the mind.
53. Always in connection with mental arithmetic, and, as far as possible, with practical illustrations taken from the school-room, yard, and neighboring stores. A subject will be sooner mastered and longer retained if practically applied at the time and presented with small numbers which can be easily held in the mind.
54. By having pupils supplied with yard sticks divided into feet and inches, and by requiring them to measure distances, surfaces and solids in and about the school-house.
55. The teacher and pupils may borrow pint, quart, gallon, peck and bushel measures, and construct the usual tables by actually measuring water and sand. This practice fixes the relative capacity of these measures as no drill upon tables and problems can ever do. The same course should be pursued with the various weights.
56. I. To cultivate the virtue of patriotism.
II. To teach the embryonic citizen that a certain train of causes produces certain definite results whose evils may be avoided or remedied by appropriate and timely action.
57. After the necessary instruction in position, pen-holding and movement is given, individual elements, letters, words and sentences should be presented on the blackboard. Attention should be called to one thing at a time. The characters should be accurately formed and analyzed before the pupils are called upon to re-produce them. Much time and many efforts may be required to master one element or letter, but the expenditure will be amply repaid in the rapid progress secured as the pupil advances from letter to letter. Writing is an art and skill in its execution is possible to all who are taught.
58. The standard of excellence in penmanship to which every teacher should endeavor to bring his pupils is the ability to write a uniformly legible style of writing, free from meaningless flourishes, and exe-cuted with an easy, rapid, graceful, movement, which may be continued for hours without weariness.

59. Oral spelling, if properly conducted, cultivates the ear to hear quickly and accurately. If the teacher is a correct speaker and exacting in securing correct-ness in articulation, the pupil acquires a facility and accuracy in pronunciation that will dispense with much laborious research in later years.
To secure these results the teacher should observe these cautions: Never repeat a word or a syllable, nor permit a pupil to repeat syllables. No pupil should try a second time to spell a word. Require pupils to pronounce the words correctly before and after spell-ing. Each letter and syllable should be distinctly and accurately uttered in passing, but not repeated, i.e., not uttered a second time.

60. Since skill in spelling is required chiefly for writing, it follows that what one does most with a constant purpose of improvement in view, he does best. Hence, the practice of writing words through several years of school life, familiarizing their forms to the eye, finally fixes the order of letters composing a word permanently in the mind.
61. Correct spelling must be mastered through hand and eye. As soon as the child has learned to form the letters in script he should prepare all spelling lessons by writing the words two or more times on slate or paper.
62. I. Require pupils to use pen, ink and a blank-book.
II. Pronounce each word accurately and but once.
III. Require words written neatly in plain characters.
IV. Allow no alterations, additions or erasures. All omissions, interlineations, or indistinct letters should be counted as errors.
V. Have pupils exchange books and mark each other's errors with lead pencil, noting also the grade of the work, each corrector writing his name below.
VI. Have monitors collect books for teacher's examination.
VII. If violations of No. IV. are found mark the word zero.
VIII. If any corrector has failed to correct an error mark him zero for the error he has failed to note.
Another method equally good is to have each pupil correct his own work. This plan has the advantage of time, since the delay of exchanging is avoided, and, further, the teacher marks all the errors (the speller's and the corrector's), in a given book at once.
63. As a substitute for the reading exercise it is of too little value to justify its employment. As a means of developing purity, force and flexibility of tone, it is of sufficient value to warrant the teacher in using it occasionally at the beginning of the lesson.
64. Always by their Christian names — never as "Brown," "Smith," "Jones," etc., nor Miss "So and So," or Master "This or that," nor "Sonny," "Honey" or "Darling."
65. The pupils, conscious that a daily record of their recitations and deportment is kept, are disposed to recite and act more uniformly well than they would with an occasional record of these items. The cards of record being promiscuously arranged for each recitation, pupils are called unexpectedly and are kept on the alert. Again, the teacher, anxious to mark his pupils upon a common basis, assigns to each about the same amount of duty.
66. The teacher having to estimate the value of each answer, recitation or exercise, consumes in the calculation and record of such value, much time that were better spent in the management of his classes.
67. I. To secure better order in movements.
II. To prevent the smaller children from being injured by the rushing of large boys.
III. To train pupils to habits of order, system, and deliberate movements.
68. The better class of pupils in whom the influence of conscience and love of approbation are strong, fearful of disgrace by prevarication, are restrained, and thus constitute the nucleus of a well ordered school. A large portion of well inclined, but weaker children, more or less under the influence of the former, out of consideration of dependence or “popularity,” fall into the practice of their stronger neighbors. These two classes being left to govern themselves in a measure, the teacher has opportunity to attend to the idle, mischievous and dilatory pupils.
69. The report of conduct being left entirely with the scholars, there is, even among the well inclined, a daily temptation to violate the truth. Those pupils whose motives and habits are bad, seeing the opportunity afforded to stand as high as their more deserving schoolmates, do not hesitate to take advantage of this reliance upon their honor; and unless they know their statement will be challenged, claim "perfect," after doing their utmost to escape every requirement of the teacher.

70. The phonetic method, which might properly be termed phonotypic, requires modified characters representing all the sounds of the language. Its purpose is to enable the child after the sounds have been taught, to help himself in the pronunciation of each new word.

71. The phonic method consists in teaching the sounds of words through the powers of the letters composing them. It employs no modified letters. Words containing silent letters are at first omitted, the attention being confined to words containing short vowels. The advantages claimed for the phonic and phonetic methods are an earlier recognition of sounds and a greater skill and accuracy in articulation.

72. Roger Ascham, Friedrich Froebel, Desiderius Erasmus, John Amos Comenius [Komenski], Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, and Immanuel Kant.
73. Froebel, born in Thuringia, 1782, was the founder of the Kindergarten. Many of the improvements in primary teaching may be ascribed to him.
The principles involved in his theory of education may be summed up in the single sentence: "Free creativeness is at once the means and end of educa- tion."

74. "Emile" was written by Rousseau (born in 1712), in which he portrays an ideal education accord- ing to his peculiar views. The book attracted much attention at the time of its publication, but the atheist- ical tendencies of the author's writings and his general erratic conduct brought condemnation upon this as upon his other works.
75. Roger Ascham was Queen Elizabeth's teacher of Greek and Latin. His only educational work of importance was the "School Master" [Scholemas- ter], in which he advocated a milder and more careful training of youth than that in vogue at his time. The work deals mainly with the teaching of Latin and Greek.
76. Pestalozzi's principles of education were founded upon natural development. He considered and taught that the end of education is the harmoni- ous development of all the natural powers. Recog- nizing the existence of a certain order of growth and activity, he taught that all instruction should harmon- ize with this order in time and character. He has exerted a greater influence over the general theory and practice of teaching than any man of modern times.