Context: Reciprocating piston type steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century, when advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines gradually resulted in the replacement of reciprocating (piston) steam engines in commercial usage, and the ascendancy of steam turbines in power generation. Considering that the great majority of worldwide electric generation is produced by turbine type steam engines, the "steam age" is continuing with energy levels far beyond those of the turn of the 19th century.

Question: What type of engines became popular for power generation after piston steam engines?

Question: What type of steam engines produced most power up to the early 20th century?

Question: What type of steam engine produces most electricity in the world today?

Question: Along with electric motors, what type of engines superseded piston steam engines?


Context: The first commercial steam-powered device was a water pump, developed in 1698 by Thomas Savery. It used condensing steam to create a vacuum which was used to raise water from below, then it used steam pressure to raise it higher. Small engines were effective though larger models were problematic. They proved only to have a limited lift height and were prone to boiler explosions. It received some use in mines, pumping stations and for supplying water wheels used to power textile machinery. An attractive feature of the Savery engine was its low cost. Bento de Moura Portugal introduced an ingenious improvement of Savery's construction "to render it capable of working itself", as described by John Smeaton in the Philosophical Transactions published in 1751. It continued to be manufactured until the late 18th century. One engine was still known to be operating in 1820.

Question: Who developed the first commercial steam powered device?

Question: What was the first steam powered device used commercially?

Question: In what year was the first commercial steam powered device invented?

Question: Who notably improved the Savery water pump?

Question: Who wrote of the Savery water pump in 1751's Philosophical Transactions?


Context: Around 1800 Richard Trevithick and, separately, Oliver Evans in 1801 introduced engines using high-pressure steam; Trevithick obtained his high-pressure engine patent in 1802. These were much more powerful for a given cylinder size than previous engines and could be made small enough for transport applications. Thereafter, technological developments and improvements in manufacturing techniques (partly brought about by the adoption of the steam engine as a power source) resulted in the design of more efficient engines that could be smaller, faster, or more powerful, depending on the intended application.

Question: Who invented a high-pressure steam engine around 1800?

Question: Who created an engine using high pressure steam in 1801?

Question: In what year did Richard Trevithick patent his device?

Question: High pressure steam engines were small enough that they could be used in what application?

Question: What were steam engines used as a source of?


Context: Although the reciprocating steam engine is no longer in widespread commercial use, various companies are exploring or exploiting the potential of the engine as an alternative to internal combustion engines. The company Energiprojekt AB in Sweden has made progress in using modern materials for harnessing the power of steam. The efficiency of Energiprojekt's steam engine reaches some 27-30% on high-pressure engines. It is a single-step, 5-cylinder engine (no compound) with superheated steam and consumes approx. 4 kg (8.8 lb) of steam per kWh.[not in citation given]

Question: What modern company has been notably working on a steam engine using modern materials?

Question: Where is Energiprojekt AB based?

Question: How many cylinders does the Energiprojekt AB engine have?

Question: How many pounds of steam per kilowatt hour does the Energiprojekt AB engine use?

Question: What percentage of a high pressure engine's efficiency has the Energiprojekt AB engine achieved?


Context: Where CHP is not used, steam turbines in power stations use surface condensers as a cold sink. The condensers are cooled by water flow from oceans, rivers, lakes, and often by cooling towers which evaporate water to provide cooling energy removal. The resulting condensed hot water output from the condenser is then put back into the boiler via a pump. A dry type cooling tower is similar to an automobile radiator and is used in locations where water is costly. Evaporative (wet) cooling towers use the rejected heat to evaporate water; this water is kept separate from the condensate, which circulates in a closed system and returns to the boiler. Such towers often have visible plumes due to the evaporated water condensing into droplets carried up by the warm air. Evaporative cooling towers need less water flow than "once-through" cooling by river or lake water; a 700 megawatt coal-fired power plant may use about 3600 cubic metres of make-up water every hour for evaporative cooling, but would need about twenty times as much if cooled by river water.[citation needed]

Question: What do power station steam turbines use as a cold sink in the absence of CHP?

Question: What device is a dry cooling tower similar to?

Question: In what sort of places are dry cooling towers used?

Question: An evaporative cooling tower is also referred to as what kind of cooling tower?

Question: About how many cubic meters of make-up water is used by a 700-megawatt coal-fired power plant for evaporative cooling hourly?


Context: The centrifugal governor was adopted by James Watt for use on a steam engine in 1788 after Watt’s partner Boulton saw one at a flour mill Boulton & Watt were building. The governor could not actually hold a set speed, because it would assume a new constant speed in response to load changes. The governor was able to handle smaller variations such as those caused by fluctuating heat load to the boiler. Also, there was a tendency for oscillation whenever there was a speed change. As a consequence, engines equipped only with this governor were not suitable for operations requiring constant speed, such as cotton spinning. The governor was improved over time and coupled with variable steam cut off, good speed control in response to changes in load was attainable near the end of the 19th century.

Question: What did Watt add to the steam engine in 1788?

Question: What was the name of Watt's partner?

Question: Where was the centrifugal governor first observed by Boulton?

Question: What is an examine of work that a centrifugal governor-equipped steam engine wasn't suitable for?

Question: What was the centrifugal governor incapable of doing?


Context: The adoption of compounding was common for industrial units, for road engines and almost universal for marine engines after 1880; it was not universally popular in railway locomotives where it was often perceived as complicated. This is partly due to the harsh railway operating environment and limited space afforded by the loading gauge (particularly in Britain, where compounding was never common and not employed after 1930). However, although never in the majority, it was popular in many other countries.

Question: After what year was compounding frequently used in marine engines?

Question: Compounding was not popular in the construction of what machines?

Question: What was compounding seen as being in the locomotive construction industry?

Question: After what year did compounding cease to be used in Britain?

Question: Along with marine engines and industrial units, in what machines was compounding popular?


Context: The simplest valve gears give events of fixed length during the engine cycle and often make the engine rotate in only one direction. Most however have a reversing mechanism which additionally can provide means for saving steam as speed and momentum are gained by gradually "shortening the cutoff" or rather, shortening the admission event; this in turn proportionately lengthens the expansion period. However, as one and the same valve usually controls both steam flows, a short cutoff at admission adversely affects the exhaust and compression periods which should ideally always be kept fairly constant; if the exhaust event is too brief, the totality of the exhaust steam cannot evacuate the cylinder, choking it and giving excessive compression ("kick back").[citation needed]

Question: What is another term for shortening the admission event?

Question: What is another term for excessive compression?

Question: What can the exhaust steam not fully do when the exhaust event is insufficiently long?

Question: Of what length are engine cycle events when the simplest valve gears are used?


Context: Using boiling water to produce mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years, but early devices were not practical. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for a steam engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped. Savery's steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine was the first commercial true steam engine using a piston, and was used in 1712 for pumping in a mine.

Question: Who received the first steam engine patent?

Question: What was the nationality of Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont?

Question: In what year did Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont receive a steam engine patent?

Question: In what year did Savery patent his steam pump?

Question: In what year did Newcomen's engine pump in a mine?


Context: A steam turbine consists of one or more rotors (rotating discs) mounted on a drive shaft, alternating with a series of stators (static discs) fixed to the turbine casing. The rotors have a propeller-like arrangement of blades at the outer edge. Steam acts upon these blades, producing rotary motion. The stator consists of a similar, but fixed, series of blades that serve to redirect the steam flow onto the next rotor stage. A steam turbine often exhausts into a surface condenser that provides a vacuum. The stages of a steam turbine are typically arranged to extract the maximum potential work from a specific velocity and pressure of steam, giving rise to a series of variably sized high- and low-pressure stages. Turbines are only efficient if they rotate at relatively high speed, therefore they are usually connected to reduction gearing to drive lower speed applications, such as a ship's propeller. In the vast majority of large electric generating stations, turbines are directly connected to generators with no reduction gearing. Typical speeds are 3600 revolutions per minute (RPM) in the USA with 60 Hertz power, 3000 RPM in Europe and other countries with 50 Hertz electric power systems. In nuclear power applications the turbines typically run at half these speeds, 1800 RPM and 1500 RPM. A turbine rotor is also only capable of providing power when rotating in one direction. Therefore, a reversing stage or gearbox is usually required where power is required in the opposite direction.[citation needed]

Question: What is another term for rotors?

Question: In a steam turbine, what are rotors mounted on?

Question: What is another way of referring to stators?

Question: What are stators attached to?

Question: In the United States, what is a usual turbine speed with 60 Hertz of power?


Context: The weight of boilers and condensers generally makes the power-to-weight ratio of a steam plant lower than for internal combustion engines. For mobile applications steam has been largely superseded by internal combustion engines or electric motors. However, most electric power is generated using steam turbine plant, so that indirectly the world's industry is still dependent on steam power. Recent concerns about fuel sources and pollution have incited a renewed interest in steam both as a component of cogeneration processes and as a prime mover. This is becoming known as the Advanced Steam movement.[citation needed]

Question: What is the power-to-weight ratio of a steam plant compared to that of an internal combustion engine?

Question: Along with internal combustion engines, what machines have superseded steam in some areas?

Question: What plants create most electric power?

Question: What is the name of the movement that seeks renewed use of steam power in the modern era?

Question: Along with fuel sources, what concern has contributed to the development of the Advanced Steam movement?


Context: It is possible to use a mechanism based on a pistonless rotary engine such as the Wankel engine in place of the cylinders and valve gear of a conventional reciprocating steam engine. Many such engines have been designed, from the time of James Watt to the present day, but relatively few were actually built and even fewer went into quantity production; see link at bottom of article for more details. The major problem is the difficulty of sealing the rotors to make them steam-tight in the face of wear and thermal expansion; the resulting leakage made them very inefficient. Lack of expansive working, or any means of control of the cutoff is also a serious problem with many such designs.[citation needed]

Question: What is an example of a rotary engine without pistons?

Question: What parts of a conventional reciprocating steam engine could be replaced by a pistonless rotary engine?

Question: Along with wear, what development makes it difficult to seal the rotors in an engine that lacks pistons?


Context: The next major step occurred when James Watt developed (1763–1775) an improved version of Newcomen's engine, with a separate condenser. Boulton and Watt's early engines used half as much coal as John Smeaton's improved version of Newcomen's. Newcomen's and Watt's early engines were "atmospheric". They were powered by air pressure pushing a piston into the partial vacuum generated by condensing steam, instead of the pressure of expanding steam. The engine cylinders had to be large because the only usable force acting on them was due to atmospheric pressure.

Question: When did Watt finish the development of his improvements to Newcomen's engine?

Question: What did Watt add to Newcomen's engine between 1763 and 1775?

Question: Compared to Smeaton's improvement on Newcomen's engine, how much coal did Watt's engine use?

Question: In addition to Watt, Boulton and Smeaton, whose engine was an atmosphere design?

Question: In an atmospheric engine, what does air pressure push against?


Context: Steam engines frequently possess two independent mechanisms for ensuring that the pressure in the boiler does not go too high; one may be adjusted by the user, the second is typically designed as an ultimate fail-safe. Such safety valves traditionally used a simple lever to restrain a plug valve in the top of a boiler. One end of the lever carried a weight or spring that restrained the valve against steam pressure. Early valves could be adjusted by engine drivers, leading to many accidents when a driver fastened the valve down to allow greater steam pressure and more power from the engine. The more recent type of safety valve uses an adjustable spring-loaded valve, which is locked such that operators may not tamper with its adjustment unless a seal illegally is broken. This arrangement is considerably safer.[citation needed]

Question: How many mechanisms does a typical steam engine have to keep boiler pressure from getting too high?

Question: What is restrained with a lever in the top of a boiler?

Question: What type of valve is used by recent safety valves?

Question: In an adjustable spring-loaded valve, what needs to be broken to allow an operator to tamper with it?

Question: Along with a desire for more steam pressure, what were early drivers looking to generate when they fastened safety valves down?


Context: The acme of the horizontal engine was the Corliss steam engine, patented in 1849, which was a four-valve counter flow engine with separate steam admission and exhaust valves and automatic variable steam cutoff. When Corliss was given the Rumford medal the committee said that "no one invention since Watt's time has so enhanced the efficiency of the steam engine". In addition to using 30% less steam, it provided more uniform speed due to variable steam cut off, making it well suited to manufacturing, especially cotton spinning.

Question: What was the ultimate development of the horizontal engine?

Question: In what year was the Corliss engine patented?

Question: How much less steam did the Corliss engine use compared to the Watt engine?

Question: How many valves did the Corliss engine use?

Question: What award was given to Corliss?


Context: The steam engine contributed much to the development of thermodynamic theory; however, the only applications of scientific theory that influenced the steam engine were the original concepts of harnessing the power of steam and atmospheric pressure and knowledge of properties of heat and steam. The experimental measurements made by Watt on a model steam engine led to the development of the separate condenser. Watt independently discovered latent heat, which was confirmed by the original discoverer Joseph Black, who also advised Watt on experimental procedures. Watt was also aware of the change in the boiling point of water with pressure. Otherwise, the improvements to the engine itself were more mechanical in nature. The thermodynamic concepts of the Rankine cycle did give engineers the understanding needed to calculate efficiency which aided the development of modern high-pressure and -temperature boilers and the steam turbine.

Question: What scientific field's theory has received contributions from the steam engine?

Question: Who made experimental measurements on a model steam engine?

Question: What was developed from Watt's measurements on a model steam engine?

Question: Who confirmed Watt's discovery of latent heat?

Question: What concept, originally discovered by Black, was later discovered independently by Watt?


Context: One of the principal advantages the Rankine cycle holds over others is that during the compression stage relatively little work is required to drive the pump, the working fluid being in its liquid phase at this point. By condensing the fluid, the work required by the pump consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine power and contributes to a much higher efficiency for a real cycle. The benefit of this is lost somewhat due to the lower heat addition temperature. Gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry temperatures approaching 1500 °C. Nonetheless, the efficiencies of actual large steam cycles and large modern gas turbines are fairly well matched.[citation needed]

Question: What is a main advantage of the Rankine cycle?

Question: During the compression stage of the Rankine cycle, what state is the working fluid in?

Question: How much turbine power is consumed by the pump while the work fluid is condensed?

Question: What is the approximate turbine entry temperature of a gas turbine?


Context: Other components are often present; pumps (such as an injector) to supply water to the boiler during operation, condensers to recirculate the water and recover the latent heat of vaporisation, and superheaters to raise the temperature of the steam above its saturated vapour point, and various mechanisms to increase the draft for fireboxes. When coal is used, a chain or screw stoking mechanism and its drive engine or motor may be included to move the fuel from a supply bin (bunker) to the firebox. See: Mechanical stoker

Question: What is an example of a pump component?

Question: In addition to recirculating water, what do condensers do?

Question: What components raise steam temperature above its saturated vapor point?

Question: What is another name for a coal supply bin?

Question: What mechanism moves coal from a bunker to the firebox?


Context: Land-based steam engines could exhaust much of their steam, as feed water was usually readily available. Prior to and during World War I, the expansion engine dominated marine applications where high vessel speed was not essential. It was however superseded by the British invention steam turbine where speed was required, for instance in warships, such as the dreadnought battleships, and ocean liners. HMS Dreadnought of 1905 was the first major warship to replace the proven technology of the reciprocating engine with the then-novel steam turbine.[citation needed]

Question: The frequent availability of what substance allowed land-based steam engines to exhaust a great deal of steam?

Question: People of what nationality invented the steam turbine?

Question: What was an example of a type of warship that required high speed?

Question: Other than warships, what ships typically required high speeds?

Question: In what year was HMS Dreadnought launched?


Context: Virtually all nuclear power plants generate electricity by heating water to provide steam that drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. Nuclear-powered ships and submarines either use a steam turbine directly for main propulsion, with generators providing auxiliary power, or else employ turbo-electric transmission, where the steam drives a turbo generator set with propulsion provided by electric motors. A limited number of steam turbine railroad locomotives were manufactured. Some non-condensing direct-drive locomotives did meet with some success for long haul freight operations in Sweden and for express passenger work in Britain, but were not repeated. Elsewhere, notably in the U.S.A., more advanced designs with electric transmission were built experimentally, but not reproduced. It was found that steam turbines were not ideally suited to the railroad environment and these locomotives failed to oust the classic reciprocating steam unit in the way that modern diesel and electric traction has done.[citation needed]

Question: What do nuclear power plants heat to create electricity?

Question: What does the steam generated by a nuclear power plant drive?

Question: In a nuclear power plant, what is the steam turbine connected to?

Question: What is it called when steam propels a turbo generator with electric motor propulsion?

Question: Where were non-condensing direct-drive locomotives notably used for fast passenger trains?


Context: The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle because, when an efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main difference is that heat addition (in the boiler) and rejection (in the condenser) are isobaric (constant pressure) processes in the Rankine cycle and isothermal (constant temperature) processes in the theoretical Carnot cycle. In this cycle a pump is used to pressurize the working fluid which is received from the condenser as a liquid not as a gas. Pumping the working fluid in liquid form during the cycle requires a small fraction of the energy to transport it compared to the energy needed to compress the working fluid in gaseous form in a compressor (as in the Carnot cycle). The cycle of a reciprocating steam engine differs from that of turbines because of condensation and re-evaporation occurring in the cylinder or in the steam inlet passages.

Question: What is the Rankine cycle sometimes called?

Question: Where does heat rejection occur in the Rankine cycle?

Question: What does isobaric mean?

Question: What is a term that means constant temperature?

Question: In the Rankine cycle, in what state is the working fluid received in the condenser?


Context: John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the atomic mass of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules.[a]

Question: What did John Dalton think that all elements were in number present in compounds?

Question: What did Dalton think the atomic ratios were between atoms in compounds?

Question: What was Dalton's erroneous formula for water?

Question: What element did Gay-Lussac and von Humboldt discover was present in twice the amount of oxygen in water?

Question: What theory was arrived at in 1811 that presented the assumption of diatomic molecules?


Context: Highly combustible materials that leave little residue, such as wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston; whereas non-combustible substances that corrode, such as iron, contained very little. Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory, nor were any initial quantitative experiments conducted to test the idea; instead, it was based on observations of what happens when something burns, that most common objects appear to become lighter and seem to lose something in the process. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the gaseous combustion products. Indeed, one of the first clues that the phlogiston theory was incorrect was that metals, too, gain weight in rusting (when they were supposedly losing phlogiston).

Question: Of what were materials that left little residue thought to contain?

Question: What type of combustible materials were considered to have little philogiston?

Question: What distinct quality of combustion was  absent from philogiston theory?

Question: What material's weight gain during rusting was an early clue that philogiston theory was wrong?

Question: What characteristic due most items display after burning?


Context: In this dioxygen, the two oxygen atoms are chemically bonded to each other. The bond can be variously described based on level of theory, but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent double bond that results from the filling of molecular orbitals formed from the atomic orbitals of the individual oxygen atoms, the filling of which results in a bond order of two. More specifically, the double bond is the result of sequential, low-to-high energy, or Aufbau, filling of orbitals, and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons, after sequential filling of the low σ and σ* orbitals; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O-O molecular axis and π overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O-O molecular axis, and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest π and π* orbitals.

Question: How is dioxygen most simply described?

Question: What is the bond order of dioxygen molecules?

Question: What is a descriptive term for a low-to-high energy bond?

Question: In dioxygen how are the two oxygen atoms bonded together?

Question: Of what does the covalent double bond result from ?


Context: Oxygen was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774, but Priestley is often given priority because his work was published first. The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς oxys, "acid", literally "sharp", referring to the sour taste of acids and -γενής -genes, "producer", literally "begetter", because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition. Common uses of oxygen includes the production cycle of steel, plastics and textiles, brazing, welding and cutting of steels and other metals, rocket propellant, in oxygen therapy and life support systems in aircraft, submarines, spaceflight and diving.

Question: When did Carl Wilhelm Scheele discover oxygen?

Question: In what year did Joseph Priestley recognize oxygen?

Question: What gave Priestley the claim to being the first discovered of oxygen?

Question: What researcher first used the word oxygen ?

Question: What previous work did Lavoisier experiments discredit?


Context:
This combination of cancellations and σ and π overlaps results in dioxygen's double bond character and reactivity, and a triplet electronic ground state. An electron configuration with two unpaired electrons as found in dioxygen (see the filled π* orbitals in the diagram), orbitals that are of equal energy—i.e., degenerate—is a configuration termed a spin triplet state. Hence, the ground state of the O
2 molecule is referred to as triplet oxygen.[b] The highest energy, partially filled orbitals are antibonding, and so their filling weakens the bond order from three to two. Because of its unpaired electrons, triplet oxygen reacts only slowly with most organic molecules, which have paired electron spins; this prevents spontaneous combustion.

Question: What is the term for the arrangement of two unpaired electrons in dioxygen?

Question: How is the O2 molecule referred to in its ground state?

Question: What causes triplet oxygen to react slowly?

Question: What type of combustion does the slow reaction of triplet oxygen prevent?

Question: What are the weakly filled higher orbitals of oxygen?


Context: In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in. This and other experiments on combustion were documented in his book Sur la combustion en général, which was published in 1777. In that work, he proved that air is a mixture of two gases; 'vital air', which is essential to combustion and respiration, and azote (Gk. ἄζωτον "lifeless"), which did not support either. Azote later became nitrogen in English, although it has kept the name in French and several other European languages.

Question: What did Lavoisier conclude was consumed by combustion in his experiments?

Question: In what way did Lavoisier see that the tin he used in his experiment had increased?

Question: What did Lavoisier perceive the air had lost as much as the tin had gained

Question: In what year did Lavoisier publish his work on combustion?

Question: What second part of air was deemed lifeless by Lavoisier?


Context:
Trioxygen (O
3) is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when O
2 combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O
2 by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet. Near the Earth's surface, it is a pollutant formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust. The metastable molecule tetraoxygen (O
4) was discovered in 2001, and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen. It was proven in 2006 that this phase, created by pressurizing O
2 to 20 GPa, is in fact a rhombohedral O
8 cluster. This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either O
2 or O
3 and may therefore be used in rocket fuel. A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures, this phase becomes superconducting.

Question: What is the name for O3 most often used?

Question: Of what is ozone a reactive part of oxygen?

Question: What  does ozone's characteristic to cause damage effect?

Question: What function does ozone perform for the planet?

Question: What light radiation does ozone absorb?


Context:
The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen, O
2. It is the form that is a major part of the Earth's atmosphere (see Occurrence). O2 has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ·mol−1, which is smaller than the energy of other double bonds or pairs of single bonds in the biosphere and responsible for the exothermic reaction of O2 with any organic molecule. Due to its energy content, O2 is used by complex forms of life, such as animals, in cellular respiration (see Biological role). Other aspects of O
2 are covered in the remainder of this article.

Question: What is the most common form of oxygen on the planet?

Question: What is the scientific designation of oxygen?

Question: What part the composition of the Earth's atmosphere is comprised of oxygen?

Question: What characteristic of oxygen makes it necessary to life?

Question: For what purpose is oxygen used by animal life?


Context:
In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen to study. The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William Hampson. Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them. Later, in 1901, oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed O
2. This method of welding and cutting metal later became common.

Question: What chemist managed to make enough liquid oxygen to use for study?

Question: In what year did Dewar experiment on liquid oxygen?

Question: When was liquid oxygen developed for commercial use?

Question: What welding process was demonstrated in 1901?


Context:
Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen is. Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved O
2 for every 2 molecules of N
2, compared to an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L−1) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L−1). At 25 °C and 1 standard atmosphere (101.3 kPa) of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, whereas seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter. At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and 7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for sea water.

Question: What component of water is more soluble than nitrogen?

Question: Upon what chemical characteristic is oxygen's solubility dependent?

Question: How much oxygen is found is a liter of fresh water under normal conditions?

Question: In what type of water does oxygen dissolve more slowly?

Question: How much more oxygen dissolves at 0 degrees C than at 20 degrees C?


Context:
Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass and is the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 1015 tonnes).[d] Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% O
2 by volume) and Venus have far lower concentrations. The O
2 surrounding these other planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation impacting oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

Question: Where does oxygen rank by mass in the planet's biosphere?

Question: How is oxygen ranked as abundant in the universe?

Question: How much of the sun is made up of oxygen?

Question: Where  by mass is oxygen a major part?

Question: How is oxygen produced from carbon dioxide on the other planets of the solar system?


Context: By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied, and its components isolated, by compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it. He sent a telegram on December 22, 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of liquid oxygen. Just two days later, French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his own method of liquefying molecular oxygen. Only a few drops of the liquid were produced in either case so no meaningful analysis could be conducted. Oxygen was liquified in stable state for the first time on March 29, 1883 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian University, Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.

Question: By what century did researchers see that they could liquefy air?

Question: By what means were scientists able to liquefy air?

Question: What scientist told the French Academy of Sciences that he had found how to liquefy oxygen?

Question: What minor amount of liquid oxygen was produced by early French experimenters?

Question: On what date was oxygen liquefied in a stable form?


Context: Planetary geologists have measured different abundances of oxygen isotopes in samples from the Earth, the Moon, Mars, and meteorites, but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the Sun, believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula. Analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen-16 than does the Earth. The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen-16 from the Sun's disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth.

Question: What celestial object eluded efforts to measure oxygen?

Question: What molecule does the Sun have in higher proportion than Earth?

Question: What spacecraft contained data to determine the oxygen content of the Sun?

Question: What type of process was involved the the depletion of the Sun's oxygen 16?

Question: Before the formation of which planet, did Sol lose oxygen 16?


Context:
Singlet oxygen is a name given to several higher-energy species of molecular O
2 in which all the electron spins are paired. It is much more reactive towards common organic molecules than is molecular oxygen per se. In nature, singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis, using the energy of sunlight. It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength, and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen. Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms (and possibly also in animals) play a major role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissues.

Question: What is the name for a form of oxygen in which electrons are paired?

Question: To what is singlet oxygen more reactive?

Question: In what process is singlet oxygen usually formed?

Question: By what process is singlet oxygen made in the tropophere?

Question: What objects in organisms absorb singlet oxygen to prevent harm?


Context: Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine what the climate was like millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle). Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope, oxygen-16, evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12% heavier oxygen-18; this disparity increases at lower temperatures. During periods of lower global temperatures, snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen-16, and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen-18. Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen-18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate. Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples that are up to several hundreds of thousands of years old.

Question: What group of scientists seek to measure the amounts of oxygen in marine animals?

Question: About what weather feature do paleoclimatologists want information ?

Question: How much heavier is oxygen 18 than oxygen 16?

Question: What form of oxygen do marine animals acquire in greater amounts during cooler climatic conditions?

Question: During what type of climate is oxygen 18 in seawater at higher levels?


Context: Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687 and 760 nm. Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform. This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation's reflectance from its fluorescence, which is much weaker. The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal-to-noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation; but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale.

Question: At what wavelength do the spectrophotometric bands peak?

Question: To monitor what event would measuring radiance from vegetation provide information?

Question: From where would scientists like measure vegetation radiance?

Question: On what scale would scientists show measurements of vegetation?

Question: What style of sensing do scientist like to use to measure global radiance?


Context:
In the triplet form, O
2 molecules are paramagnetic. That is, they impart magnetic character to oxygen when it is in the presence of a magnetic field, because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the molecule, and the negative exchange energy between neighboring O
2 molecules. Liquid oxygen is attracted to a magnet to a sufficient extent that, in laboratory demonstrations, a bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet.[c]

Question: What magnetic character do triplet O2 have?

Question: In experiments, a bridge of what element can be built between poles of a magnet?

Question: The spin of what can produce a magnetic effect to oxygen molecules?

Question: What kind of field is necessary to produce a magnet effect in oxygen molecules?

Question: What device is used to test the magnetic attractions involved in liquid oxygen?


Context:
Reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide ion (O−
2) and hydrogen peroxide (H
2O
2), are dangerous by-products of oxygen use in organisms. Parts of the immune system of higher organisms create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack. Oxygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms, which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until O
2 began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event, about a billion years after the first appearance of these organisms.

Question: What do the reactive forms of oxygen produce in organisms?

Question: For what purpose do organisms make peroxide and superoxide?

Question: Against what does reactive oxygen play in plant defense?

Question: To what type of organisms is oxygen toxic?

Question: When did O2 begin to acculturate in the atmosphere?


Context:
Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (−182.95 °C, −297.31 °F), and freezes at 54.36 K (−218.79 °C, −361.82 °F). Both liquid and solid O
2 are clear substances with a light sky-blue color caused by absorption in the red (in contrast with the blue color of the sky, which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light). High-purity liquid O
2 is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air. Liquid oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials.

Question: At what temperature will oxygen condense?

Question: What is the clarity of liquid oxygen?

Question: What substance is used to make high quality liquid O2?

Question: What element is used as a coolant in the process of making liquid oxygen?

Question: From what type of materials must liquid oxygen be separated?


Context:
Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world's water bodies. The increased solubility of O
2 at lower temperatures (see Physical properties) has important implications for ocean life, as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content. Water polluted with plant nutrients such as nitrates or phosphates may stimulate growth of algae by a process called eutrophication and the decay of these organisms and other biomaterials may reduce amounts of O
2 in eutrophic water bodies. Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water's biochemical oxygen demand, or the amount of O
2 needed to restore it to a normal concentration.

Question: Where on Earth is free oxygen found?

Question: At what temperatures is O2 more soluble?

Question: Why do polar water bodies support a higher amount of life?

Question: Pollution of water by nitrates and phosphates will encourage the growth of what?

Question: What measurement do scientists used to determine the quality of water?


Context: Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved, probably about 3.5 billion years ago. Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic eon (between 3.0 and 2.3 billion years ago). For the first billion years, any free oxygen produced by these organisms combined with dissolved iron in the oceans to form banded iron formations. When such oxygen sinks became saturated, free oxygen began to outgas from the oceans 3–2.7 billion years ago, reaching 10% of its present level around 1.7 billion years ago.

Question: When did photosynthetic organisms evolve on Earth?

Question: During which eon did free oxygen begin appearing in quantity?

Question: At first, what did oxygen and iron combine to form?

Question: How long ago did oxygen reach 10% of its present level?

Question: When did oxygen begin to move from the oceans to the atmosphere?


Context: The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle. This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern Earth's atmosphere. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, while respiration and decay remove it from the atmosphere. In the present equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1/2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year.

Question: What produces the high levels of oxygen on Earth?

Question: What type of process is the oxygen cycle?

Question: In how many places is oxygen stored in its cycle?

Question: What process is responsible for the planet's oxygen content?

Question: What does photosynthesis release into the Earth's atmosphere?


Context:
The other major method of producing O
2 gas involves passing a stream of clean, dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves, which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90% to 93% O
2. Simultaneously, nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen-saturated zeolite bed, by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption).

Question: What mechanism can be used to make oxygen?

Question: What percentage of oxygen will a zeolite sieve produce?

Question: While producing oxygen, what gas does a zeolite sieve absorb?

Question: What type of technology is the non organic separating of gases?

Question: How much is the sieve method of gas production used?


Context:
Oxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio 2:1. Contrary to popular belief, the 2:1 ratio observed in the DC electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the empirical formula of water is H2O unless certain assumptions are made about the molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselves. A similar method is the electrocatalytic O
2 evolution from oxides and oxoacids. Chemical catalysts can be used as well, such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that are used as part of the life-support equipment on submarines, and are still part of standard equipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergencies. Another air separation technology involves forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current, to produce nearly pure O
2 gas.

Question: Electrolysis of what can be used to produce oxygen and hydrogen?

Question: What does the electrolysis of water produce?

Question: What type of electric current is needed for electrolysis?

Question: What is the source of oxygen production through electrocatalytic means?

Question: What other catalysts can be used to produce oxygen?


Context:
Oxygen, as a supposed mild euphoric, has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and in sports. Oxygen bars are establishments, found in Japan, California, and Las Vegas, Nevada since the late 1990s that offer higher than normal O
2 exposure for a fee. Professional athletes, especially in American football, also sometimes go off field between plays to wear oxygen masks in order to get a "boost" in performance. The pharmacological effect is doubtful; a placebo effect is a more likely explanation. Available studies support a performance boost from enriched O
2 mixtures only if they are breathed during aerobic exercise.

Question: As a euphoric how is oxygen used in bars?

Question: What is the effect on humans of oxygen?

Question: What do professional athletes seek to boost from breathing oxygen?

Question: What is the most likely effect of breathing oxygen?

Question: What type of exercise does research show receives a boost in performance from oxygen?


Context:
Hyperbaric (high-pressure) medicine uses special oxygen chambers to increase the partial pressure of O
2 around the patient and, when needed, the medical staff. Carbon monoxide poisoning, gas gangrene, and decompression sickness (the 'bends') are sometimes treated using these devices. Increased O
2 concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of hemoglobin. Oxygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene, so increasing its partial pressure helps kill them. Decompression sickness occurs in divers who decompress too quickly after a dive, resulting in bubbles of inert gas, mostly nitrogen and helium, forming in their blood. Increasing the pressure of O
2 as soon as possible is part of the treatment.

Question: What device is used to treat various conditions such as carbon monoxide poisoning?

Question: What does increased oxygen concentrations in the patient's lungs displace?

Question: To what pathogen that causes gas gangrene is oxygen poisonous?

Question: What occurs after a dive in which a diver decompresses too quickly?


Context:
Uptake of O
2 from the air is the essential purpose of respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient's blood, but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs, easing work load on the heart. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart disorders (congestive heart failure), some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure, and any disease that impairs the body's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen.

Question: What medical treatment is used to benefit patients with hearth and lung disorders?

Question: By decreasing resistance to blood flow in the lungs, what organ's workload  can be eased?

Question: What medical treatment is used to increase oxygen uptake in a patient?

Question: In what process is the uptake from oxygen necessary?

Question: What does  oxygen therapy promote the body to take up?


Context:
Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements to give corresponding oxides. The surface of most metals, such as aluminium and titanium, are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Many oxides of the transition metals are non-stoichiometric compounds, with slightly less metal than the chemical formula would show. For example, the mineral FeO (wüstite) is written as Fe
1 − xO, where x is usually around 0.05.

Question: What characteristic of oxygen causes it to form bonds with other elements?

Question: What is usual form of oxygen bound compounds?

Question: What is the mineral wustite?

Question: What does oxygen cause to form on metals?

Question: What does the film of oxide on metals delay?


Context:
People who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O
2 supplies.[h] Passengers traveling in (pressurized) commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O
2 automatically supplied to them in case of cabin depressurization. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop. Pulling on the masks "to start the flow of oxygen" as cabin safety instructions dictate, forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister. A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction.

Question: What event would necessitate airline passengers to need a supplemental supply of oxygen?

Question: What is the type of oxygen production for emergency oxygen in airlines?

Question: What type of reaction is present in the emergency oxygen generator of an airplane?

Question: What gas does the airline exothermic reaction produce?


Context: Oxygen storage methods include high pressure oxygen tanks, cryogenics and chemical compounds. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C (68 °F). Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions with a need for large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers, which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy-fuel welding and cutting.

Question: What do oxygen tanks, cryogenics, and chemical compounds serve as for oxygen?

Question: By what means is bulk oxygen shipped?

Question: In what state is oxygen shipped in bulk?

Question: In what form is oxygen transported in smaller containers?

Question: What type of organization would need large quantities of pure oxygen?


Context:
Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are (where "R" is an organic group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R); ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids (R-COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (R-C(O)-NR
2). There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen, including: acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, furan, THF, diethyl ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF, DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone ((CH
3)
2CO) and phenol (C
6H
5OH) are used as feeder materials in the synthesis of many different substances. Other important organic compounds that contain oxygen are: glycerol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, citric acid, acetic anhydride, and acetamide. Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of three atoms.

Question: What type of compounds such as acetone,contain oxygen?

Question: In what group of compounds is oxygen a necessary part?

Question: What function do compounds like phenol and acetone serve in the manufacture of many other substances?

Question: In what compound is oxygen part of a ring arrangement?

Question: How are the compounds that contain oxygen considered in commerce?


Context:
The element is found in almost all biomolecules that are important to (or generated by) life. Only a few common complex biomolecules, such as squalene and the carotenes, contain no oxygen. Of the organic compounds with biological relevance, carbohydrates contain the largest proportion by mass of oxygen. All fats, fatty acids, amino acids, and proteins contain oxygen (due to the presence of carbonyl groups in these acids and their ester residues). Oxygen also occurs in phosphate (PO3−
4) groups in the biologically important energy-carrying molecules ATP and ADP, in the backbone and the purines (except adenine) and pyrimidines of RNA and DNA, and in bones as calcium phosphate and hydroxylapatite.

Question: In what type of molecules are oxygen found?

Question: How many biomolecules contain no oxygen?

Question: Which organic compounds contain the greatest amount of oxygen by mass?

Question: Besides fats, fatty acids, and amino acids,what other organic compounds contain oxygen?

Question: In what calcium containing body part is oxygen a part?


Context:
Oxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and surface supplied diving. Prolonged breathing of an air mixture with an O
2 partial pressure more than 60 kPa can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis. Exposure to a O
2 partial pressures greater than 160 kPa (about 1.6 atm) may lead to convulsions (normally fatal for divers). Acute oxygen toxicity (causing seizures, its most feared effect for divers) can occur by breathing an air mixture with 21% O
2 at 66 m or more of depth; the same thing can occur by breathing 100% O
2 at only 6 m.

Question: What health condition can deep sea diving cause?

Question: To what can the use of prolonged breathing of oxygen at 60 kPa lead?

Question: Pressures greater than what can lead to convulsions?

Question: What is the most feared condition that divers want to avoid?

Question: What physical condition can acute oxygen toxicity cause?


Context:
Breathing pure O
2 in space applications, such as in some modern space suits, or in early spacecraft such as Apollo, causes no damage due to the low total pressures used. In the case of spacesuits, the O
2 partial pressure in the breathing gas is, in general, about 30 kPa (1.4 times normal), and the resulting O
2 partial pressure in the astronaut's arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea-level O
2 partial pressure (for more information on this, see space suit and arterial blood gas).

Question: Why is breathing oxygen in space craft not dangerous to health?

Question: What is the oxygen partial pressure of space suits?

Question: How much of normal is the oxygen breathed in space suits?

Question: How much damage does breathing oxygen in space conditions cause?

Question: What si the comparison to sea level with the oxygen level in space suits?


Context:
Oxygen gas (O
2) can be toxic at elevated partial pressures, leading to convulsions and other health problems.[j] Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen composition at standard pressure or 2.5 times the normal sea-level O
2 partial pressure of about 21 kPa. This is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators, since gas supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of only 30%–50% O
2 by volume (about 30 kPa at standard pressure). (although this figure also is subject to wide variation, depending on type of mask).

Question: When can oxygen gas produce a toxic condition?

Question: At what point does oxygen toxicity begin to happen?

Question: To what is 50 kilopascals equal?

Question: What medical appliance can be a concern for oxygen toxicity?

Question: What percentage of oxygen is usually supplied by a medical mask?


Context: The 1973 oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC, consisting of the Arab members of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) proclaimed an oil embargo. By the end of the embargo in March 1974, the price of oil had risen from US$3 per barrel to nearly $12 globally; US prices were significantly higher. The embargo caused an oil crisis, or "shock", with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy. It was later called the "first oil shock", followed by the 1979 oil crisis, termed the "second oil shock."

Question: When did the 1973 oil crisis begin?

Question: What was the price of oil in March of 1974?

Question: When was the second oil crisis?

Question: What was another term used for the oil crisis?

Question: Who proclaimed the oil embargo?


Context: The crisis had a major impact on international relations and created a rift within NATO. Some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from United States foreign policy in the Middle East to avoid being targeted by the boycott. Arab oil producers linked any future policy changes to peace between the belligerents. To address this, the Nixon Administration began multilateral negotiations with the combatants. They arranged for Israel to pull back from the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. By January 18, 1974, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai Peninsula. The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was enough to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974.

Question: Why did the European nations and Japan separated themselves from United States during the crisis?

Question: How did the Nixon administration negotiate with the uncooperative countries?

Question: On what date did Henry Kissinger negotiate an Israeli troop withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula?

Question: When did the Arab oil producers lift the embargo?


Context: On August 15, 1971, the United States unilaterally pulled out of the Bretton Woods Accord. The US abandoned the Gold Exchange Standard whereby the value of the dollar had been pegged to the price of gold and all other currencies were pegged to the dollar, whose value was left to "float" (rise and fall according to market demand). Shortly thereafter, Britain followed, floating the pound sterling. The other industrialized nations followed suit with their respective currencies. Anticipating that currency values would fluctuate unpredictably for a time, the industrialized nations increased their reserves (by expanding their money supplies) in amounts far greater than before. The result was a depreciation of the dollar and other industrialized nations' currencies. Because oil was priced in dollars, oil producers' real income decreased. In September 1971, OPEC issued a joint communiqué stating that, from then on, they would price oil in terms of a fixed amount of gold.

Question: When did the United States withdraw from the Bretton Woods Accord?

Question: What does it mean when currencies are left to "float?"

Question: Why was there a depreciation of the industrialized nations dollars?

Question: When did oil start getting priced in the terms of gold?

Question: Why did oil start getting priced in terms of gold?


Context: This contributed to the "Oil Shock". After 1971, OPEC was slow to readjust prices to reflect this depreciation. From 1947 to 1967, the dollar price of oil had risen by less than two percent per year. Until the oil shock, the price had also remained fairly stable versus other currencies and commodities. OPEC ministers had not developed institutional mechanisms to update prices in sync with changing market conditions, so their real incomes lagged. The substantial price increases of 1973–1974 largely returned their prices and corresponding incomes to Bretton Woods levels in terms of commodities such as gold.

Question: From 1947 to 1967, how much did the price of oil increase?

Question: When did OPEC start to readjust oil prices?

Question: When did oil finally returned to its Bretton Woods levels?

Question: The price of oil is usually a stable commodity until when?


Context: On October 6, 1973, Syria and Egypt, with support from other Arab nations, launched a surprise attack on Israel, on Yom Kippur. This renewal of hostilities in the Arab–Israeli conflict released the underlying economic pressure on oil prices. At the time, Iran was the world's second-largest oil exporter and a close US ally. Weeks later, the Shah of Iran said in an interview: "Of course [the price of oil] is going to rise... Certainly! And how!... You've [Western nations] increased the price of the wheat you sell us by 300 percent, and the same for sugar and cement... You buy our crude oil and sell it back to us, refined as petrochemicals, at a hundred times the price you've paid us... It's only fair that, from now on, you should pay more for oil. Let's say ten times more."

Question: When did Syria and Egypt launch a surprise attack on Israel?

Question: Who was the world's second largest oil producer?

Question: How many times more did the other nations have to pay for oil after the surprise attack?

Question: Which oil producer is a close ally of the United States?

Question: Why did the Shah of Iran gave an interview?


Context: In response to American aid to Israel, on October 16, 1973, OPEC raised the posted price of oil by 70%, to $5.11 a barrel. The following day, oil ministers agreed to the embargo, a cut in production by five percent from September's output and to continue to cut production in five percent monthly increments until their economic and political objectives were met. On October 19, Nixon requested Congress to appropriate $2.2 billion in emergency aid to Israel, including $1.5 billion in outright grants. George Lenczowski notes, "Military supplies did not exhaust Nixon's eagerness to prevent Israel's collapse...This [$2.2 billion] decision triggered a collective OPEC response." Libya immediately announced it would embargo oil shipments to the United States. Saudi Arabia and the other Arab oil-producing states joined the embargo on October 20, 1973. At their Kuwait meeting, OAPEC proclaimed the embargo that curbed exports to various countries and blocked all oil deliveries to the US as a "principal hostile country".

Question: Why did OPEC raise the price of oil to $5.11?

Question: When did they raise the price of oil to $5.11?

Question: Why did the oil ministers agree to a cut in oil production?

Question: How much was the emergency aid to Israel?

Question: Why did OPEC block oil deliveries to the United States?


Context: Some of the income was dispensed in the form of aid to other underdeveloped nations whose economies had been caught between higher oil prices and lower prices for their own export commodities, amid shrinking Western demand. Much went for arms purchases that exacerbated political tensions, particularly in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia spent over 100 billion dollars in the ensuing decades for helping spread its fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, known as Wahhabism, throughout the world, via religious charities such al-Haramain Foundation, which often also distributed funds to violent Sunni extremist groups such as Al-Qaeda and the Taliban.

Question: How much did Saudi Arabia spend on spreading Wahhabism?

Question: Which group benefited from the funds distributed by the religious charity, al-Haramain Foundation?

Question: Some of the income went to the purchase of arms which exacerbated political tension especially in which area?

Question: What is one of the reason that underdeveloped nations received aid from the oil income?

Question: What is a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam called?


Context: In the United States, scholars argue that there already existed a negotiated settlement based on equality between both parties prior to 1973. The possibility that the Middle East could become another superpower confrontation with the USSR was of more concern to the US than oil. Further, interest groups and government agencies more worried about energy were no match for Kissinger's dominance. In the US production, distribution and price disruptions "have been held responsible for recessions, periods of excessive inflation, reduced productivity, and lower economic growth."

Question: What is one of the reason that US production has been held responsible for recessions and lower economic growth?

Question: US is concerned about confrontation of the Middle East with which other country?

Question: Scholars stated that there was already an existing settlement between 2 parties prior to which date?

Question: Interest groups and government agencies that were concerned with energy were no match for who?


Context: The embargo had a negative influence on the US economy by causing immediate demands to address the threats to U.S. energy security. On an international level, the price increases changed competitive positions in many industries, such as automobiles. Macroeconomic problems consisted of both inflationary and deflationary impacts. The embargo left oil companies searching for new ways to increase oil supplies, even in rugged terrain such as the Arctic. Finding oil and developing new fields usually required five to ten years before significant production.

Question: What has a negative influence over the US economy?

Question: On an international level, which industry's competitive positions is affected?

Question: Which problem consists of both  inflationary and deflationary impacts?

Question: The oil crisis caused oil companies to increase oil supplies in which area?

Question: How long does it take for new areas to have significant oil production?


Context: The embargo was not uniform across Europe. Of the nine members of the European Economic Community (EEC), the Netherlands faced a complete embargo, the UK and France received almost uninterrupted supplies (having refused to allow America to use their airfields and embargoed arms and supplies to both the Arabs and the Israelis), while the other six faced partial cutbacks. The UK had traditionally been an ally of Israel, and Harold Wilson's government supported the Israelis during the Six-Day War. His successor, Ted Heath, reversed this policy in 1970, calling for Israel to withdraw to its pre-1967 borders.

Question: Which country faced a complete embargo in the EEC?

Question: The UK and France had non interruptions in their oil supply as they did not allow which country to use their airfield?

Question: Which country is a traditional ally of Israel?

Question: Harold WInston's supported which country's during its six day war?

Question: Who wanted Israel to withdraw from its border?


Context: Despite being relatively unaffected by the embargo, the UK nonetheless faced an oil crisis of its own - a series of strikes by coal miners and railroad workers over the winter of 1973–74 became a major factor in the change of government. Heath asked the British to heat only one room in their houses over the winter. The UK, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Norway banned flying, driving and boating on Sundays. Sweden rationed gasoline and heating oil. The Netherlands imposed prison sentences for those who used more than their ration of electricity.

Question: Which country is not badly hit by the embargo?

Question: What caused UK to have an oil crisis in its own country?

Question: When did the series of strikes happen?

Question: Name one country that banned boating, driving and flying on Sundays.

Question: Which country rationed gasoline and heating gas?


Context: Price controls exacerbated the crisis in the US. The system limited the price of "old oil" (that which had already been discovered) while allowing newly discovered oil to be sold at a higher price to encourage investment. Predictably, old oil was withdrawn from the market, creating greater scarcity. The rule also discouraged development of alternative energies. The rule had been intended to promote oil exploration. Scarcity was addressed by rationing (as in many countries). Motorists faced long lines at gas stations beginning in summer 1972 and increasing by summer 1973.

Question: What made the oil crisis worse in the US?

Question: Why are newly discovered oil sold at a higher price?

Question: Why was old oil withdrawn from the market?

Question: How was scarcity managed in many countries?


Context: In 1973, Nixon named William E. Simon as the first Administrator of the Federal Energy Office, a short-term organization created to coordinate the response to the embargo. Simon allocated states the same amount of domestic oil for 1974 that each had consumed in 1972, which worked for states whose populations were not increasing. In other states, lines at gasoline stations were common. The American Automobile Association reported that in the last week of February 1974, 20% of American gasoline stations had no fuel.

Question: Who is the first administrator of the Federal Energy Office?

Question: When was he elected by Nixon?

Question: Why was this short termed organization created?

Question: According to the AAA, what is the percentage of the gas stations that ran out of gasoline?


Context: To help reduce consumption, in 1974 a national maximum speed limit of 55 mph (about 88 km/h) was imposed through the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act. Development of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve began in 1975, and in 1977 the cabinet-level Department of Energy was created, followed by the National Energy Act of 1978.[citation needed] On November 28, 1995, Bill Clinton signed the National Highway Designation Act, ending the federal 55 mph (89 km/h) speed limit, allowing states to restore their prior maximum speed limit.

Question: What is the speed limit set to reduce consumption?

Question: What is the name of the law which imposed the speed limit?

Question: Which president ended the Emergency Energy Conservation Act?

Question: When was the National Highway Designated Act signed?

Question: When was the cabinet-level Energy Department created?


Context: The energy crisis led to greater interest in renewable energy, nuclear power and domestic fossil fuels. There is criticism that American energy policies since the crisis have been dominated by crisis-mentality thinking, promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities. Instead of providing stable rules that support basic research while leaving plenty of scope for entrepreneurship and innovation, congresses and presidents have repeatedly backed policies which promise solutions that are politically expedient, but whose prospects are doubtful.

Question: What was the catalyst that created greater interest in renewable resources?

Question: There is criticism that the energy policies are expensive quick fixes that ignore which facts?

Question: Who backed policies that have solutions that sound good but have poor prospects?


Context: In 2004, declassified documents revealed that the U.S. was so distraught by the rise in oil prices and being challenged by under-developed countries that they briefly considered military action to forcibly seize Middle Eastern oilfields in late 1973. Although no explicit plan was mentioned, a conversation between U.S. Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger and British Ambassador to the United States Lord Cromer revealed Schlesinger had told him that "it was no longer obvious to him that the U.S. could not use force." British Prime Minister Edward Heath was so worried by this prospect that he ordered a British intelligence estimate of U.S. intentions, which concluded America "might consider it could not tolerate a situation in which the U.S. and its allies were at the mercy of a small group of unreasonable countries," and that they would prefer a rapid operation to seize oilfields in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, and possibly Abu Dhabi in military action was decided upon. Although the Soviet response to such an act would likely not involve force, intelligence warned "the American occupation would need to last 10 years as the West developed alternative energy sources, and would result in the ‘total alienation’ of the Arabs and much of the rest of the Third World."

Question: Which country was thinking about going to war to forcibly take Middle Eastern oil fields?

Question: Which country was worried that the US would invade the Middle East?

Question: How long would the invasion of the Middle East have to last in order to develop renewable resources?

Question: Who would the occupation alienate?


Context: Although lacking historical connections to the Middle East, Japan was the country most dependent on Arab oil. 71% of its imported oil came from the Middle East in 1970. On November 7, 1973, the Saudi and Kuwaiti governments declared Japan a "nonfriendly" country to encourage it to change its noninvolvement policy. It received a 5% production cut in December, causing a panic. On November 22, Japan issued a statement "asserting that Israel should withdraw from all of the 1967 territories, advocating Palestinian self-determination, and threatening to reconsider its policy toward Israel if Israel refused to accept these preconditions". By December 25, Japan was considered an Arab-friendly state.

Question: Which country is the most dependent on Arab oil?

Question: How much imported oil came from the Middle East?

Question: To force Japan to be more involved in the crisis, what did Saudi and Kuwaiti government do?

Question: When did Japan release a statement to tell Israelis to withdraw from the Palestine?

Question: When was Japan accepted as an Arab-friendly state?


Context: The USSR's invasion of Afghanistan was only one sign of insecurity in the region, also marked by increased American weapons sales, technology, and outright military presence. Saudi Arabia and Iran became increasingly dependent on American security assurances to manage both external and internal threats, including increased military competition between them over increased oil revenues. Both states were competing for preeminence in the Persian Gulf and using increased revenues to fund expanded militaries. By 1979, Saudi arms purchases from the US exceeded five times Israel's. Another motive for the large scale purchase of arms from the US by Saudi Arabia was the failure of the Shah during January 1979 to maintain control of Iran, a non-Arabic but largely Shiite Muslim nation, which fell to a theocratic Islamist government under the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in the wake of the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Saudi Arabia, on the other hand, is an Arab, largely Sunni Muslim nation headed by a near absolutist monarchy. In the wake of the Iranian revolution the Saudis were forced to deal with the prospect of internal destabilization via the radicalism of Islamism, a reality which would quickly be revealed in the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Wahhabi extremists during November 1979 and a Shiite revolt in the oil rich Al-Hasa region of Saudi Arabia in December of the same year. In November 2010, Wikileaks leaked confidential diplomatic cables pertaining to the United States and its allies which revealed that the late Saudi King Abdullah urged the United States to attack Iran in order to destroy its potential nuclear weapons program, describing Iran as "a snake whose head should be cut off without any procrastination."

Question: Which country's invasion show the insecurity of the Middle East?

Question: Which countries became dependent on US's security assurance to threats?

Question: Which country's arms purchase from the US became 5 times more than Israel?

Question: When did the Shah kingdom start to collapse?

Question: When did the Wahhabi seized the Grand Mosque in Mecca?


Context: The crisis reduced the demand for large cars. Japanese imports, primarily the Toyota Corona, the Toyota Corolla, the Datsun B210, the Datsun 510, the Honda Civic, the Mitsubishi Galant (a captive import from Chrysler sold as the Dodge Colt), the Subaru DL, and later the Honda Accord all had four cylinder engines that were more fuel efficient than the typical American V8 and six cylinder engines. Japanese imports became mass-market leaders with unibody construction and front-wheel drive, which became de facto standards.

Question: Which sized cars were the least demanded cars in the crisis?

Question: Which country's cars became more highly sought after as they were more fuel efficient?

Question: What type of engines does the American car typically have?

Question: Which country's imports became the de facto mass market leaders?


Context: Some buyers lamented the small size of the first Japanese compacts, and both Toyota and Nissan (then known as Datsun) introduced larger cars such as the Toyota Corona Mark II, the Toyota Cressida, the Mazda 616 and Datsun 810, which added passenger space and amenities such as air conditioning, power steering, AM-FM radios, and even power windows and central locking without increasing the price of the vehicle. A decade after the 1973 oil crisis, Honda, Toyota and Nissan, affected by the 1981 voluntary export restraints, opened US assembly plants and established their luxury divisions (Acura, Lexus and Infiniti, respectively) to distinguish themselves from their mass-market brands.

Question: When did Honda, Toyota and Nissan open US assembly plants?

Question: Name a larger car that Toyota came up with as buyers lamented the small sized compacts?

Question: Name an extra that was added to the production of the compacts.

Question: Name a luxury division of Toyota.


Context: Compact trucks were introduced, such as the Toyota Hilux and the Datsun Truck, followed by the Mazda Truck (sold as the Ford Courier), and the Isuzu-built Chevrolet LUV. Mitsubishi rebranded its Forte as the Dodge D-50 a few years after the oil crisis. Mazda, Mitsubishi and Isuzu had joint partnerships with Ford, Chrysler, and GM, respectively. Later the American makers introduced their domestic replacements (Ford Ranger, Dodge Dakota and the Chevrolet S10/GMC S-15), ending their captive import policy.

Question: Name a type of Toyota compact trucks?

Question: What did Mitsubishi rename its Forte to?

Question: Mazda, Mitsubishi and Isuzu joined partnership with which American car company?

Question: When American car companies rolled out with their domestic replacement cars, which policy ended?


Context: An increase in imported cars into North America forced General Motors, Ford and Chrysler to introduce smaller and fuel-efficient models for domestic sales. The Dodge Omni / Plymouth Horizon from Chrysler, the Ford Fiesta and the Chevrolet Chevette all had four-cylinder engines and room for at least four passengers by the late 1970s. By 1985, the average American vehicle moved 17.4 miles per gallon, compared to 13.5 in 1970. The improvements stayed even though the price of a barrel of oil remained constant at $12 from 1974 to 1979. Sales of large sedans for most makes (except Chrysler products) recovered within two model years of the 1973 crisis. The Cadillac DeVille and Fleetwood, Buick Electra, Oldsmobile 98, Lincoln Continental, Mercury Marquis, and various other luxury oriented sedans became popular again in the mid-1970s. The only full-size models that did not recover were lower price models such as the Chevrolet Bel Air, and Ford Galaxie 500. Slightly smaller, mid-size models such as the Oldsmobile Cutlass, Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Ford Thunderbird and various other models sold well.

Question: Why did GM, Ford and Chrysler introduced fuel-efficient and small cars to the US market?

Question: How many passengers can the Ford Fiesta accommodate?

Question: By which year did the American cars mpg start to improve?

Question: Name a luxury model that became popular in the mid-1970s.

Question: Which full-sized model cars were not popular?


Context: Federal safety standards, such as NHTSA Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 215 (pertaining to safety bumpers), and compacts like the 1974 Mustang I were a prelude to the DOT "downsize" revision of vehicle categories. By 1977, GM's full-sized cars reflected the crisis. By 1979, virtually all "full-size" American cars had shrunk, featuring smaller engines and smaller outside dimensions. Chrysler ended production of their full-sized luxury sedans at the end of the 1981 model year, moving instead to a full front-wheel drive lineup for 1982 (except for the M-body Dodge Diplomat/Plymouth Gran Fury and Chrysler New Yorker Fifth Avenue sedans).

Question: By which year did full sized American cars shrink to be smaller?

Question: By which year did Chrysler ended its full sized luxury model?

Question: Which car shows the DOT's revision of categories?


Context: OPEC soon lost its preeminent position, and in 1981, its production was surpassed by that of other countries. Additionally, its own member nations were divided. Saudi Arabia, trying to recover market share, increased production, pushing prices down, shrinking or eliminating profits for high-cost producers. The world price, which had peaked during the 1979 energy crisis at nearly $40 per barrel, decreased during the 1980s to less than $10 per barrel. Adjusted for inflation, oil briefly fell back to pre-1973 levels. This "sale" price was a windfall for oil-importing nations, both developing and developed.

Question: When was OPEC production of oil being surpassed?

Question: Which year did the price of oil drop to $10 per barrel?

Question: Why did Saudi Arabia try to increase production, and reduce profits for high cost producers?

Question: In 1979, during the oil crisis, what was the highest price of oil?


Context: The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, was the third United States human spaceflight program carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which accomplished landing the first humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. First conceived during Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration as a three-man spacecraft to follow the one-man Project Mercury which put the first Americans in space, Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" by the end of the 1960s, which he proposed in a May 25, 1961, address to Congress. Project Mercury was followed by the two-man Project Gemini (1962–66). The first manned flight of Apollo was in 1968.

Question: What project put the first Americans into space?

Question: What program was created to carry out these projects and missions?

Question: What year did the first manned Apollo flight occur?

Question: What President is credited with the original notion of putting Americans in space?

Question: How many people were on the project that followed Project Mercury?


Context: Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, and was supported by the two-man Gemini program which ran concurrently with it from 1962 to 1966. Gemini missions developed some of the space travel techniques that were necessary for the success of the Apollo missions. Apollo used Saturn family rockets as launch vehicles. Apollo/Saturn vehicles were also used for an Apollo Applications Program, which consisted of Skylab, a space station that supported three manned missions in 1973–74, and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, a joint Earth orbit mission with the Soviet Union in 1975.

Question: How long did Project Apollo run?

Question: What program helped develop space travel techniques that Project Apollo used?

Question: Who did the U.S. collaborate with on an Earth orbit mission in 1975?

Question: What space station supported three manned missions in 1973-1974?


Context: The Apollo program succeeded in achieving its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the major setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. Five of the remaining six missions achieved successful landings, but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon, which disabled the command spacecraft's propulsion and life support. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a "lifeboat" for these functions.

Question: In what year did the Apollo 1 cabin fire occur?

Question: What type of launch was happening during the Apollo 1 incident?

Question: What forced the cancellations of three future landings?

Question: How many of the remaining launches were successful?

Question: What happened to Apollo 13?


Context: Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds (382 kg) of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's current human spaceflight capability, and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.

Question: What was the first spacecraft to orbit another celestial body?

Question: What Apollo mission was the sixth moon landing?

Question: How many kgs of moon rocks did the program bring back?

Question: What other areas did the Apollo missions help spur advancements in?


Context: The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a follow-up to Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station, circumlunar flights, and eventual manned lunar landings. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby." Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program."

Question: How many people could the Mercury capsule hold?

Question: How many people could Apollo be projected to hold?

Question: Who named the Apollo missions?

Question: What was the eventual final goal of the Apollo projects?

Question: When was the Apollo project conceived?


Context: In July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the command module (piloting and re-entry cabin), and a propulsion and equipment module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric, and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs.

Question: In what year was the Apollo program announced?

Question: Who led the in house design studies for NASA?

Question: How many study contracts were awarded on October 25th?

Question: Who was the deputy administrator of NASA in 1960?


Context: In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Up to the election of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the "missile gap" that he and many other senators felt had formed between the Soviets and themselves due to the inaction of President Eisenhower. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not "first but, first and, first if, but first period." Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.

Question: Who was elected President in November 1960?

Question: Against what country was Kennedy promising superiority over?

Question: What was President Kennedy put off by regarding the space program?

Question: Who was NASA's administrator?

Question: What was the term Kennedy used to show that America was falling behind the Soviet Union due to inactivity in space programs?


Context: On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets.

Question: Who was the first person in space?

Question: From what country did the first person in space come from?

Question: How many days after Gagarin's flight did the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics meet?

Question: What did President Kennedy do in response to the Soviet flight in regards of America's program?


Context: On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership." His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first.

Question: What month and day did Kennedy message his vice president about the status of the program?

Question: Who was Kennedy's vice president?

Question: How long did it take Johnson to respond to Kennedy?

Question: What was the general consensus Johnson came to regarding America's progress on going to space and reaching a position of leadership?


Context: It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's manned space program from NASA's Langley Research Center. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on land donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961. It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC.

Question: Who originally led the Space Task Group?

Question: Where was the Space Task Group located?

Question: Where was the Manned Spacecraft Center located?

Question: What university donated the land for the Manned Spacecraft Center?

Question: In what state were the original launching facilities for missions?


Context: It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the manned lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Dr. Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director. Construction began in November 1962. Upon Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.

Question: Where would the Launch Operations Center be located, as more land was needed for a bigger rocket?

Question: Who conducted the construction of the new center?

Question: Kurt H. Debus was appointed what position for the Launch Operations Center?

Question: President Johnson issued an executive order to rename the Launch Operations Center after whom?